Segmentation Approach to understanding water consumption
Segmentation Approach to understanding water consumption
Segmentation Approach to understanding water consumption
Research article
1. Introduction 2023; Baig and Straquadine, 2014). Freshwater resources only con-
stitute 3% of the total global water resources, and most of it is not
Water is an indispensable resource for human life, socioeconomic exploitable and unevenly distributed (Gleick, 2003), making sustain-
development, and environmental well-being. However, the scarcity of able water consumption a pressing global concern. The United Nations’
water presents significant challenges to domestic water supply, public Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) No. 6 emphasizes the importance
health, food security, and the sustainability of communities and cul- of safeguarding the availability and sustainable management of water
resources.
tures (Almulhim and Cobbinah, 2023a; Hong and Park, 2023; Lu et al.,
The current discourse on sustainable water management, supported
2022; Sowers et al., 2011). Currently, approximately 2.4 billion people,
by UNESCO (2023), underscores the need to acknowledge the sig-
nearly a quarter of the world’s population, face acute water scarcity,
nificance of equitable water sharing and consumption among nations
a number that is projected to double by 2030. Additionally, as of
and communities. Furthermore, climate change is expected to exacer-
2020, around 2.2 billion people lack access to safely managed drinking
bate regional disparities in precipitation and evaporation rates, which
water (United Nations, 2022). Arid regions, where water resources are will have profound implications for freshwater availability and access
limited, face the increasing challenge of providing sufficient drinking (DeNicola et al., 2015; Leal Filho et al., 2022; Chowdhury, 2023).
water to their populations (Al-Saidi and Saliba, 2019; Almulhim and However, ensuring equitable access to safe drinking water and promot-
Abubakar, 2023a). Factors such as rapid population growth, climate ing sustainable usage requires a more focused understanding of water
change, pollution, groundwater depletion, high water subsidies, and consumption patterns at the household level (Baquero et al., 2016;
resource mismanagement contribute to water scarcity (Mukarram et al., Ramsey et al., 2017). Identifying inequalities and behaviors related to
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resenv.2023.100144
Received 11 August 2023; Received in revised form 15 December 2023; Accepted 15 December 2023
Available online 21 December 2023
2666-9161/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Lishui Institute of Ecology and Environment, Nanjing University. This is an open
access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
A.I. Almulhim and I.R. Abubakar Resources, Environment and Sustainability 15 (2024) 100144
water consumption is a crucial initial step in implementing targeted marketing segmentation approach, which includes cluster analysis (CA)
interventions for sustainable water resource management. and principal component analysis (PCA). There is a lack of empirical
The Middle East is particularly vulnerable to severe water scarcity, segmentation studies on water consumption behaviors in Saudi Arabia,
with an average per capita availability of less than 500 m3 per year where unlimited water use is often associated with luxurious lifestyles,
(Al-Saidi and Saliba, 2019). The extent of this problem is evident in and drinking water is produced through an expensive and energy-
the worldwide water information system of the Food and Agriculture intensive desalination process. Therefore, this study aims to apply a
Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, which states that the Middle segmentation approach to explore potential behavioral patterns for
East and North Africa (MENA) region, accounting for approximately water consumption among urban households, which is essential for
6% of the global population, has access to only 2% of renewable water designing targeted interventions that promote sustainable water use.
resources (FAO, 2016). Saudi Arabia and other Gulf countries have Both individualistic and social characteristics are at the core of new
been identified by the United Nations as water-scarce nations (DeNicola policies and practices of (re)creating societal values such as water
et al., 2015), and the severity of water crises and their associated conservation.
impacts in these countries has been increasing. Rainfall scarcity, high By utilizing segmentation analysis, this paper provides an example
evaporation rates, groundwater overexploitation, and wasteful water of how ideas related to discrete social marketing for pro-environmental
consumption behaviors exacerbate the limited freshwater resources in behavioral change can reveal the complexity of water use practices.
the region (Pranta et al., 2019; Akhoundi and Nazif, 2018; DeNicola The study contributes to the broader understanding of household water
et al., 2015). Middle Eastern countries have recognized the water crisis management by examining the effectiveness of segmentation as a policy
as a critical security concern and have initiated measures to address tool for conceptualizing water within a broader context. To achieve
the issue (DeNicola et al., 2015; Mir and Ashraf, 2023). Therefore, this, data was collected through a questionnaire survey targeting house-
sustainable water consumption, including behavioral changes support- holds that are significant consumers of municipal water. Analytical
ing responsible water use, requires special attention in this region techniques commonly employed in social marketing approaches were
(Andreasen, 2003). used to showcase the intricacies of their behavioral patterns in water
In Saudi Arabia, equitable access to water and sanitation is en- consumption. Through this study, we aim to uncover such complexities
shrined in the ninth National Development Plan and the country’s and propose approaches for the water sector to consider broader social
Vision 2030 (Government of Saudi Arabia, 2016). In 2015, approxi- contexts in water supply, conservation, and reuse. The findings of
mately 97% of the population had access to improved drinking water this study will assist the city in adopting a social marketing approach
sources. However, the percentage of households connected to piped
to induce behavioral changes that promote water conservation and
water varies significantly, ranging from 90.1% in the Eastern province
efficiency in consumption.
to only 10% in Al Baha province (Gazzeh and Abubakar, 2018). Water
demand has risen sharply over the past three decades, primarily due
2. Social marketing and water conservation
to excessive consumption and low tariffs resulting from government
subsidies (Enssle and Freedman, 2014; Almulhim and Al-Saidi, 2023).
Public awareness and information delivery can shape household wa-
Domestic water demand is growing at a rate of 7% annually (Ministry of
ter consumption patterns. One effective approach to water conservation
Environment, Water and Agriculture (MEWA), 2022), with an average
is social marketing, which involves people participating and motivating
per capita water consumption of 235 liters per day, exceeding the
others to practice sustainable consumption (Dolnicar and Hurlimann,
average for high-income nations and reaching over 300 liters per day
2010; Sáiz et al., 2010). Social marketing refers to the design, applica-
in cities (Gazzeh and Abubakar, 2018). The population of Saudi Arabia
tion, and management of programs aimed at influencing social ideas,
is projected to reach 56 million by 2050, up from 32.million in 2020,
incorporating aspects of market research, pricing, communication, and
further exacerbating the water scarcity issue (General Authority for
product planning (Kotler and Zaltman, 1971). The approach involves
Statistics, 2019).
adopting and adapting commercial processes, institutions, and market-
To address the challenges of water scarcity and promote sustainable
water consumption, Saudi Arabia has implemented several strategies ing activities to bring about behavior changes within a specific target
and initiatives. However, the country has relied on desalinated water audience to achieve a social objective (Dann, 2010). Changing human
since the 1950s, with less than 40% of water resources sourced from behavior to promote sustainable use water is often a more cost-effective
groundwater, most of which is used for agriculture. Moreover, it is solution than modifying existing water infrastructure (Blackler et al.,
projected that the population growth rate will significantly impact 2013).
water use and wastewater generation, leading to a 50% increase above Social marketing has been effective in promoting social change
the baseline of 7.2 million m3 /day generated in 2018 (ITA, 2022). and pro-environmental behaviors, such as water resource management
Several factors, including extreme aridity, depletion of groundwater, and conservation (Lauri, 2015; Lowe et al., 2015; Rosenbaum and
high water demand, desalination dependency, and climate change have Wong, 2015; Abu-Bakar et al., 2021), and community attitudes towards
created a severe water crisis in the country. In addition, wasting of landscape irrigation (Warner et al., 2017). These findings align with
water is another major driver of the water crisis (Mir and Ashraf, the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991), which suggests that
2023). The nation’s limited water resources are under significant strain intentions are driven by attitudes towards an action, subjective norms,
due to increasing demand and lack of effective conservation strategies and perceived behavioral concerns. Whitmarsh and O’Neill (2010)
(Almulhim and Abubakar, 2023b). However, rapid population growth, examined how ‘catalyst behaviors’, such as recycling, can prompt in-
urbanization, industrialization, and improvement in living standards dividuals to adopt pro-environmental behaviors and lead a holistic
require efficient and sustainable water management policies to account behavioral transformation towards low-carbon lifestyle. However, the
for the limited freshwater resources (Baig and Straquadine, 2014; Dar- authors found that individuals who reduced their energy consumption
bandsari et al., 2020; Almulhim and Cobbinah, 2023b). Achieving sus- were primarily motivated by financial and health benefits more than
tainable water consumption will require exploring various approaches, environmental concerns (Chowdhury and Islam, 2015). Lorenzoni et al.
including changing human behaviors (Vining et al., 2002; Barr et al., (2007) caution against assuming that people will act consistently re-
2013), especially through social marketing (Dietz et al., 2009). Social gardless of behavioral domains. This challenge in social marketing has
marketing approaches that segment the population into groups foster led to the development of consumer segmentation, which characterizes
the delivery of tailored and direct messages to help reshape their populations into groups to deliver more tailored and direct messages to
behaviors. reshape their behaviors (Warner et al., 2017).
This paper investigates potential behavioral patterns of water con- The theoretical aspect of segmentation can help social marketing
sumption among a sample of Dammam City residents using a social comprehend various features of consumer segments (Andreasen, 2003),
2
A.I. Almulhim and I.R. Abubakar Resources, Environment and Sustainability 15 (2024) 100144
Fig. 1. Map showing the location of the selected neighborhoods in Dammam city in Saudi Arabia (Almulhim and Abubakar, 2023a,b).
expand investment revenue (Hastings et al., 2004), and add value to so- The region faces one of the lowest levels of water availability
cial marketing programs (French, 2017). Furthermore, it enables social per capita globally. Water shortages are influenced by high tempera-
marketing to employ specific measures to reach substantial segments tures, extensive irrigation practices, increasing water consumption, and
for a successful program implementation (Raval and Subramanian, water subsidies (ITA, 2022). Consequently, the government has imple-
2004). Considering behavioral theories can enhance the effectiveness of mented various policies and initiatives to reduce water consumption
social marketing campaigns and consumer segmentation by recognizing and promote water conservation. These efforts include the promotion
factors that affect behavioral change across diverse segments of society of water-efficient technologies, treated wastewater reuse for forage
(Lotenberg et al., 2011). For example, social marketing has been at- cultivation, and raising public awareness about the importance of con-
tributed to increasing walking behavior among young people (Schuster serving water (MEWA, 2022). However, achieving sustainable water
et al., 2015), promoting water conservation (Warner et al., 2017), and use necessitates an understanding of public behaviors towards water
reducing household water consumption (Abu-Bakar et al., 2021). consumption.
By understanding how people use water in their daily lives and the
factors that influence their water consumption patterns, organizations 3.2. Data collection and analysis
can develop social marketing campaigns and other initiatives that
are more likely to effectively induce behavior change. For instance, The study employed a household questionnaire consisting of 39
if individuals are more likely to conserve water when they receive questions structured into three sections: (1) participants’ demographic
feedback on their water usage, organizations may develop tools or apps and socioeconomic characteristics, (2) water consumption practices,
that provide real-time feedback. Alternatively, if people are more likely and (3) attitudes and beliefs about water conservation. The questions
to conserve water as part of a community effort, organizations may were closed-ended, requiring responses on a five-point Likert scale.
develop community-based programs that encourage collective action Its purpose was to collect data on participant’s attitudes and behav-
iors related to sustainable water consumption. The questionnaire was
around water conservation. In addition to the above, exploring po-
adapted from previous similar study (Almulhim and Abubakar, 2023a),
tential behavior patterns in water consumption can help policymakers
taking cognizance of the study objectives, Saudi Arabian context, and
identify areas where regulations or policies may be necessary to pro-
dimensionality, which means that the factors and variables vary in
mote sustainable water use. For example, if a particular industry or
each section. The study instrument was approved by the Research
sector is responsible for a significant amount of water usage, policy-
Ethics Committee of University of Liverpool (#1192). The partici-
makers may develop regulations or incentives to promote sustainable
pants have signed an informed consent for voluntary participation and
water use and encourage water conservation within that sector.
were guaranteed that their responses would remain confidential and
anonymous.
3. Materials and methods While personal distribution of questionnaires is often preferred
due to higher response rates, high cost, time constraints, and safety
3.1. Study settings concerns for researchers in the field can undermine this approach (Bar-
tolucci et al., 2015). Furthermore, cultural sensitivities in Saudi Arabia
This study was undertaken in Dammam city, the administrative cap- regarding gender and privacy could have excluded women participants.
ital of the Eastern Region of Saudi Arabia and the country’s oil capital. Instead, questionnaires were distributed through local schools in var-
It is located along the Arabian/Persian Gulf (Fig. 1), approximately ious neighborhoods of Dammam, ensuring ethical research practices
400 km from Riyadh, the country’s capital city. The objective was to that respect privacy. Students were instructed to take the question-
explore behavioral patterns related to household water consumption naires home for their parents to complete and return to the schools.
in the city, which is rapidly urbanizing due to industrial development, The minimum required representative sample size was estimated to be
rural–urban migration, and the presence of administrative, commercial, 385 using the Sampson equation, based on the city’s population, 90%
and educational activities. As of 2020, the city’s population was esti- confidence interval, and 0.05 margin of error (Wolf et al., 2013). How-
mated to be 1.279 million inhabitants, and its economy heavily relies ever, 1200 questionnaires were distributed to compensate for potential
on industrial, municipal, and agricultural activities that require large non-responses or incomplete questionnaires. Prior questionnaire-based
amounts of water (Almulhim and Abubakar, 2023a). Due to the arid research conducted in Dammam have used sample sizes of 402 (Al-
and hot climate, water usage plays a crucial role in the city’s daily life. mulhim and Abubakar, 2021) and 625 (Abubakar and Mu’azu, 2022).
3
A.I. Almulhim and I.R. Abubakar Resources, Environment and Sustainability 15 (2024) 100144
reporting on response rates using this study’s questionnaire distribution Age (years) <25 (38.9%); 25–44 (22.3%); 45–64 (32.6%); ≥65 (6.2%)
Gender Male (72.6%); female (27.4%)
approach.
Marital status Married (85.8%); single (10.8%); divorced (2.0%); widowed
The questionnaires were administered, completed, and gathered (1.4%)
within 12 weeks (March–June) in 2021. The researchers met with
Nationality Saudis (58.6%); non-Saudis (41.4%)
school staff to address any questions and provide further information Residence Aljlweeah (29.4%); Aleskan (17.0%); Madeenat Al Ommal
as needed. To encourage higher response rates, the researchers’ contact (16.0%); Al Rawdah; Bader (15.0%); Al-Mobarakyah (8.0%).
details were provided on the questionnaire for direct inquiries. A total Household size 1–4 (76.2%); 5–7 (21.8%); ≥8 (2.0%)
of 618 questionnaires (51.5%) were completed and returned, indicating Housing type Villa (20.6%); traditional house (3.2%); flat (76.2%)
a response rate that may be lower than direct questionnaire distribution Educational level Primary or lower (4.9%); intermediate (22.9%); secondary
(27.2%); college/university and higher (44.9%)
but falls within the range obtained by prior studies and with less gender
a
Monthly income <SAR5000 (33.5%); SAR5000–10,000 (40.0%); >SAR10,000
bias. It is important to note that this sampling approach has inherent
(26.5%)
bias, as households without school-going children were excluded from
a
participation. However, it is none the less useful for studies assessing Note: 1 USD = 3.75 SAR (Saudi Arabian Riyal).
public perceptions and attitudes.
A multi-stage sampling approach combining stratified and simple
random sampling was adopted to account for the city’s social groups are paired and clustered. The decision of selecting how many clusters
and housing types. The city is officially categorized into five strata: to retain is based on the factor item scores (e.g. Abu-Bakar et al., 2021;
central, western, eastern, northern, and southern sectors, which differ Barr et al., 2013; Warner et al., 2017). In this research, six clusters were
in land use, population density, and housing types. In the first stage, identified with equivalent similarity indices. However, it is important
one neighborhood was randomly selected from each sector except for to note that, as with many similar analyses, the total sample size is
the central one, where two neighborhoods were selected due to its typically reduced due to the technique’s inability to handle missing data
large size and significant population of expatriate workers. The selected (Barr et al., 2013). Cluster analysis has several applications in water
neighborhoods were Alrawdhah (15%), Alaskan (17%), Badr (15%), conservation research, such as identifying groups of households with
Aljalawiyah (29%), Mubarakiyahh (8%), and Alommal (16%) (Fig. 1). similar water consumption behavioral patterns (Everitt et al., 2001).
In the second stage of sampling, a random sampling technique was These techniques were used to explore the emerging segments regard-
employed to select one boys’ school and one girls’ school from each ing potential household water consumption behaviors and practices.
of the six neighborhoods, based on the availability of schools in the Table 1 provides a summary statistics of the survey respondents.
respective areas. This approach ensured effective representation of the
study population. Finally, the completed questionnaires were coded, 4. Results and discussion
and the responses were recorded in a spreadsheet and exported to
the SPSS program for data analysis. Descriptive statistics, principal 4.1. Framing potential water consumption behavioral patterns in Dammam
component analysis (PCA) and cluster analysis were used to analyze the
responses obtained from the closed-ended questions in the household A hierarchical cluster analysis was conducted based on the principal
questionnaires. These approaches are appropriate for quantitative data component scores, providing an opportunity to examine potential water
of this nature and align with the research objectives (Braun and Clarke, consumption practices and attitudes among households by combin-
2006). ing various contextual factors. The cluster analysis aimed to assess
This paper employed PCA and cluster analysis to understand house- potential behavioral practices and conservation beliefs regarding res-
hold water consumption patterns based on their water-use behaviors idential water use. Six clusters were identified and labeled as ‘extreme
and practices. PCA is a statistical technique widely used in various water wasters’, ‘moderate water wasters’, ‘low water wasters’, ‘low
fields, including data science, engineering, and social sciences, to an- water conservers’, ‘moderate water conservers’, and ‘extreme water
conservers’. The cluster labeled ‘low water conserver’ exhibited the
alyze patterns and reduce the dimensionality of data while retaining
highest principal component score for potential irresponsible water
as much information as possible. It helps identify correlations among
consumption. On the other hand, the ‘low water wasters’ cluster had
variables in a large dataset and transforms them into a smaller set of
the highest principal component score for a potential responsible water
uncorrelated variables called principal components. The first principal
consumption practice. Furthermore, Cluster 1 displayed the highest
component captures the most significant variation in the data, while
principal component score for the pricing policy, suggesting that the
subsequent components capture the remaining variations. By reducing
respondents agreed with the notion that implementing a pricing policy
the number of variables, PCA facilitates the interpretation of complex
would effectively curb exploitative water consumption.
data, allowing for the identification of significant factors influencing
household water consumption patterns, such as household size, in- • Cluster 1: Extreme water wasters: consisted of respondents who
come, and location (Jolliffe, 2002). This approach helps to decrease reported a higher tendency to waste water.
the dimensionality of dataset’s attributes while retaining its inherent • Cluster 2: Moderate water wasters: included participants who
variations, resulting in new variables or classes that can be used to tai- demonstrated a lesser tendency to use technological conservation,
lor water preservation programs to specific sociodemographic groups, occasional water reuse at home, engagement in garden manage-
enhancing their effectiveness (Yobero, 2017). These new variables or ment practices, and water management practices; and moderate
classes are uncorrelated but ordered to retain almost all the variation levels of water usage, such as increased tap cleaning and dish
present in the original variables. loads, swimming pool use, and vehicles washing.
Cluster analysis, on the other hand, is a method widely used in social • Cluster 3: Low water wasters: comprised individuals with a moder-
sciences to identify patterns and relationships in quantitative data ate inclination towards technological conservation, frequent wa-
by grouping entities based on their similarity in specific variables or ter reuse at home, garden management practices, and moderately
features. The objective is to create internally homogeneous clusters (en- low water management practices.
tities within the same cluster are similar) and externally heterogeneous • Cluster 4: Extreme water conservers: included respondents who
clusters (entities in different clusters are dissimilar). The process can conserved water meticulously, reflecting the highest level of wa-
be visually represented by a dendrogram to show how individual cases ter conservation in the sample.
4
A.I. Almulhim and I.R. Abubakar Resources, Environment and Sustainability 15 (2024) 100144
Table 2
Behavioral and belief components.
Component label* Item with highest factor loading Variance (%) Cumulative variance (%)
Behavioral components
Technological conservation Modify bathroom plumbing to use less water 16.807 16.807
Garden management practices Use a bucket when washing vehicles rather than a hose 13.675 30.482
Cleaning, dishwashing, and laundry Wash only full laundry loads 7.838 38.320
Water management practices Turn off the tap while washing hands and brushing teeth 7.113 45.434
Swimming pool, car washing Use a swimming pool for recreation 5.763 51.197
Belief components
Irresponsible water use I do not want to change the way I live to save water. 28.587 28.587
Responsible water use It is my duty as a responsible person to save water. 12.362 40.949
Pricing policy Increasing water price is good if it helps people save water. 8.240 49.189
• Cluster 5: Moderate water conservers: consisted of participants and SDs differ across the various attributes, indicating variations in dif-
who reported a mild inclination towards technological conserva- ferent settings. Among the behavioral components, Cluster 6 (extreme
tion. water conservers) displays the lowest SD, while Cluster 2 (moderate
• Cluster 6: Low water conservers: comprised of respondents who water wasters) exhibits the highest variability. In terms of belief com-
practiced water conservation to a lesser degree with low levels of ponents, Cluster 5 (extreme water conservers) has the lowest SD, while
contribution across all water usage practices. Cluster 1 (extreme water wasters) shows the highest variability. The
low water conservers (Cluster 3) obtain the highest mean score in
Table 2 presents the variance and cumulative scores for each indi- the ‘irresponsible use’ metric, indicating their lack of responsibility in
vidual cluster, highlighting their behavioral components. Analyzing reducing water wastage. However, the ‘low water conservers’ (Cluster
these behavioral factors with eigenvalues demonstrates the significance 4) score higher in irresponsible water usage but comparatively lower in
of studying water consumption practices. The factor with the highest the other two attributes, displaying inconsistency across the clusters.
loading and the greatest explanation of variance is ‘technological con- In terms of ‘behavioral components’, Cluster 1 achieves the highest
servation’, while other factors are generally about different kinds of mean, while Cluster 6 achieves the lowest mean and the lowest SD.
water management practices, revealing the complexity of how water Cluster 5 shows the highest mean for ‘garden management practices’,
is consumed at the household level. Generally, the factors can be cate- ‘water management practices’, and ‘swimming pool and car washing’,
gorized into two major groups. First, the role of household strategies for suggesting a likelihood of using water-efficient practices for managing
handling specific items is represented by ‘water management practices’ gardens, practicing water management, and engaging in activities such
‘technological conservation’, and ‘garden management practices’. Sec- as swimming pool use and car washing. Cluster 1 exhibits the highest
ond, respondents’ potential consumption decisions regarding conscious mean for ‘technological conservation’ and ‘cleaning, dishwashing, and
efforts to cut water consumption is represented by ‘cleaning and dish laundry’ among all clusters. However, survey responses indicate that
loads’, ‘swimming pool use’, and ‘washing vehicles’ items. This analysis these individuals are aware of the importance of water conservation but
depicts the relationships between the different variables; the variance struggle to implement it effectively, resulting in their inability to score
shows the extent to which each component affect water conservation significantly in these attributes. Conversely, the ‘low water wasters’
and consumption behaviors. (Cluster 3) score higher in irresponsible water use, likely due to a lack
Alongside the behavioral components, three ‘water saving beliefs’ of awareness leading to a higher rate of water wastage.
components were also explored: ‘irresponsible water use’, ‘responsible The degree to which the respondents conserve or waste water varies
water use’, and ‘pricing policy’ (shown in Table 2). These components according to their practices and settings, whether inside or outside
were developed based on loadings or correlations between observed the home. For instance, respondents in Cluster 1 are more likely to
variables and each principal component. ‘Irresponsible water use’ ac- waste water in swimming pools and washing vehicles. In contrast, other
counted for the highest percentage of variance, while respondents clusters exhibit a range of practices reflecting water conservation or
favored the implementation of a policy to monitor their water con- wastage. Participants in Cluster 5 seem to be more water-conscious in
sumption patterns, suggesting their inclination towards water-efficient terms of outdoor water use, while those in Cluster 6 show less concern
practices (behavioral components) and support beliefs (belief compo- for water management practices.
nents). The focal point of this study revolves around responsibility, The overall analysis demonstrates that various attitudinal factors
wherein both responsible and irresponsible water users strive to meet significantly influence water-wasting behaviors and conservation prac-
their daily needs. By segmenting the data through PCA analysis which tices among different clusters of people in the study area. These results
reduced data dimensionality and ambiguity, and selected the most suggest that behavioral patterns vary among individuals based on
relevant variables, significant components related to behaviors and the contextual scenario, and the implementation of technologies can
beliefs in water use efficiency have been explored. influence people’s behavior to reduce water wastage. According to
These two subsets derived from the PCA analyses illuminate the García Novo (2012), technological deficiencies contribute to water
complex and unique methods associated with water management when waste and improper water management practices. Thus, the adoption
examined from a broader perspective. Specifically, different water man- of technology and the enactment of regulations or policy standards can
agement strategies yield distinct outcomes (Li et al., 2014). However, promote sustainable water consumption behaviors (Levin et al., 2016).
all these strategies share a common focus on reducing and reusing
water, as well as addressing various types of domestic water usage. 4.2. Exploring potential water consumption patterns by household socio-
Through PCA analysis, this research demonstrates that diverse prac- demographics
tices related to potential water consumption and behavioral factors
are valuable in investigating the socially and behaviorally complex Sociodemographic factors, such as educational attainment, income,
nature of home water usage. Several trends can be observed from nationality, household size, age, and housing type can significantly
this analysis, highlighting significant variations in water consumption shape household water consumption behaviors. By examining the six
practices across different clusters. groups of water consumers, it becomes evident that households ex-
Table 3 presents the mean score and standard deviation (SD) for hibit different potential water consumption practices based on their
each behavioral cluster, along with the sample size. The mean scores demographic profiles (Figs. 2–7). As shown in Table 2, respondents
5
A.I. Almulhim and I.R. Abubakar Resources, Environment and Sustainability 15 (2024) 100144
Table 3
Mean scores of each behavioral and belief component for the six behavioral clusters.
Component label Cluster Kolmogorov
Smirnov test
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Extreme water Moderate Low water Low water Moderate water Extreme water
wasters water wasters wasters conservers conservers conservers
N 110 139 79 125 125 40
Behavioral components
Technological conservation 3.66 1.93 2.78 1.66 2.94 1.49 0.105*
Garden management practices 3.81 2.08 3.75 4.05 4.53 2.41 0.109*
Cleaning, dishwashing, and laundry 3.44 2.21 3.29 2.56 1.73 2.19 0.090*
Water management practices 3.23 3.14 3.01 2.96 3.24 2.72 0.134*
Swimming pool use and car washing 4.76 4.83 2.98 4.84 4.94 2.59 0.364*
Mean scores 3.78 2.84 3.16 3.22 3.47 2.28
Standard deviation 1.24 1.32 1.09 1.21 1.06 0.89
Belief components
Irresponsible use 3.83 4.02 3.73 4.03 3.96 3.77 0.104*
Responsible use 2.20 1.85 2.22 1.83 1.90 2.14 0.190*
Pricing policy 3.13 2.81 2.77 2.88 2.74 2.59 0.126*
Mean score 3.05 2.89 2.90 2.91 2.87 2.83
Standard deviation 1.26 1.08 1.10 1.14 0.92 1.01
Fig. 2. Water consumer segmentation according to the education level of household head.
with college/university education and those with secondary education that wealthier households are more inclined to install water-efficient
are more likely to be moderate water wasters. In contrast, individuals appliances, leading to reduced water waste at home, is consistent with
with no educated beyond primary school are more likely to be extreme this study. Prior studies have associated high-income households with
water wasters. This finding suggests that water saving increases with high water consumption activities such as laundering, car washing, and
increasing education level, likely due to heightened awareness of the maintaining large homes and gardens (Fan et al., 2020; Liao et al.,
sustainability benefits associated with water conservation. Jardioui 2021). Morote et al. (2016) found that income significantly influenced
et al. (2015) reported that education plays a significant role in water behavioral patterns in water consumption, with respondents from high-
conservation by fostering awareness and promoting rational water use or medium-income groups exhibiting higher water use across all clus-
and management. ters. Almulhim and Abubakar (2021) reported a common trend of
This study’s finding is consistent with that of Hartin et al. (2019), water-use intensity among high-income households in Saudi Arabia due
who found that higher education levels enhance awareness and under- to their affluent lifestyles. These contradictory findings suggest a non-
standing of water conservation, leading to greater water management linear relationship between income and water consumption behavioral
and conservation practices. Several other studies, including Hoy and patterns.
Stelli (2016) and Xiong et al. (2016), have also found a positive influ- Fig. 4 illustrates the presence of distinct water consumption patterns
ence of education levels on water conservation practices, supporting the among different nationalities, which serves as a proxy for race or
findings of this study. However, some literature reported mixed find- ethnicity in Saudi Arabia. Saudi nationals had the highest percentage
ings. While Ramsey et al. (2017) discovered that households with low (31.2%) in the three clusters associated with water wastage, while non-
education levels conserve water more than those with higher education Saudi nationals had the lowest percentage (24.3%). Majority of Saudi
levels, Gilg and Barr (2006) and Lam (2006) reported the opposite. nationals are educated and belong to a moderate-income group. Overall
These contradictory findings indicate the need for more research on the analysis suggests that nationality influences water management
the influence of demographic and socioeconomic factors on household and conservation practices in Saudi Arabia. A similar study in Sydney
water conservation practices. found that nationality, ethnicity, and cultural values influenced water
Household income can also influence potential water consumption conservation behaviors (Yan, 2016).
patterns. The results in Fig. 3 reveal that, contrary to expectations, As expected, the present study also found that younger respondents
extreme water wasters tend to be low- to medium-income earners, are more likely to be extreme water wasters, while those aged 25–
while least-water wasters are high-income participants (earning more 44 years and those above 65 years are more likely to be the least or
than SAR10,000). It is likely that rich individuals use water conserva- moderate water wasters. Makoni et al. (2004) noted that gender and
tion technologies to reduce water use, while lower- and middle-class age play significant roles in shaping domestic water consumption pat-
people may be unable to afford such technologies. Lam’s (2006) finding terns. They indicated that women and the elderly extend their influence
6
A.I. Almulhim and I.R. Abubakar Resources, Environment and Sustainability 15 (2024) 100144
Fig. 3. Water consumer segmentation according to the monthly income of the household head.
on strategies for reducing water consumption to their children, friends, water conservers. In contrast, a notable percentage of people living in
family members, and other community members villas (a detached 2–3 story single family house) showed a moderate
Household size can also have a significant and direct impact on inclination towards water conservation. This finding broadly supports
domestic water demand. The current study found that households the evidence from similar studies in this field that conclude that house-
with eight or more members are equally divided among extreme and hold type influences water consumption (Renzetti, 2005; Garcia et al.,
moderate water wasters. In contrast, about one-third of small house- 2019; Wang and Dong, 2017; Arifin et al., 2022).
holds are identified as moderate to extreme water wasters. Activities
such as washing cars, laundry, house cleaning, lawn watering, and
5. Implications of the segmentation approach to improving water
dishwashing contribute significantly to household water consumption,
conservation practices
and these activities can be influenced by household size (Beal et al.,
2013; Jorgensen et al., 2009). The literature suggests that increasing
household size is likely to elevate water consumption levels (Boberg, Water is essential for various aspects of human life, including drink-
2005; Clark and Finley, 2007). However, a study in rural India found ing, food preparation, sanitation, and hygiene. Adequate water supply
some economies of scale in water consumption in large households is crucial for socioeconomic development. Water consumption patterns
(Basu et al., 2017). Fielding et al. (2012) noted that even if one not only impact personal and domestic uses but also have implications
household member is committed to water saving, it is less effective for equity and environmental sustainability. By analyzing responses
unless other members are equally committed. from urban residents in Dammam City, Saudi Arabia, a PCA analy-
Fig. 7 represents water use practices in different housing types. sis identified six clusters that represent different water conservation
Interestingly, households living in flats are prevalent across all six practices and beliefs. This segmentation approach provides a deeper
clusters. A significant share of respondents living in flats are identified understanding of the complex and distinct behaviors and practices
as moderate to extreme water wasters, as well as moderate to least related to water consumption in households.
7
A.I. Almulhim and I.R. Abubakar Resources, Environment and Sustainability 15 (2024) 100144
Several factors influence water consumption patterns, including environmental attitudes. Beliefs play a significant role in supporting
beliefs, perceptions of water’s importance, and habitual water usage. water conservation behaviors, as observed in a study by Fielding et al.
Previous studies have also highlighted the connection between peo- (2012).
ple’s attitudes and behaviors towards water conservation and their Interestingly, the study observed that the ‘‘extreme water wasters’’
willingness to pay (Brown and Davies, 2007; Jeffrey and Gearery, cluster consisted of well-educated individuals, with most having at-
2006; Jorgensen et al., 2009). Negative attitudes can act as barriers to tained a college/university education or higher and belonging to high-
water conservation, even when conservation programs offer significant or medium-income groups. This finding aligns with a study by Morote
benefits. Factors such as a lack of knowledge about water conserva- et al. (2016) on water consumption trends in Alicante city, which
tion, beliefs in the inefficacy of certain conservation methods, and noted a pattern of water consumption associated with differences in
the perception that wasteful consumption has no impact on overall housing stock. Higher-quality housing occupied by wealthier individ-
water resource sustainability can hinder conservation efforts (Brown uals tended to have higher water consumption due to the presence of
and Davies, 2007). water-consuming amenities and facilities. The current study’s findings
The present study confirms that beliefs, perceptions, and habit- support the notion that income has a direct impact on water con-
sumption patterns, as evidenced by the majority of respondents in all
ual water usage patterns play a significant role in potential water
clusters belonging to high- or medium-income groups. Education also
consumption patterns. This finding aligns with previous research that
plays a significant role in water conservation, as it enhances public
emphasizes the relationship between user perceptions, values, and
awareness and effectiveness of educational programs. Numerous studies
water conservation attitudes (Syme et al., 2004). Changing behaviors,
have emphasized the importance of awareness and education programs
attitudes, and perceptions of water users is crucial for successful water
in water conservation and waste recycling (UNESCO, 2009; Xiong
conservation programs (Brown and Davies, 2007). Additionally, studies
et al., 2016; Hoy and Stelli, 2016; Jardioui et al., 2015; Almulhim and
based on the theory of planned behavior have highlighted the impor-
Abubakar, 2021). However, it is essential to identify both opportunities
tance of household dynamics and support from others in fostering water
and challenges in implementing these programs (Brown and Davies,
conservation intentions (Clark and Finley, 2007). 2007). Advancements in science and technology can also contribute to
Analyzing the relationship between attitudes and water consump- addressing water scarcity issues. Also, adopting water conservation is
tion, the cluster interpretation revealed that certain demographic char- linked to the perceived importance of water resources and how they
acteristics were more prominent in specific clusters. For example, the are used. This study’s findings can help improve water conservation
‘‘extreme water wasters’’ cluster consisted of large households, while practices via public education and other outreach programs.
the ‘‘extreme water conservers’’ cluster had a higher proportion of Socioeconomic activities and demographic trends, such as rapid
young people and a smaller number of households. The study also urbanization, directly impact natural resource usage, including water
found a clear distinction between these two clusters in terms of in- (Ramsey et al., 2017). Additionally, household size influences regional
come, although the difference was not statistically significant. Previous water resource levels and demand. The findings of the current study
studies have suggested that income can influence water consumption confirm that larger families tend to consume more water, as expected.
behaviors (Almulhim and Abubakar, 2023a; Kassam et al., 2014). Moglia et al. (2018) suggested that the decision to save water is also
The study acknowledges that various factors, including demographics, influenced by contextual factors such as water tariffs, household char-
beliefs, and water tariffs, influence water consumption patterns and acteristics, the practicality of conservation practices, and household
8
A.I. Almulhim and I.R. Abubakar Resources, Environment and Sustainability 15 (2024) 100144
social norms and attitudes. Similarly, water conservation practices were To enhance the effectiveness of social marketing strategies, this
found to be influenced by factors such as environmental awareness, study recommends understanding household water consumption
habit formation, personal involvement, and contextual factors like decision-making from a behavioral perspective. This approach can
income (Gregory and Di Leo, 2003). The more knowledgeable and inform the development and implementation of interventions and
aware individuals are about the value of water resources, the greater marketing strategies aimed at improving attitudes towards water con-
the likelihood that they conserve water at home. Therefore, targeted servation (Abubakar and Mu’azu, 2022). The respondent segmenta-
programs for behavioral change can lead to a significant reduction in tion strategy proposed in this research holds promise for inducing
household water usage (Badran et al., 2017; Aprile and Fiorillo, 2017). sustainable residential water consumption practices more effectively
The interpretation of the clusters revealed that certain demographic than conventional techniques. Water managers and planners should
characteristics influenced the different groups identified based on two consider these findings to design personalized water demand-side man-
attitudinal concepts: concern for water conservation and public aware- agement interventions tailored to the characteristics of the consumer
ness. Consequently, the cluster analysis uncovered two distinct groups community.
of households: those characterized by extreme water wastage practices While this study sheds light on the overarching nature of potential
and those characterized by strict water conservation practices. This water consumption patterns in Dammam, future research could employ
finding aligns with the research of Clark and Finley (2007), who a detailed ethnographic approach to explore the contextual aspects of
found a correlation between awareness and concern for climate change these findings. Furthermore, additional studies focusing on attitudes
and attitudes towards water conservation in Bulgaria. Randolph and towards environmental sustainability and water conservation across
Troy (2008) also observed that individuals who are more informed various socioeconomic groups are needed to gain further insights into
and aware of global warming and climate change are more likely to domestic water usage behaviors. Future research can also investigate
adopt conservation measures in their homes. These studies indicate that whether reported water-saving practices by households translate into
households approach water consumption from different perspectives, actual savings on their water bills.
with some prioritizing environmental concerns while others focus on In summary, this study contributes to the understanding of prospec-
avoiding financial losses due to wastage. tive residential water consumption patterns in Saudi Arabia through a
Water conservation is also related to the concept of safe and just segmentation approach. It expands the knowledge on environmental
Earth system boundaries for freshwater resources, which refer to the behavioral and belief segmentation and provides valuable information
limits within which human activities can operate without causing for future research. The results underscore the importance of consider-
irreversible harm to the planet and ensuring equitable access to fresh- ing both behavioral and belief segmentation viewpoints for mapping
water for all (Rockström et al., 2023). These boundaries aim to main- sustainable water consumption initiatives among Saudi populations.
tain the integrity of freshwater ecosystems, sustain water supplies, Water managers can leverage this approach to identify different seg-
and safeguard the well-being of both present and future generations ments of water consumers and develop targeted strategies accordingly.
(Stewart-Koster et al., 2023). The study highlights the complexity of water consumption patterns
and emphasizes the need to understand household decision-making
6. Conclusion processes from a behavioral perspective to promote water conservation
attitudes. It provides practical insights into the implementation and
Sustainable water usage and conservation practices are increasingly management of water conservation programs through the effective use
crucial in addressing water scarcity, adapting to changing environmen- of segmentation techniques.
tal conditions, and protecting ecosystems, particularly in arid regions.
This study focused on exploring potential water consumption behav- CRediT authorship contribution statement
ioral patterns among households in Saudi Arabia. It is the first study to
adopt a segmentation approach, utilizing PCA and cluster analysis, to Abdulaziz I. Almulhim: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal
understand prospective residential water consumption patterns in the
analysis, Investigation, Data curation, Writing – original draft, Writing
country. The results highlight the significance of considering a combi-
– review & editing. Ismaila Rimi Abubakar: Investigation, Formal
nation of behavioral and belief segmentation viewpoints in mapping
analysis, Validation, Supervision, Writing – review & editing.
sustainable water consumption initiatives among Saudi populations.
Water managers can utilize this study’s approach to identify different
Declaration of competing interest
segments of water consumers, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of
water management strategies.
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
Moreover, this study contributes to the existing literature on envi-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
ronmental behavioral and belief segmentation by providing new in-
influence the work reported in this paper.
sights that can guide future research. It emphasizes the importance
of understanding the complexity of water consumption patterns, influ-
enced by both internal and external factors within households. As part Funding
of Saudi Vision 2030, which aims to reduce water usage from 200L
per capita to 150L and 100% recycling of treated municipal wastewa- No external funding was received.
ter by 2030, and promote sustainable resource consumption, targeted
policies aligned with public attitudes and behaviors towards resource References
conservation will be more effective (Almulhim and Abubakar, 2021).
Traditional water management approaches have primarily focused on Abu-Bakar, H., Williams, L., Hallett, S.H., 2021. An empirical water consumer seg-
mentation and the characterisation of consumption patterns underpinning demand
technological solutions, but this paper highlights the fundamental role peaks. Resour. Conserv. Recy. 174, 105792.
of segmenting households based on socially and environmentally linked Abubakar, I.R., Mu’azu, N.D., 2022. Household attitudes toward wastewater recycling
water consumption behavioral patterns in designing effective water in Saudi Arabia. Util. Policy 76, 101372.
conservation policies and programs. Additionally, with the country’s Ajzen, I., 1991. The theory of planned behavior. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process.
50 (2), 179–211.
rapid population growth and increasing water demands due to ur-
Akhoundi, A., Nazif, S., 2018. Sustainability assessment of wastewater reuse alternatives
banization, industrialization, and agricultural activities, the need for using the evidential reasoning approach. J. Clean. Prod. 195, 1350–1376.
efficient water management becomes even more critical (Almulhim and Al-Saidi, M., Saliba, S., 2019. Water, energy and food supply security in the gulf
Cobbinah, 2023a). cooperation council (GCC) countries—a risk perspective. Water 11, 455.
9
A.I. Almulhim and I.R. Abubakar Resources, Environment and Sustainability 15 (2024) 100144
Almulhim, A.I., Abubakar, I.R., 2021. Understanding public environmental awareness Fan, J.L., Chen, K.Y., Zhang, X., 2020. Inequality of household energy and water
and attitudes toward circular economy transition in Saudi Arabia. Sustainability 13 consumption in China: An input–output analysis. J. Environ. Manag. 269, 110716.
(18), 10157. FAO, 2016. Food and agriculture organization (FAO) of the united nations AQUAS-
Almulhim, A.I., Abubakar, I.R., 2023a. Understanding household attitudes to water TAT global water information system. http://www.fao.org/3/ca0220en/CA0220EN.
conservation in Saudi Arabia: Towards sustainable communities. Int. J. Water pdf (Accessed: 01 March 2023).
Resour. Dev. 1–20. Fielding, K.S., Russell, S., Spinks, A., Mankad, A., 2012. Determinants of house-
Almulhim, A.I., Abubakar, I.R., 2023b. Developing a sustainable water conservation hold water conservation: The role of demographic, infrastructure, behavior, and
strategy for Saudi Arabian cities. Groundw. Sustain. Dev. 23, 101040. psychosocial variables. Water Resour. Res. 48 (10), 1–2.
Almulhim, A.I., Al-Saidi, M., 2023. Circular economy and the resource nexus: Realign- French, J., 2017. The importance of segmentation in social marketing strategy. In:
ment and progress towards sustainable development in Saudi Arabia. Environ. Dev. Dietrich, T., Rundle-Thiele, S., Kubacki, K. (Eds.), Segmentation in Social Marketing,
46, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2023.100851, Article 100851. Vol. 1. Springer, Singapore, pp. 25–40.
Almulhim, A.I., Cobbinah, P.B., 2023a. Urbanization-environment conundrum: an Garcia, J., Salfer, L.R., Kalbusch, A., Henning, E., 2019. Identifying the drivers of water
invitation to sustainable development in Saudi Arabian cities. Int. J. Sustain. Dev. consumption in single-family households in joinville, southern Brazil. Water 11
30 (4), 359–373. (10).
Almulhim, A.I., Cobbinah, P.B., 2023b. Can rapid urbanization be sustainable? The case García Novo, F., 2012. Moral drought: The ethics of water use. Water Policy 14 (S1),
of Saudi Arabian cities. Habitat. Int. 139, 102884. 65–72.
Andreasen, A., 2003. The life trajectory of social marketing: some implications. Mark. Gazzeh, K., Abubakar, I.R., 2018. Regional disparity in access to basic public services
Theory 3 (3), 293–303. in Saudi Arabia: A sustainability challenge. Util. Policy 52, 70–80.
Aprile, M., Fiorillo, D., 2017. Water conservation behavior and environmental concerns: General Authority for Statistics, 2019. Overall count of population. https://www.stats.
Evidence from a representative sample of Italian individuals. J. Clean. Prod. 159, gov.sa/en (Accessed: 11 December 2023).
119–129. Gilg, A., Barr, S., 2006. Behavioural attitudes towards water saving? Evidence from a
Arifin, D.P.W.A., Mardiati, R., Effendi, M.R., Sartika, N., 2022. Boarding House Water study of environmental actions. Ecol. Econom. 57 (3), 400–414.
Usage Monitoring System using Internet of Things-Based Application. in 2022 16th Gleick, P.H., 2003. Global freshwater resources: soft-path solutions for the 21st century.
International Conference on Telecommunication Systems, Services, and Applications Science 302 (5650), 1524–1528.
(TSSA). IEEE., pp. 1–5. Government of Saudi Arabia, 2016. Saudi vision 2030. https://vision2030.gov.sa/
Badran, A., Murad, S., Baydoun, N.J., 2017. Water, Energy and Food Sustainability in download/file/fid/417. (Accessed: 2 April 2023).
the Middle East: The Sustainability Triangle. Springer, London. Gregory, G.D., Di Leo, M., 2003. Repeated behavior and environmental psychology: The
Baig, M.B., Straquadine, G.S., 2014. Sustainable agriculture and rural development in role of personal involvement and habit formation in explaining water consumption.
the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: implications for agricultural extension and education. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 33 (6), 1261–1296.
In: Behnassi, M., et al. (Eds.), Vulnerability of Agriculture, Water and Fisheries To Hartin, J., Oki, L., Fujino, D., Reid, K., Ingels, C., Haver, D., Baker, W., 2019. UC ANR
Climate Change: Toward Sustainable Adaptation Strategies. pp. 101–116. research and education influences landscape water conservation and public policy.
Baquero, O.F., De Palencia, A.J.F., Foguet, A.P., 2016. Measuring disparities in access
Calif. Agric. 73 (1), 25–32.
to water based on the normative content of the human right. Soc. Indic. Res. 127
Hastings, G., Stead, M., Webb, J., 2004. Fear appeals in social marketing: Strategic and
(2), 741–759.
ethical reasons for concern. Psychol. Mark. 21 (11), 961–986.
Barr, S., Guilbert, S., Metcalfe, A., Riley, M., Robinson, G.M., Tudor, T.L., 2013. Beyond
Hong, Y., Park, J., 2023. Exploring circular water options for a water-stressed city:
recycling: An integrated approach for understanding municipal waste management.
Water metabolism analysis for paju city. South Korea. Sustain. Cities Soc. 89,
Appl. Geogr. 39, 67–77.
104355. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2022.104355.
Bartolucci, F., Bacci, S., Gnaldi, M., 2015. Statistical Analysis of Questionnaires: A
Hoy, L., Stelli, S., 2016. Water conservation education as a tool to empower water
Unified Approach Based on R and Stata. CRC Press, Washington, DC.
users to reduce water use. Water Sci. Technol. Water Supply 16 (1), 202–207.
Basu, M., Hoshino, S., Hashimoto, S., DasGupta, R., 2017. Determinants of water
International Trade Administration (ITA), 2022. Saudi Arabia - country com-
consumption: A cross sectional household study in drought-prone rural India. Int.
mercial guide. https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/saudi-arabia-
J. Dis. Risk Reduct. 24, 373–382.
water (accessed: 2 April 2023).
Beal, C., Stewart, R., Fielding, K., 2013. A novel mixed method smart metering approach
Jardioui, Y., Elachqar, A., Kaddari, F., Ijjaali, M., 2015. Education: Essential approach
to reconciling differences between perceived and actual residential end use water
for a better water management. Proc. Soc. Behav. Sci. 191, 896–899.
consumption. J. Clean. Prod. 60, 116–128.
Jeffrey, P., Gearery, M., 2006. Consumer reactions to water conservation policy
Blackler, W., Cuddihy, G., Hagar, D., 2013. Successful stormwater management
instruments. In: Butler D. Memon, A.F (Eds.), Water Demand Management. IWA
practices: Evaluating the effects of the waterlinks project (report). http://oetn.
Publishing, London, pp. 303–329.
ca/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Projects-Waterlinks-FinalReportWorkingCopy2.
Jolliffe, I.T., 2002. Principal Component Analysis, second ed. Springer-Verlag, New
pdf (Accessed: 10 March 2023).
York, NY.
Boberg, J., 2005. Liquid assets: How demographic changes and water management
Jorgensen, B., Graymore, M., O’Toole, K., 2009. Household water use behaviour: An
policies affect freshwater resources. Santa monica: Rand corporation. https://www.
integrated model. J. Environ. Manag. 91 (1), 227–236.
rand.org/pubs/monographs/MG358.html (Accessed: 10 March 2023).
Braun, V., Clarke, V., 2006. Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qual. Res. Psychol. Kassam, A., Derpsch, R., Friedrich, T., 2014. Global achievements in soil and water
3 (2), 77–101. conservation: The case of conservation agriculture. Int. Soil Water Conserv. Res. 2
Brown, R.R., Davies, P., 2007. Understanding community receptivity to water reuse: (1), 5–13.
Ku-ring-gai council case study. Water Sci. Technol. 55 (4), 283–290. Kotler, P., Zaltman, G., 1971. Social marketing - approach to planned social change.
Chowdhury, H., 2023. A Smart Circular Economy for Integrated Organic Hydroponic- J. Mark. 35 (3), 3–12.
Aquaponic Farming. Texas State University. Lam, S., 2006. Predicting intention to save water: Theory of planned behavior, response
Chowdhury, H., Islam, M.T., 2015. Multiple charger with adjustable voltage using efficacy, vulnerability, and perceived efficiency of alternative solutions. J. Appl. Soc
solar panel. In: International Conference on Mechanical Engineering and Renewable Psychol. 36 (11), 2803–2824.
Energy 2015 (ICMERE2015). Chittagong, Bangladesh. Lauri, M.A., 2015. Social change, social marketing, and social representations. In:
Clark, W., Finley, J., 2007. Determinants of water conservation intention in Cambridge Handbook of Social Representations. Cambridge University Press,
blagoevgrad. Bulgaria. Soc. Nat. Resour. 20 (7), 613–627. Cambridge, MA.
Dann, S., 2010. Redefining social marketing with contemporary commercial marketing Leal Filho, W., Totin, E., Franke, J.A., Andrew, S.M., Abubakar, I.R., Azadi, H.,
definitions. J. Bus. Res. 63 (2), 147–153. . . .Team, T.G.A.M.I., 2022. Understanding responses to climate-related water
Darbandsari, P., Kerachian, R., Malakpour-Estalaki, S., Khorasani, H., 2020. An agent- scarcity in africa. Sci. Total Environ. 806, 150420.
based conflict resolution model for urban water resources management. SCS 57, Levin, T., Horner, R.M., Muehleisen, R.T., 2016. Research and Development Op-
102112. portunities for Technologies To Influence Water Consumption Behavior (No.
DeNicola, E., Aburizaiza, O.S., Siddique, A., Khwaja, H., Carpenter, D.O., 2015. Climate ANL/ESD-16/17). Argonne National Lab, Argonne, IL.
change and water scarcity: The case of Saudi Arabia. Ann. Glob. Health 81 (3), Li, Y., Cao, J., Shen, F., Xia, J., 2014. The changes of renewable water resources in
342–353. China during 1956–2010. Sci. China Earth Sci. 57 (8), 1825–1833.
Dietz, T., Gardner, G.T., Gilligan, J., Stern, P.C., Vandenbergh, M.P., 2009. Household Liao, X., Chai, L., Liang, Y., 2021. Income impacts on household consumption’s grey
actions can provide a behavioral wedge to rapidly reduce US carbon emissions. water footprint in China. Sci. Total Environ. 755, 142584.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 106 (44), 18452–18456. Lorenzoni, I., Nicholson-Cole, S., Whitmarsh, L., 2007. Barriers perceived to engaging
Dolnicar, S., Hurlimann, A., 2010. Australians’ water conservation behaviours and with climate change among the UK public and their policy implications. Glob.
attitudes. Aust. J. Water Resour. 14 (1), 43–53. Environ. Change 17 (3–4), 445–459.
Enssle, C., Freedman, J., 2014. Addressing water scarcity in Saudi Arabia: Lotenberg, L.D., Schechter, C., Strand, J., 2011. Segmentation and targeting. In:
Policy options for continued success. General electric. pp. 1–22, https: Hasting, G., Angus, K., Bryant, C. (Eds.), The SAGE Handbook of Social Marketing.
//www.ge.com/sites/default/files/2015%2002%20Addressing_Water_Scarcity_ Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, pp. 125–135.
in_Saudi_Arabia.pdf (Accessed: 01 March 2023). Lowe, B., Lynch, D., Lowe, J., 2015. Reducing household water consumption: A social
Everitt, B.S., Landau, S., Leese, M., 2001. Cluster Analysis, fourth ed.. marketing approach. J. Mark. Manag. 31 (3–4), 378–408.
10
A.I. Almulhim and I.R. Abubakar Resources, Environment and Sustainability 15 (2024) 100144
Lu, N., Zhu, J., Tang, Z., Zhang, J., Chi, H., 2022. Decreasing water dependency Sáiz, A.V., Maldonado, M.A., García, R.V., 2010. CiudadaníAy Conciencia Medioambi-
for economic growth in water-scarce regions by focusing on water footprint and ental. Centro De Investigaciones Sociologicas (CIS), Madrid, Spain.
physical water: A case study of xi’an. China. Sustain. Cities Soc. 85, 104092. Schuster, L., Kubacki, K., Rundle-Thiele, S., 2015. A theoretical approach to segmenting
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2022.104092. children’s walking behaviour. Young Consum. 16, 159–171.
Makoni, F.S., Manase, G., Ndamba, J., 2004. Patterns of domestic water use in rural Sowers, J., Vengosh, A., Weinthal, E., 2011. Climate change, water resources, and
areas of zimbabwe, gender roles and realities. Phys. Chem. Earth A/B/C 29 (15–18), the politics of adaptation in the middle east and north africa. Clim. Change 104,
1291–1294. 599–627.
Ministry of Environment, Water and Agriculture (MEWA), 2022. National wa- Stewart-Koster, B., Bunn, S.E., Green, P., Ndehedehe, C., Andersen, L.S., Arm-
ter strategy. https://www.mewa.gov.sa/en/Ministry/Agencies/TheWaterAgency/ strong McKay, D.I., .Zimm, C., 2023. Living within the safe and just earth system
Topics/Pages/Strategy.aspx (Accessed: 10 October 2022). boundaries for blue water. Nature Sustain. 1–11.
Mir, M.A., Ashraf, M.W., 2023. The challenges and potential strategies of Saudi Arabia’s Syme, G.J., Shao, Q., Po, M., Campbell, E., 2004. Predicting and understanding home
water resources: A review in analytical way. Environ. Nanotechnol. Monit. Manag. garden water use. Landscape Urban Plan 68 (1), 121–128.
100855. UNESCO, UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization),
Moglia, M., Cook, S., Tapsuwan, S., 2018. Promoting water conservation: Where to 2009. Water education for sustainable development. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/
from here? Water 10 (11), 1510. images/0018/001853/185302e.pdf. (Accessed: 21 October 2022).
Morote, Á.F., Hernández, M., Rico, A.M., 2016. Causes of domestic water consumption UNESCO, 2023. UNESCO taking a bottom-up approach to water manage-
trends in the city of alicante: Exploring the links between the housing bubble, the ment. https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/unesco-taking-bottom-approach-water-
types of housing and the socioeconomic factors. Water 8 (9), 374. management (accessed: 2 April 2023).
Mukarram, M.M., Kafy, A., Mukarram, M.M., Rukiya, Q.U., Almulhim, A.I., Das, A., United Nations, 2022. The sustainable development goals report 2022. https://unstats.
Fattah, Md. A., Rahman, M.T., Chowdhury, Md. A., 2023. Perception of coastal un.org/sdgs/report/2022/ (Accessed: 11 December 2023).
citizens on the prospect of community-based rainwater harvesting system for Vining, J., Ebreo, A., Bechtel, R.B., Churchman, A., 2002. Emerging theoretical and
sustainable water resource management. Resour. Conserv. Recy. 198, 107196. methodological perspectives on conservation behaviour. Urbana 51, 541–558.
Pranta, R.O.Y., Ahmed, M.A., Kumer, A., 2019. An overview of hygiene practices and Wang, C.H., Dong, H., 2017. Responding to the drought: A spatial statistical approach
health risks related to street foods and drinking water from roadside restaurants to investigating residential water consumption in Fresno, California. Sustainability
of khulna city of Bangladesh. Eurasian J. Environ. Res. 3 (2), 47–55. 9 (2), 240.
Raheel, S.A., Kujan, O., 2016. The opinion and response of health professionals Warner, L., Chaudhary, A., Rumble, J., Lamm, A., Momol, E., 2017. Using audience
associated with academics about the research design and methods: A study. J Int. segmentation to tailor residential irrigation water conservation programs. J. Agric.
Soc. Prev. Community Dent. 6, 154–160. Educ. 58 (1), 313–333.
Ramsey, E., Berglund, E., Goyal, R., 2017. The impact of demographic factors, Whitmarsh, L.E., O’Neill, S., 2010. Green identity, green living? The role
beliefs, and social influences on residential water consumption and implications of pro-environmental self-identity in determining consistency across diverse
for non-price policies in urban India. Water 9 (11), 844. pro-environmental behaviours. J. Environ. Psychol. 30 (3), 305–314.
Randolph, B., Troy, P., 2008. Attitudes to conservation and water consumption. Wolf, E.J., Harrington, K.M., Clark, S.L., Miller, M.W., 2013. Sample size requirements
Environ. Sci. Policy 11 (5), 441–455. for structural equation models an evaluation of power, bias, and solution propriety.
Raval, D., Subramanian, B., 2004. Cultural values driven segmentation in social Educ. Psychol. Meas. 73 (6), 913–934.
marketing. J. Nonprofit Public Sect. Mark. 12, 73–85. Xiong, Y.J., Hao, X.R., Liao, C., Zeng, Z.N., 2016. Relationship between water-
Renzetti, S.J., 2005. Economics of residential water demands. Water Encyclopedia 1, conservation behavior and water education in guangzhou. China. Environ. Earth
12–16. Sci. 75, 1–9.
Rockström, J., Gupta, J., Qin, D., Lade, S.J., Abrams, J.F., Andersen, L.S., .Zhang, X., Yan, L., 2016. The Ethnic and Cultural Correlates of Water Consumption in a Pluralistic
2023. Safe and just earth system boundaries. Nature 1–10. Social Context – the Sydney Metropolitan Area PhD. The University of Sydney.
Rosenbaum, M.S., Wong, I.A., 2015. Green marketing programs as strategic initiatives Yobero, C., 2017. Using principal component analysis for clustering. https://rpubs.com/
in hospitality. J. Serv. Mark. 29 (81). cyobero/pca-clustering (Accessed: 09 January 2023).
11