Development of Persian Language and Lite

The Journal of Eurasian Turkic Studies ISSN 2636-0810
June, 2020
VOL. 4 pp. 7~31
Development of Persian Language and Literature

During The Mughal Period
Mazafar Hussain
Research Scholar, Department of Persian, Gauhati University, India
Abstract
Culture is a blessing for human society which depends upon language and literature.
Language is the medium of communication, through language one can understand the feeling
of another and one is associated with trade and business. A country can introduce its culture
and deeds to the whole world through a language. Thus, languages play a leading role as
vehicles of thought and interaction between two groups of people. Additionally, language can
enrich literature and language produces poetry and prose. Writers have outstanding emotions
and notions in their writings. Poetry and prose created history among the people through the
ages. A great number of people love to recite poetry while a large group of mankind is
impressed by the influential prose writing. To comprehend poetry and prose they started to
learn languages. In the world there are so many languages, which had great value and
importance in their culture and literature. However, Persian is the main language of Iran, which
is one of the oldest languages in the world. Persian language belongs to the Indo-Iranian branch
of Indo-European language family and it has root in the history of human being and came back
to Aryan group were an old group arrived to Persia area from western Asia. The Muslim kings
of India were the lovers of Persian language and literature. Specially, the rulers of Mughal
dynasty are very fond of Persian language. During the days of the rulers, this language highly
reached its zenith and the dynasty produced a number of great literary talents. In this paper,
lot of contributions of poets and writers will be mentioned and discussed about the growth and
development of Persian language and literature in the Mughal period.
Key words: Mughal Empire, Persian language, Development of the language, Poets & writers.
8 / The Journal of Eurasian Turkic Studies, VOL. 4
INTRODUCTION
India had many dynasties in the medieval period. The dynasties ruled over India through
their explosive powers. The kings of the dynasties were Muslim. The dynasties of the
medieval period were comprised of the Ghori dynasty, the Slave dynasty, the Tughlaq
dynasty, the Lodi dynasty, and the Mughal Dynasty. Among the dynasties the Mughal
dynasty was the most influential and powerful dynasty. The Mughal kings were great
patrons of learning and literature.1) In the 16th century India witnessed the rise of the
Mughal Empire.2) This was the last Muslim dynasty which ruled India from 1526 to 1857
A.D. Babur, the founder of the dynasty, was born in 1438 A.D. Babur was descended from
Timur on his father’s side and through his mother he could claim descended from Chengiz
Khan.3) His father was the ruler of the small principality of Farghana in Turkistan. Babur
lost his father quite early in his life and became the lord of Farghana at the tender age
of eleven. But after three years he was driven from his ancestral property, the state of
Farghana. Thereafter, Babur gave his attention towards India. At that time Delhi was ruled
by sultan Ibrahim Lodi. Daulat Khan Lodi, a noble of Ibrahim Lodi invited Babur to launch
an invasion against Ibrahim Lodi. Accordingly Babur invaded India with his army and
defeated and killed Ibrahim Lodi in the first battle of Panipat in 1526 A.D. Defeating
Ibrahim Lodi in the battle of Panipat, Babur founded a new dynasty in Delhi, which is
known as Mughal dynasty in Indian history. After Babur, the Mughal Empire was extended
by his descendants like Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb, Bahadur Shah,
Jahandar Shah, Faruk Shiyar, Muhammad Shah, Ahmad Shah etc.
After the Iranian Revolution, the relations between India and Iran improved.4) With the
rise of the Muslim rulers, Islamic culture influenced on Indian culture what is known as
Indo-Islamic culture or Indo-Iranian Culture. The permanent settlement of Muslim rules
brought a change in language, society and religion of the Indian people. The Muslim
1) Abbas, Mirza Mohd Ezaz. Published article, The Role of Persian Language before Independence in
India, P-3
2) Mishra, A.K. Chanakya: Civil Service Today, P-24
3) Talukdar, Sri Nirmal. History of India, 1975, P-133
4) Mishra, A.K. Chanakya: Civil Service Today, P-19
Development of Persian Language and Literature During The Mughal Period / 9
emperors spoke Persian or Turkish and Indians widely spoke Hindi. These two languages
gave birth to a new language namely Urdu. A huge number of Persian words exist in Urdu
language. Urdu is called the daughter language of Persian. The influence of Islam produced
a new school of religion which was known as Bhakhti Movement.5) During the Mughal rule
many cultural activities in the fields of architecture, painting, language and literature and
music. In this cultural development, Indian traditions entered Turko-Iranian Culture.6)
Culture remains alive in a country as long as language is alive. The kings invited poets
and writers to their court and honored them with lot of respect. The Mughal kings are not
only the patrons of the language they spoke, but they also patronized the regional languages
of the kingdom they ruled.
The Growth and development of Persian language and literature:
The Mughal rulers established permanent rule in India with their extra-ordinary power and
highly quality. During the reign of Mughal Kings Persian language and literature was highly
developed through which there established the Indo-Iranian culture on Indian soil. The
Mughal kings were greater lovers and patrons of the Persian language than other Muslim
rulers of India. Persian was their court language and it became compulsory language for
Indians who wanted to get job in the Mughal kingdom. The kings became happy helping
the poets and writers of Persian Language. Not only Persian writers and poets, they also
encouraged the other writers who usually wrote prose and poetry in local languages. A great
number of works in Persian were produced during the reign of the Mughal rulers. The poets
and writers whom the kings patronized for the development of Persian language and
literature are mentioned as follows:
Babur (reigned 1526-1530), the founder king, he was a great ruler as well as a great
literary talent. He wrote Tuzuk-e-Babri in Turkish language.7) The book was translated into
Persian by the effort of Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, who was the son of Bairam Khan,
a trustworthy person of Babur. In the court of Babur, some learned Persian writers
5) Dutta, Dr. Ajit Kumar, Bhuyan, Prof. Pranjal. Indian History, 1st edition. 2001, P-143
6) Ibid : P-199
7) Abbas, Mirza Mohd Ezaz. Published article, The Role of Persian Language before Independence in
India, P-3
flourished and were patronized by Babur to spread this language. After all, through his
outstanding assistance, the writers got a good environment to write books in Persian. The
great poets and writers of the court of Babur are:
Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan: He was one of the greatest poets of the court of Babur.
Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan translated ‘Babur Nama’ to Persian language.
Atash Qandahari: He was one of the famous poets of Babur’s court. He composed tolerable
verses. He also acompanied Babur in the battle of Panipat.8)
Shihab Mu’amma’i: He was associated with the court of Babur. Being a competent scholar
in religious science, his chief field was in Mu’amma.9)
Ali Tahir: He was a scholar associated with court of Babur. He made a translation of
Subhatul-Aqlim and dedicated it to Babur.10)
Zain Khan Khwafi: He was a composing poet under the pen-name of ‘Wafai’. He couldn’t
complete his translation work of Tuzuk-e-Babri, but wrote a Fateh Nama after the victory
of Babur over Kanwah.11)
After the death of Babur his son Humayun (reigned 1530-1556) ascended the throne of
Delhi in 1530 A.D.12) He was a king, learned man and a great warrior. After reigning for
16 years Humayun died in 1556 A.D.13) Humayun was a great lover and patron of Persian
literature. Humayun himself was a good writer and could write in Persian. He patronized
the writers to write books in Persian. Some distinguished writers of his court are given here:
8) Hadi, Nabi. History of Indo-Persian Literature, Pub. 2001, P. 252.

9) Ibid: P-252
10) Ibid: P-239
11) Hadi, Nabi. History of Indo-Persian Literature, Pub. 2001, P-239
12) Talukdar, Sri Nirmal. Pub. History of India, 1975, P-135
Gulbadan Begum: Gulbadan Begum was the sister of Humayun and wrote a history book
called ‘Humayun Nama’. She was a good writer in Humayun’s court.
Sheikh Abdul Hamid Bulgarami: He was a good author in the court of Humayun. He
composed ‘Haqaiq-i-Hind’.14)
Jamiri: Jamiri was a lover of Persian literature. He authored many books in Persian like,
Wamiq-wa-Azar, Naaj-wa-Naaj, Sarguzast-e-Majnun, Sikandar Nama.
Ibrahim Ibn Jarir: He was a scholar and wrote a general history titled Tarikh-i-Humayuni
dedicated to Humayun.15)
Mihtar Jauhar Ahtabchi: Initially a servant of Humayun, the responsibility of the function
of civil servant was given to him later on. He wrote ‘Tazkiratul Waqiat’ describing the
event of Humayun.16)
Muhammad Beg: He was a physician at court of Humayun and wrote a number of Medical
books which are read as text by teachers of Medicine. The books are 1. “A Treatise on
Surgical Bleeding” Dastur-ul-Fasd, 2. Khwas ul-Ashya, “Discussing on the Properties of
Organic and Inorganic Substances.17)
Yusuf Bin Muhammad Yusufi: He came from Herat and held the position of secretary of
Humayun’s court. Being a successful physician he wrote several books on Medicine which
are utilized as text book of medical studies. Famous among them are 1. Riyazul Adwiyah,
2. Jamiul Fawa’id, 3. Fawa’id ul Akhyar, 4. Tibb-i-Yusufi. Likewise he wrote a book on
Sufism entitled Anwar-i-Hikmat.18)
14) Ansar, Mohd. Asif. And Khan, Mohd. Amir, Rahnumah-i-Adabiyat-i-Farsi, P-77
15) Hadi, Nabi. History of Indo-Persian Literature, Pub. 2001, P-241.
16) Ibid: P-241
17) Ibid: P-241
18) Ibid: P-241
Muzaffar Bin Muhammad Hussaini Shifai: He was a well known physician at the court of
Humayun. Qandahar-i-Shifai and Shifa ul Ahl are famous books on medicine of Muzaffar
Bin Shifai.19)
In 1556 Akbar (reigned 1556-1605) was declared emperor in Delhi at the age of thirteenth
after the death of Humayun.20) Bairam Khan was a faithful friend of Humayun. He was
also the guardian of Akbar when he began to rule.21) In order to receive the Pathan power,
Himu, the capable general of Adil Shah came forward and occupied Delhi. Akbar and
Bairam Khan met him at second battle of Panipath in 1556 A.D. In the battle Himu was
defeated and killed. This battle brought a close contest between the Mughals and the
Pathans for political sovereignty in India. The power of the Pathan was severely broken
down and the Mughal power in India became safe.22) He was uneducated but he possessed
exceptional intelligence. He himself looked after the details of the administration. The great
king Akbar died on October 25, 1605.23)
Akbar was one of the learned and experienced kings in the history of Indian
sub-continent. He was the greatest Muslim king in India and the world. Although, he was
illiterate but he was a man of adequate knowledge. He loved Persian language so much.
Persian prose and poetry reached at its zenith during the reign of Akbar. It was recognized
as the court language in the reign of Akbar. From the time of Akbar, Hindi writers began
to associate with Mughal court, thus the Persian and Hindi literature influence each other.24)
The greatest writers of his court are mentioned below:
Sheikh Abul Fazal bin Mubarak Naguri: Sheikh Abul Fazal bin Mubarak Naguri was
Malikhush shuara or poet laureate in the court of Akbar.25) He was the most successful
and greatest Indo-Persian poet after Amir Khusraw, the Parrot of India.26) He is known well
19) Hadi, Nabi. History of Indo-Persian Literature, Pub. 2001, p.p.241-242

20) Dutta, Dr. Ajit Kumar, Bhuyan, Prof. Pranjal. Indian History, 1st edition. 2001, P-185.
21) Talukdar, Sri Nirmal: 1975, History of India, P-143
22) Talukdar, Sri Nirmal: 1975, History of India, P-143
24) Ibid : P-185.
25) Asif, Dr, Mazhar. Adabiat-e-Classic-o-Jadeed, Hissa-e-Sher (Vol. I), Pub. 2005, P-79
among the people as Faizi. He was also a lover of Arabic and Sanskrit. His famous five
Masnavis are written in Persian, which was known as Khamsa-i-Faizi. The Masnavis are
1. “Marakaz-i-Adwar”, which was influenced by “Makhjan ul Asrar” of Nezami,
2. “Sulaiman wa Bilqis” was influenced by “Khusraw wa Shirin” of Nezami, 3. “Nal wa
Daman” was influenced by “Laila wa Majnun” of Nezami, 4. “Haft-e-Keshwar” was
influenced by “Haft-e-Pekar” of Nezami, 5. “Akbar Nama” was influenced by “Iskandar
Nama” of Nezami.
Muhammad Najiri Nishapuri: He was a famous poet of Akbar’s court. He wrote many
important works in Persian language but they are not available at the present. He was born
in Nishapur and came to India. Afterwards, he became a great poet of Akbar’s court through
Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan. He excelled in writing of Ghazal or ode poem. He is the
greatest ghazal writer in the style of Sabk-e-Hindi.27)
Sayed Jamaluddin Urfi Shiraji: Urfi was one of the efficient poets of the court of Akbar.
He was born at Shiraj. After acquired his education he travelled to India and became one
of the greatest Persian poets in the Mughal dynasty. He is one of the initiators of the style
of Persian poem 'Subak-i-Hindi’.28) He composed several books viz. Mazma-ul-Bakar,
influenced by Makhjanul Asrar of Nezami, Farhad-wa-Sirin, influenced by Khusraw wa
Shirin of Nezami. Unfortunately he had to embrace death having not completed the Khamsa.29)
Khawaja Hussain Mashhadi: He is known as Sanai, he came from Mashhad to India and
became a good poet in the court of Akbar. He was a very talented poet of the court of
Akbar and one of the best Qasida writers of this time.30) His valuable works included Saqi
Nama and many more.
Maulana Ghazzali Mashhadi: He was a proficient poet in the court of Shah Tahmasp, the
26) Ibid : P-79

27) Asif, Dr, Mazhar. Adabiat-e-Classic-o-Jadeed, Hissa-e-Sher (Vol. I), Pub. 2005, P-80
28) Ibid : P-80
29) Ibid : P-80
30) Ibid : P-80
Iranian king. Thence, he journeyed to India and his talent was appreciated by Akbar. Thus
he became a great poet of the Mughal dynasty. He was the Malikush shuara or poet laureate
of Akbar’s court.31) His works including Diwan, Mathnavi namely “Naqsh-e-Badi’i”.
Mulla Kasim Kahi: He passed his early life at Herat and then left for Hindustan. He was
one of the brightest poets in the court of Akbar, the Great. His full name was Said
Najimuddin Mulla Kasim Kahi.32)
Badruddin Hussain Kashmiri: He was one of famous poets from Kashmir in the court of
Akbar.
Abdullah Sultanpuri: He got the title of Makhdum and influential religious leader at the
court of Akbar. He was known as Makhdum al Mulk and wrote a number of books on
juristic subjects such as 1. A Commentary on Imam Tirmizi’s Shamailun Nabi and 2. A
monograph discussing the infallibility of the prophets, entitled Ismat-i-Anbiya.33)
Mir Ghiyasuddin Ali Naqib Khan: He belonged to the inner circle of Akbar. He was
virtually the chief of the committee of bi-langual scholars entrusted with the translation of
the Mahabharat. Naqib Khan embellished the Persian version of the Mahabharat and gave
it its present shape. His other contribution to Persian literature at the request of Akbar is
entitled Tarik-i-Alfi.34)
Shaikh Bayazid Ansari: He was a famous Sufi known as Pir-i-Rawshan. Two famous book
of Bayazid are 1. Khair ul Bayan and 2. Hal-Nama.35)
Mulla Sheri: At court of Akbar he was a great scholar. The famous Sanskrit book
‘Harivansha’ was written by Sanskrit Vyas Pandit, which was translated into Persian by
35) Ibid : P-275
Mulla Sheri.36)
Muhammad Hussain Harawi: He was a learned scholar at court of Akbar. He had come
from Herat, it is situated presently in Afaghanistan. Muhammad Bin Isa Tirmizi’s Shamail
un Nabi was translated into Persian by Hussain Harawi and named it Nasrul Khasail, which
was dedicated to Prince Murad, son of Akbar.37)
Shamsuddin Ali Hakim Shirazi: He was awarded with the title of ‘Ainul Mulk’ by Akbar,
the great. At court of Akbar he lived as a physician who wrote a general textbook on
medicine titled Fawaid ul Insan, which was dedicated to the Emperor.38)
Hakim Ali Gilani: Regarding his knowledge and ability in his works, the emperor honored
him with the title of ‘Jalinus Zamani’, Galen of the Age. He came from Gilan, Iran and
worked at the court of Akbar as a Physician. He wrote a commentary on Avicenna’s
Al-Qanun, which was his major work.39)
Asaf Khan: His full name being Mirza Qiwamuddin Jafar Beg, who made himself prominent
both a man of sword and pen. For his proficiency Akbar gave him the title of Asaf Khan
and he was included in the bureau of writers for Tarikh Alfi.40)
Khawaja Baqi Billah: Coming from Qabul, capital city of Afghanistan he introduced the
Naqshbandi order to India. He visited a number of pious monuments and centres of learning
in Middle Eastern countries and the Indian subcontinent. Being a Sufi he composed
1. Kulliyat=poems, 2. Rubaiyyat=Quatrains, 3. Makhtubat=letters, and 4. A Sufistic tract,
Dah-asl, etc.41)
36) Ibid : P-275

37) Ibid : P-276
38) Ibid : P-276
39) Ibid : P-276
40) Ibid : P- PP-277-278
41) Ibid : P-278
Hayat Jan Baqi Koulabi: He came from Koulab, Bukhara and worked as poet in the Akbar’s
court. He was impressed by the popular romantic legend of Punjab and composed the
masnawi poem, entitled Hir wa Ranjha.42)
After the death of Akbar, his son Salim assumed the title of Jahangir (reigned 1605-1627)
and inherited the throne of Delhi.43) Jahangir was a child of many prayers and was patted
and spoiled in his youth. He was an expert judge of drawing and painting and had a nice
taste in literature and architecture. He could appreciate music and song and was a generous
patron of artist. He was also a lover of Persian language and literature. A number of
European scholars described him as a lover of pleasure, some Indian historians call Jahangir
a just and kind ruler.44) He had a literary taste which is reflected in Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri. In
his court a bunch of the great writers who flourished are as follows:
Talib Amli: He was the poet laureate of Jahangir’s court. He came from Mazandaran and
he travelled various Indian cities like Agra, Delhi, Lahore, Ahmedabad etc. He wrote
Jahangir Nama.45)
Taqi Auhadi: He was one of the greatest poets of the court of great Iranian king Shah
Abbas II. In 1606 A.D. he came to India and could be an important writer of the Jahangir’s
court. His works are: 1. Nusrat ul Arifin, 2. Tadhkirat al Ashiqin, 3. Safinat al Sakinah and
4. Ka’bat al Harmin.46)
Abdus Shakur Bajmi: He was one of the ablest poets of the court of Jahangir. He excelled
in masnavi, and one of his masnavi is Padmavat-e-Dartan.47)
Asaf Khan: The full name of Asaf Khan was Mirza Qiwamuddin Jafar Beg, spent early

43) Talukdar, Sri Nirmal. History of India, 1975, P-153
44) Dutta, Dr. Ajit Kumar & Bhuyan, Prof, Pranjal, 1st edition. 2001. P-193
45) Asif, Dr. Mazhar. Adabiat-e-Classic-o-Jadeed, Hissa-e-Sher (Vol. I), Pub. 2005, P-82
46) Ibid : P-82
47) Ibid : P-83
life at the court of Akbar. Asaf Khan, the title was honored by Akbar. His later life was
spent in the days of Jahangir. As a fluent poet he composed a masnavi version of Shaikh
Nezami’s Khusraw wa Shirin. He dedicated a poem ‘Nur-Namah’ to the Emperor.48)
Shamsuddin Muhammad Ginai: He came from Lar, South Iran and worked as a revenue
chief during the time of Akbar and Jahangir. He composed a masnawi named Izaj-Namah.49)
Abdullah Khan Firuz Jang: He was a great poet of Jahangir’s court and was the general
of Mughal armies. The Sanskrit book on horse namely Salihotra was translated into Persian
by him under the title of Faras Namah-i-Hindi.50)
Haidar Malik: He was an important court poet of Jahangir, who honored him with the title
of Rais-ul-Mulk being pleased with his service. His greatest work ‘Tarikh-i-Kashmir’ was
completed in 1039A.H.=1620A.D.51)
Shaikh Abdul Jalil: His full name being Abdul Jalil Bin Umar Siddiqui Chisti, was a poet
during Jahangir’s reign. He composed books on Sufistic tracts are 1. Ashrariyah
Asrar-i-Jalaliyah, 2. Rumuzat, 3. Sair-i-Muqamat, and 4. Makhtubat.52)
Shah Khairuddin Abul Ma’li: He was a sufi of Qadri order. Under the pen of Ghurbati he
composed poetry at the court of Jahangir. His famous works are 1. Tuhfatul Qadriya, 2.
Nafhat-i-Dawadi, 3. Munish-i-Jan, and 4. Diwan-i-Ghurbati.53)
Nuruddin Muhammad Bin Shaikh Aminuddin: He was the famous writer at court of
Jahangir. His voluminous work on ethics entitled Akhlaq-i-Jahangiri, copmpleted in
1029A.H=1620A.D which was dedicated to Jahangir.

49) Ibid : P-300
51) Ibid : P-316
52) Ibid : P-317
Shaikh Nurul Haq Dehlavi: He was a well known writer of Jahangir’s court. He wrote a
number of books in Persian. Among them the two most important works are 1. Zabdatut
Tawarikh, and 2. A commentary on the works of Imam Bukhari and Imam Muslim, who
are collectors of the Prophet’s tradition.
After the death of Jahanagir, his son Shah Jahan (reigned 1627-1658) inherited the throne
of Delhi.54) His reign became famous in Indian history for its various building activities.
At his order several building were constructed. The Diwani-i-Am, the Diwan-i-Khas, the
Zam-i-Masjid (Mosque), the Mati Masjid (Mosque) are the names of the buildings. The
most magnificent work of Shah Jahan is the building of the famous Tajmahal. He built the
Tajmahal in memory of his beloved wife Mumtaz, the Taj Mahal is now one of the
seven-wonders of the world. Besides these the famous peacock throne was constructed by
him. He also built a beautiful city near Delhi. This city was called Shahjanbad.55)
Shah Jahan greatly loved pomp and splendor. He was the prince of builders and to him
we owe some of the masterpieces of Mughal art and Architecture. It has been observed by
Dr. Smith that “Shah Jahan’s reign marks the climax of the Mughal emperors. It has also
been described as the Golden age of Mughal India. We can take the names of some poets
and famous prose writers of Shah Jahan’s reign:
Abu Talib Hakim Hamadani: He was born at Hamadan. Then he moved to India and became
famous in Shah Jahan’s court through his skillful writings. He was poet laureate or Malikush
shuara of Shah Jahan. He wrote famous masnawi named it ‘Shah Jahan Nama’.56)
Mulla Muhammed Tahir Gani Kashmiri: He was one of the efficient writers of Shah Jahan’s
court.
Mir Muhammad Yahya Kashani: He was one of the greatest poets of Mughal period. He
wrote ‘Badshah Nama’.
54) Talukdar, Sri Nirmal, History of India, Pub. 1975, P-156

55) Ibid : P-158
Hazi Muhammad Jaan Quddus: He was born at Mashhad. In 1632, he came to India. He
was one of the famous writers in the court of Shah Jahan.
Saiyed Muhammad Jalali II: He was a great writer in the days of Jahangir and Shah Jahan.
His popular title was Maqbul-i-Alam. His famous works included 1. Maulana Jalali prepared
a translation of the Quran in simple Persian, 2. Azkarul Abrar, 3. Ihsa ul Asma, and 4.
Diwan of verses.57)
Muhammad Dara Shikoh: He was a man of literary talent. He was also the Prince of
learning and knowledge. He was the eldest son of Shah Jahan, who was the most educated
prince of all the Mughal princes. He had a number of books in Persian which were the
most influential in the history of Indo-Persian literature. He left a number of contributions
to the Persian literature namely 1. Sirr-i-Akbar, a translation of Upanishad, 2.
Safinat-ul-Auliya, 3. Sakinat-ul-Auliya, 4, Hasanat-ul-Arifin, and 5. Risalah-i-Huq-Namah.
Muhammad Haidar: He was a learned man in the days of Jahangir and Shah Jahan. He
wrote a book entitled Shuja-i-Haidari.
Muhammad Said Bin Nurullah Hasani: The poet was in the days of Jahangir and Shah
Jahan and was elevated to the rank of Minister by Shah Jahan. He wrote a book on
astronomy named it Ahwal-i-Mawalid wa Ahkam-i-an.58)
Ustad Ahmad Mi’mar Lahori: The man of architect who designed Taj Mahal of Agra. Ustad
Ahmad wrote a tract discussing mathematics and geometry entitled Risalah-i-Ahmad-i-Minar.59)
Wali Muhammad Narnauli: He was a well-known poet in the reign of Shah Jahan. He
composed a Masnawi poem on Rumi’s model and naming it Masnawi-i-Latifah.
Lutfullah Muhandis: He composed poem under the pen name of Nadir ul Asr. His

58) Ibid : P-331
59) Ibid : PP-340-341
contributions to Persian literature are 1. Taqwim-i-Lutfi, 2. Khwas-i-A’dad, 3. Muntakhab,

commentary on the Khalasatul Hisab of Shaikh Bahauddin Amili, 4. Suwar-i-Sufi, recension
of Suwarul Kawakib, and 5. Anthology of Poets, Asman-i-Sukhan.60)
Tudor Mal Shah Jahani: He was a revenue officer of Deccan province in the days of Shah
Jahan. The writer controlled the finance of constructing Taj Mahal, Redfort of Delhi and
congregation mosque.61) His contribution to the Persian literature is Dastur-ul-Amal-i-Tudor
Mal.
Abdul Hamid Lahori: He was one of the greatest poets at the court of Shah Jahan. His
influential work entitled Padshah Nama is one of the most essential works in the history
of Indo-Persian literature.
Jalaluddin Tabatabai: He was associated with the court of Shah Jahan. His important works
are 1. Shash-Fath-i-Kangrah, 2. Tauqat-i-Kisravi, and 3. His collection of letters that
survived as Insha-i-Jalaluddin Tabatabai.62)
Abdur Rahman Chishti: He was one of the famous writers at the court of Shah Jahan. He
wrote a number of important books. Noteworthy of them are 1. Mirat ul Asrar, 2. Mirat-i-
Masudi, 3. Mirat-i-Madari, 4. Mirat ul Haqaiq, a translation of the Bhagwad Gita, 5. Mirat
ul Makhluqat, a mythological narration of the dialogue between Mahadev and Parwati and
6. Aurad-i-Chistiya.
Abdul Latif Abbasi: At the court of Shah Jahan Abbasi was scholar from Ahmadabad,
Gujarat. He had a great contribution to the Persian literature, these are 1. Nuskah-i-Nasikhah,
2. Lataiful Lughat, 3. Sharh-i-Hadiqahand, and 4. Khulasat-ush-Shuara.63)

61) Ibid : P-342
62) Ibid : P-345
63) Ibid : P-349
Mulla Abul Barakat Munir: He was one of the greatest poets during the time Mughals. He
was next to Faizi in the list of great poets born in India. As a poet he had a great
contribution to Persian literature. His four poems written in Persian were 1. Ab-wa-Rang,
2. Saz-wa-Burg, 3. Nur-wa-Safa and 4. Dard-wa-Alam. These poems are collected under the
title of Char-Gauhar. He was the court poet of Shah jahan.
Shaikh Muhammad Ali Mahir: He was the son of Hindu parents. Being a fluent poet in
the reign of Shah Jahan he composed a masnavi in the pattern of Khaqani’s
Tuhfat-ul-Iraqain, entitled Jam-i-Nishatin. Prince Dara Shikuh accompanied him and
honored him with the title of ‘Murid Khan’.64)
During the reign of Shah Jahan, his son Aurangzeb kept his father in prison and ascended
the throne of Delhi. He ruled 1558-1707 A.D.65) He ruled a long term of 50 years. He was
the longest ruler of the Mughal kings. In 1707 A.D. Aurangzeb died at Ahmadnagar. He
was the most fanatic ruler of Mughal dynasty. He was a king of well educated and had
a great taste for language and literature. After ascending the throne, he enjoyed the company
of men of letters for their learning and culture. He was a great lover and patron of the
language. At the court of Aurangzeb, there were so many great poets and writers who
contributed for growth of the Persian language and literature. A large number of literary
men of his reign are mentioned here:
Zaibun-Nissa: She was the daughter of Aurangzeb and was an ablest Persian poet in his
Court. She composed poems under the pen-name of Mukhfi.
Nizamuddin Khan Fa’aq: He was one of the greatest writers in the Mughal dynasty. He
was flourished as a writer in the court of Aurangzeb. His great work is “Mirat-al-Hussain”.
Mirza Abdul Qadir Bedil: He was born at Azimabad in 1644 A.D. He was one of the
greatest Persian writers in Indian sub-continent. He was one of the pioneers of
Sabak-i-Hindi, a style of Persian poetry in India. During the reign of Aurangzeb, he is top

65) Talukdar, Sri Nirmal, History of India, Pub. 1975, P-167
ranked poet in the history of Indo-Persian literature.66) He composed four masnavis: Mahit-e
Azam, Talsim-e-Hairat, Toor-e-Marifat and Urfan.
Mirza Asadullah Khan Ghalib: He is considered to be the last classical Persian poet in India.
He was one of the important Persian writers in the history of Indo-Persian literature. He
was born at Agra. His skilful writings immortalized his name in Persian History.
Shaikh Lutfullah Bin Abdullah Qadiri: He was a famous writer during the time of
Aurangzeb. He had a great contribution to growth and development of Persian literature.
His important works are 1. Irshaf-ut-Talibin, 2. Tuhfatus-Salikin, and 3. Minhaz-i-Ma’rifat.
Bhimsen: He belonged to Burhanpur and worked under Rao Dalpat Bandela, a military officer
of Aurangzeb.67) His important works are 1. Nuskhah-i-Dilkusha and 2. Munshaat-i-Rangin.
Bhupat Rai: He was one of the greatest poets in the reign of Aurangzeb. His contributions
to Persian Literature are 1. Insha-i-Raushan Kalam, 2. Mahasin ul Kalam, and 3.
Dastur-i-Shigarf.68)
Bishap Rai bin Har Karam: He was great poet of Aurangzeb’s court. He was the translator
of Singhasan- Battisi, a Sanskrit collection of thirty two anecdotes.
Chander Sen b. Kashi Das Kayasth: He was a poet in the reign of Aurangzeb. He made
a translation of Bhagwat Puran, completed in 1092A.D.=1685 A.D.69)
Muhammad Afzal Ilahabadi: He was a Sufi and writer in the reign of Aurangzeb. He had
contributions for the growth of the Persian language and literature. He wrote commentary
on Rumi’s Masnawi, Hall-i-Masnawi. His other works are 1. Tarikh-i-Muhammadi, a
general history, 2. Ibrat-Namah, and 3. Tuhfat ul Muhibbin.
66) Hadi, Nabi, History of Indo-Persian Literature, Pub. 2001, P-567

67) Ibid : P-419
69) Ibid : PP-419-420
Munshi Chath Mal: Being a poet in the reign of Aurangzeb, he composed valuable works
which are 1. Karnamah-i-Waqiah, and 2. Gul-wa-Bulbul, a masnawi.70)
Muhammad Habib ullah Hashimi: He was a great writer in days of Aurangzeb. He wrote
commentary on Nizami’s Makhjanun Asrar, which appeared as Miftah ul Makhzan.
Muhammad Nurullah Ahrari: Aurangzeb appointed Nurullah Azhari as religious endowments.

His contributions to Persian literature are, 1. Commentaries on Sa’di’s Gulistan, 2. Rumi’s
masnawi, 3. Jami’s Yusuf wa Zuleikha and 4. A Dictionary of Difficult Words in the
Insha-i-Abul Fazal.71)
Kishan Singh bin Rai Pran Nath: He was a poet and scholar during the days of Aurangzeb.
A collection of letters entitled Gharaib ul Insha was written by him. He also translated a
Sanskrit book into Persian in the praise of Hindu God Shiva, entitled Shiv-Puran.
Munshi Nondah Rai: He was the writer in the reign of Aurangzeb. He authored Dastur us
Subiya, a collection of letters.
Shaikh Rafat: He was a writer during the reign of Aurangzeb. He wrote Futuhat-i-Alamgiri
and Ainah-i-Jahan Nama.
Muhammad Reza Shattari Qadri: He was from Lahore and lived during the reign of
Aurangzeb. He wrote a number of important works in Persian. The two most influential of
them are 1. Adab-i-muridi, and 2. Irshad-ul-Ashiqin.
Rafiuddin Muradabadi: He was a great Persian writer during the reign of Aurangzeb. His
contributions to the growth to Persian literature are 1. Halat-i-Haramain, 2. Tarjumah-i-Ainul-ilm,
a translation work from Sanskrit, and 3. Tarikh-i-Afaghinah, a history book.
70) Ibid : P-420

71) Ibid : P-439
Saiyed Hasan Rasul Numa: He was a teacher and Sufi of Delhi in the reign of Aurangzeb.
He wrote a book on Sufism in Persian entitled Haqiqat-i-tu bi sai-rust.72)
Shaikh Burhanuddin Raz-i-Ilahi: He was a learned man and Sufi of Chishti-Chattari

sub-order during the time of Aurangzeb. His greatest contribution to the Persian literature
is Wasiyat-Nama.
Mulla Safiuddin Ardabili Safi bin Ali: He came to India from Qazwin, Iran during the time
of Aurangzeb. He wrote a number of Persian books. Some of the important ones are 1.
Tuhfatul-Akhyar, 2. Zeb-ut-Tafasir, and 3. Anis-ul-Hujjaj.
Faqir Ullah Saif Khan: In the reign of Aurangzeb he was a famous writer. He had a keen
interest in music. As a result he wrote a book on music entitled Rag Darpan.
Saiyed Husain: In the reign of Aurangzeb, Syed Husain wrote a Turkish-Persian dictionary
entitled Amdan-Namah-Turki.73)
Nasrullah Bin Shaikh Nizam: Nasrullah was the scholar in the reign of Aurangzeb, who
wrote Tazkirat-ul-Aqaid.
Shukrullah Khan Khaksar: He was famous writer in the reign of Aurangzeb. He wrote a
commentary on Rumi’s Masnawi and he left a Diwan.
Mir Abul Makarim Shudud: He was a well-known poet during the reign of Aurangzeb. He
spent most of time reading books. He had a well contribution to the growth of the Persian
literature. He composed two Masnawis namely 1. Pari-Khanah-Sulaiman, 2. Saif ul Muluk
wa Badi ul Zamal. Moreover, he left a Diwan of verses.
Aurangzeb had three sons. They were Muazzam, Azam and Kam Baksh. The death of
Aurangzeb was followed by a war of succession among his sons. A battle was fought

73) Ibid : P-453
between Muazzam and Azam at Jajau near Agra. Muazzam killed Azam in the battle.
Thereafter Muazzam assumed the title of Bahadur Shah and ascended the throne in 1707
A.D. He reigned only for five years. In 1712 A.D. Bahahdur Shah defeated his brother Kam
Baksh at Hyderabad and killed him. During his reign the Rajputs of Mewar, Marwar and
Ambar stood against the Mughals. Bahadur Shah concluded a peace treaty with them and
allowed them to rule independently in their own kingdom. He had a fine interest in
literature. In the reign of Bahadur Shah, the literary talents are mentioned as follows:
Mir Muhammad Zaman Rasikh: He was one of the leading poets in the reign of Bahadur
Shah. He belonged to Sirhind. He had a contribution to the growth of Persian literature.
He composed a Masnawi namely Dad wa Faryad and He left a Diwan of verses.
Miyan Sadiq Ilqa: Initially he was a poet and scholar in the reign of Aurangzeb. Later on,
he imparted lessons from Nezami’s Makhzan al Asrar during the reign of Bahadur Shah.
He wrote a book in Persian on sufistic discipline and naming it ‘Char Kaifiyat’.
After Bahadur Shah, in 1712 A.D the Mughal throne was ascended by Jahandar Shah, who
ruled only a short term of 12 months. In the reign of Jahandar Shah a number of poets
are mentioned here:
Mulla Fakhruddin Dana: He was one of the enlisted poets at the court of Jahandar Shah.
He came from Kashmir and employed in the court of the emperor. He was a great literary
talents in the court of Jahandar Shah.
Mirza Girami: A literary talent, Mirza Girami lived during the reign of Jahandar Shah. He
wrote Ghazal and his diwan, which had great literary value.
Jahandar Shah was followed by Faruk Shiyar (1713-1719). In the reign of Faruk Shiyar a
small number of poets was living, these are:
Kwajah Abul Fath Khan Junun: He was from Kashmir. Initially, he associated with the
court of Aurangzeb. His later life spent in the reign of Faruk Shiyar. As a poet he left a
Diwan of verses.
Mirza Muhsin Zul Qadr: He was a close friend of Mirza Abdul Qadir Bedil. Zul Qadr was
a Turk by race. Earlier he was a soldier of Prince Shuja, son of Shah Jahan. His later life
spent in the reign of Faruk Shiyar and he died in the days of the Emperor.
Krishna Chandra Adab: He was one of the greatest poets in the reign of Faruk Shiyar. His
contribution to the growth of Persian literature is Bustan-i-Khayal, a masnavi poem.
Mirza Abul Ma’li: He was one of the noticeable poets in the reign of Faruk Shiyar. Initially
he was under Prince Muhammad Azam, the second son of Aurangzeb. He left a Diwan of
verses.
Nazim Khan Farigh: A man of religious Nazim Khan came from Qum, Iran and joined the
court of Faruk Shiyar. Nazim Khan was appointed as royal historiographer by the emperor.
His essential contributions to the Persian literature are 1. Faruk shiyar-Namah, a chronicle,
and 2. Firuz wa Shahbaz, a romantic tale.
Maulana Azizullah Qani: During the reign of Faruk Shiyar he composed poetry under the
pen name of ‘Qani’.74)
Faruk Shiyar was followed by Muhammad Shah (1719-1748). During Muhammad Shah’s
reign the vast Mughal Empire was broken down into pieces.75) Nizamul Mulk, the ablest
minister of Muhammad Shah founded an independent kingdom in the Deccan. In the reign
of Muhammad Shah Nadir shah, the king of Persia invaded India in 1739 A.D and he
marched to Delhi. Emperor Muhammad Shah tried to oppose him; but failed. At last,
Muhammad Shah made treaty with Nadir Shah. Muhammad Shah was out again on the
throne. The peacock throne of Shahjahan was also taken to Persia by Nadir Shah. After the
invasion of Nadir Shah the condition of Mughal empire became very bad. In the reign of
Muhammad Shah a number of men of letters are in the field of literature as follows:

75) Talukdar, Sri Nirmal. History of India, P-169
Jafar Ali Khan Adib: He had come from Kabul, capital of Afghanistan. He was appointed
as Faujdar of Gwalior. He left a Diwan, containing about six thousand verses. He was a
great poet in the reign of Muhammad Shah.
Shah Faqir Ullah Afrin: He was a well known Sufi poet. He was invited to literary
gatherings by the nobles of the day. Mir Ghulam Ali Azad says, Nasirat Khan, the son of
Khanjahan Bahadur, the Nazim of Lahore, stayed there for sometime at Dara Shukuh’s
palace, Afrin was also invited there.76) He translated the verse of the two lovers of Panjub,
Hir and Ranjha into Persian. He was a friend of Azad Bilgerami, the great poet made a
Diwan of verses. His well-known masnawis are 1. Abjad-i-Fikr, 2. Raz-wa-Niyaz, and 3.
Hir-Ranjha.
Siraj-Ud-Din Ali Khan Arzu: He was born at Gwalior or Akbarabad in A.H. 1099 or 1101
A.H. He held a unique position in poetry. He had no rival in the realm of poetry.77)
His works included 1. Shur-i-Ishq (A mathnavi) 2. Adab-i-Ishq, 3. Mihr-u-Mah, 4. Ibrat-i-Fasana,
5. Payam-i-Shauq, 6. Siraj-ul-Lughat, etc.
Muhammad Ali Afsar: He was a remarkable poet who served as civil servant in Bengal.
Muhammad Kazim Agah: He was a literary man in the reign of Muhammad Shah. He had
come from Peshwar and settled in Delhi.
Mir Ghulam Ali Ahsani: He was one of the literary men of letters in the reign of
Muhammad Shah. Shirazuddin Ali Khan Arzu, the great poet whom he had given
instructions in writing poetry.
Ahmad Quli Khan Aiman: He was a poet who fought against Nadir Shah under the
command of Buhan al Mulk and lost his life in the battle. He came to India from Qum,
a city of Iran in the reign of Muhammad Shah.
76) Siddiqi, Dr. S. H. Persian Poets of India (1707-48), Indo-Persian Society, 2000, P-43
77) Ibid : P-49
Amir Khan Anzam: He was one of the noteworthy poets in the reign of Muhammad Shah.
He had an excellent taste in music and poetry. He wrote chiefly Ghazal.
Khawajah Asim: Muhammad Shah awarded him with the title of Khan-i-Darwan. He was
the chief noble in the reign of Muhammad Shah. He left a Diwan.
Ataullah Ata: He was one of the favorite pupils of Mirza Bedil. The emperor Muhammad
Shah conferred on him the title of ‘Khan’. His contribution to the Persian literature is
Khaliq-Bari, a children song.
Baqir Khadim: He was one of the well known poets in the reign of Muhammad Shah. He
wrote Rauzat-ul-Muttaqin in Persian.
Aqa Salih Burhan: He was one the noteworthy poets at court of Muhammad Shah. He came
from Sistan, Iran to India and settled in Delhi.
Mir Shamsuddin Faqir: He was born in Delhi in A.H. 1115.78) He was a famous scholar,
poet and Sufi during the reign of Muhammad Shah. He had a remarkable contribution in
Persian, these are 1. A Diwan of verses, 2. Taswir-i-Mohabbat, 3. Shamhah-i-Karbala, 4.
Shams-uz-Zuha, and 5. Hadaiq-ul-Balagat, a book on rhetoric.
Anand Ram Mukhlis: He was one of the noticeable poets in the reign of Muhammad Shah.
He had a number Persian book namely 1. Mirat-ul-Istilah, 2. Badai-Baqai, 3.
Hungama-i-Ishq and 4. Diwan of verses.
Muhammad Tahir Kulabi: He was a Sufi writer during the reign of Muhammad Shah. He
wrote Mahbub-i-Nayrang.
Bhimsen Muhibb: He wrote a great literary figure in the history of Indo-Persian literature
namely Fihrist-i-Shahnama.
78) Siddiqi, Dr. S. H. Persian Poets of India (1707-48), Indo-Persian Society, 2000, P- 61
Raghbat Siyalkoti: He was one of the leading poets in the reign of Muhammad Shah. His
contribution to the Persian literature is Qissa-i-Haqiqat-Rai.
Sabir Shah: He was one of the great poets in the days of Muhammad Shah. He composed
poetry under the pen-name of ‘Shabir’. He left a Diwan, containing mostly ghazals.
Wali Muhammad Akbarabadi: Reputed as a Sufi poet, he wrote a versified commentary on

Rumi’s naming it Makhzan-i-Asrar.
After the death of Muhammad Shah his son Ahmad Shah ascended the throne of Delhi
in 1748 A.D. Ahmad Shah was followed by Alamgir II (1754-1759 A.D). After Alamgir,
Shah Alam II (1759-1806 A.D) became the Mughal king. He was a powerless emperor of
Delhi whose life was full of woe and misery. A number of literary men of letters in the
reign of Shah Alam are mentioned as follows:
Ali Gohar Aftab: He was a good critic of poetry and possessed creative talents himself and
left a Diwan of verses. Miraz Fakhir Makin was his guide of writing poem.
Bhikan Lal Aziz: He had a close relation with the Bhagwan Das Hindi, the author of
Safinah.79) In the reign of Shah Alam II he was a well-known poet. His remarkable work
was Shah’Alam-Namah.
Shivji Ram: He was one of the leading authors during the reign of Shah Alam II. He wrote
a book on geometry entitled Intikha-ur-Ramal.80)
Akbar II (1806-1837 A.D.) was followed by Bahadur Shah II (1837-1857 A.D.), who was
considered the last Mughal king. Hereafter, the Mughal kingdom fell down very seriously
and other powers penetrated into India. Rise and fall are essential for human beings. Every
king or a dynasty ruled for a particular period and met its decay.81) But their greatness

80) Ibid : P-590
81) Siddiqi, Dr. S. H. Persian Poets of India (1707-48 A.D.), P-1
remains forever. The down fall of Mughal Empire could not stop the spread of Persian
language and its uses. India has also so many great Persian poets and writers after the
decline of the Mughal Empire. At present time, Persian literature has a great literary value
in India.
Concluding remarks:
The Persian language played an important role among the Indian people as a medium to
reach a higher position in the royal court. To get attention of the kings, a number of people
learnt Persian and started to write in Persian. The Persian language and literature was
largely developed in India through extra-ordinary contributions of the above mentioned
writers. They persisted to improve the Persian language and literature and they tried to
spread among the Indians. It is mentioned that writers gained of their pains from the patrons
i.e. kings. All the Muslim kings were great patrons and lovers of the Persian language and
they used to speak Persian in their courts. They invited writers and appointed them as court
poets, who were honored with respect by the kings. Regarding the growth and development
of the Persian language and literature, it is essential to mention that the kings of Mughal
Empire had great importance and they had a vital role. In the reign of Akbar, the Persian
language reached its zenith. Persian poetry and prose writing under his reign was evidence
and encouraged the Muslim and non-Muslims to learn Persian. The translations like
Mahabharata, Ramayana, Bhagwad Gita from Sanskrit into Persian by Muslim writers are
the outstanding example of becoming development of Persian language and literature in
India. Thus, Persian is recognized as an important language for Indian people. Likewise, a
million numbers of Persian words entered into several provincial languages of India like
Assamese, Hindi, Bengali, Punjabi, Urdu, Tamil, Telegu. etc. The Indian people used the
Persian words in their day to day life in speaking their mother languages since Muslim rule
in India. I heard about that Prof. Dr. Mazhar Asif says “one cannot speak standard Hindi
or Assamese without using Persian words”
Reference
1. Browne, E.G. A literary history of Persia, Vol. 1. Pub. 1902 Hadi, Nabi.
2. Dutta, Dr. Ajit Kumar & Bhuyan, Prof, Pranjal , 1stedition.2001
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Thesis Submission Date 20.Mar 2020 Date Confirmed to Publish 30.June, 2020

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The Journal of Eurasian Turkic Studies ISSN 2636-0810

Development of Persian Language and Literature

The Growth and development of Persian language and literature:

8) Hadi, Nabi. History of Indo-Persian Literature, Pub. 2001, P. 252.

19) Hadi, Nabi. History of Indo-Persian Literature, Pub. 2001, p.p.241-242

26) Ibid : P-79

36) Ibid : P-275

42) Hadi, Nabi. History of Indo-Persian Literature, Pub. 2001, P-298

48) Hadi, Nabi. History of Indo-Persian Literature, Pub. 2001, P-278

54) Talukdar, Sri Nirmal, History of India, Pub. 1975, P-156

57) Hadi, Nabi. History of Indo-Persian Literature, Pub. 2001, P-326

contributions to Persian literature are 1. Taqwim-i-Lutfi, 2. Khwas-i-A’dad, 3. Muntakhab,

60) Hadi, Nabi. History of Indo-Persian Literature, Pub. 2001, P-341

64) Hadi, Nabi. History of Indo-Persian Literature, Pub. 2001, P-400

66) Hadi, Nabi, History of Indo-Persian Literature, Pub. 2001, P-567

Muhammad Nurullah Ahrari: Aurangzeb appointed Nurullah Azhari as religious endowments.

70) Ibid : P-420

Shaikh Burhanuddin Raz-i-Ilahi: He was a learned man and Sufi of Chishti-Chattari

72) Hadi, Nabi. History of Indo-Persian Literature, Pub. 2001, P-449

74) Hadi, Nabi. History of Indo-Persian Literature, Pub. 2001, P-587

Wali Muhammad Akbarabadi: Reputed as a Sufi poet, he wrote a versified commentary on

79) Hadi, Nabi. History of Indo-Persian Literature, Pub. 2001, P-572

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