THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA

PRESIDENT’S OFFICE

REGIONAL ADMINISTRATIONS AND LOCAL

GOVERNMENT

ADVANCED CERTIFICATE OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

NYANGAO HIGH SCHOOL

GEOGRAPHY 1 FORM FIVE LESSON NOTES

FIELD RESEARCH STRATEGIES

ISSA OMARI ISSA

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 2020

INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH
THE MEANING OF RESEARCH
Research is a systematic and scientific investigation towards new facts for the sake of explaining any
phenomena.
It refers to the scientific and systematic search for a particular information or data on specific problem or
facts or ideas on both social and natural science.
It is the science of collecting, observing, selecting, evaluating and presenting or reporting particular
information.
Field research is a systematic and scientific investigation towards new facts for the sake of explaining
any phenomena done physically by a researcher at a field area for example workplace, library or
laboratory.
Field means a place where a study is conducted physically. A researcher is a person who conducts a
research.

COMPONENTS OF FIELD WORK

Field execution; it is branch of field work where students or researchers collect firsthand data as to a
geological, archaeological other site. They visit a site and report all aspects they observed on the way and
at the site.
Field study; this is a branch of fieldwork where a geographer is physically involved in observation,
recording, interpreting and writing the report on all observed facts in a particular field.
Field research; this is a branch of field work which deal with problem solving where a problem of
geographical nature is investigated and the findings either promote further research or are rejected and the
problem being solved by other approach.

THE TYPES OF RESEARCH

Types of Research According to Purpose or Aim of Research
There are three main types of research as described below:-
1. Basic/pure/fundamental research; is a scientific research which seeks to discover basic truths or
principles. This type of research is driven purely by curiosity and a desire to expand our knowledge. It
tends not to be directly applicable to the real world in a direct way, but enhances our understanding of the
world around us.
2. Applied/action research; involves seeking new applications of scientific knowledge to the solution of
a problem such as the development of new system or procedure, new device, or new method, in order to
solve an immediate problem. Therefore, applied research is used to answer a specific question that has
direct applications to the world. This is the type of research that solves a problem as it produces
knowledge of practical use to man.

Types of research according to the nature of data/approach

Quantitative research
It is the type of information which aim at collection of information or data which explain distribution of
phenomena in quantity form. It mainly deals with data in numerical form.
Qualitative research

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It is based on the data which are in descriptive manner. It mainly deals with quality than quantity. This
type of research includes surveys and facts findings through inquiries of different kinds. The major
purpose of descriptive research is to describe the state of affairs as it exists.
Analytical research
It is the type of research which uses facts or information already available and analyzes them to make a
critical evaluation of material.
This kind of research consists of system of mathematical models or statistical techniques applicable to
numerical data. The study in this research aims at testing hypothesis, specifying and interpreting
relationships.
Conceptual research
It is the type of research that related with abstract ideas or theory. It is most applicable on invisible world.
It concerns with phenomena that cannot be seen, touched, or heard for example morel behaviour or
traditional believes.
Empirical research
It is the type of research that depends on the experience or it is the data based and capable at being
verified by observation, measurement and experimentation. It is based on the world appearance.

THE IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH

(i). To look for accurate solution to existing problems.
(ii). To find answers to existing question for example what is the reason for failure at form IV students
in Geography subject in CSEE 2019?
(iii). It helps to generate new ideas to verify the existing ones.
(iv). Research helps the consumers of it (for example policy makers) to evaluate themselves and take
rational decision.
(v). It enables society to make intelligent decision concerning problems facing them in particular life at
different times.
(vi). The methodology of research conduction is helpful in various fields such as government and
community social works and business administrative at large
(vii). It is useful to one who is preparing for a carrier or further studies.

Disadvantages of Field Research

1. A researcher is to have studied a wide a range of literature and technique before conducting a
research. This means it needs skilled people.
2. In concentrating on a single problem a researcher may lose sight on broad issues.
3. Research is expensive; a lot of money is needed to make a research work for example, money for
food, shelter, accommodation, stationery.
4. Large amount of data may appear unnecessary and even confusion if the researcher is not
scientifically inclined.
5. Time consuming.

The purpose/objectives of research

The main purpose of research is to discover answers to different questions through application of
scientific procedure, though each research study has its own specific purpose. The general objectives are;-
1. To develop theories, principles to explain various issues or matters.
2. To gain new knowledge to be added to the existing one.
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 3. To solve different social, political and economic problems.
4. To fill gaps developed by other researchers.
5. To discover answers to different disturbing questions.
6. To evaluate success or failure of different projects as the case of environmental project.
7. To determine the frequency with which something occurs.
8. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, groups or situation. This is
basically a descriptive research.
9. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it.
10. To test or approve hypothesis of causal relationship between phenomena (variables).

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
(i). Goal-oriented; the purpose of research should be oriented for the solving of particular problem for
example doctor with patient.
(ii). Systematic; it is the scientific in nature based of regular plan, procedure, rules, fixed method of
conducting it. It has structure with specific steps to be taken in sequence for instance collection,
analysis, and interpretation
(iii). Logical; research is based on premises (incidences) and conclusion. It is guided by the rules of
logical reason and logical process, which are of great values in carrying out research. In fact logical
reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of decision making.
(iv). Empirical; It means the conduction or bear evidences of factual that can be verified. Without
evidence conclusion cannot be made and if made it will be just an opinion
(v). Inquisitive: it means it is investigative in nature based on how and why.
(vi). Selective; a researcher normally focuses on only one problem (phenomena) rather than general or
several research problem (specification).
(vii). Objectivity; A researcher must be impartial standing point and been free from a personal interest,
influence in conducting research (avoiding personal interest)
(viii). Replicable; To allow the research finding to be verified by replicating the study so as to make
strong base for decision- making.

CRITERIA OR QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCH

Research is a scientific process carried out systematically to acquire knowledge of the universe or
population through stated objectives, whatever may be the type of research work and studies, one thing is
that they all meet common grounds of scientific method employed by them.
Research should not be based on arbitrary methods (lack of scientific attitude in that, illogical, subjective,
and uninformed).
Scientific research satisfies the following criteria or qualities:-
(i). Research must be cumulative; Research is built over what has already been done before on the
problem under investigation where new knowledge is discovered and added to the existing one
(ii). Research must be cyclic; this is to say research go through various stages include identification of
problem, statement of the problem, formulation of hypothesis, collecting data, organization and
tabulation of data, data analysis and interpretation, testing the hypothesis, reporting writing and
recommendation and conclusion.
(iii). Research must be theoretical; the theory provides a conceptual model for research and in turn
research contributes to theory development for example. I.Q affects performance. In this case
conclusion should be confined to those issues for which the data provide an adequate basis.
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 (iv). It must define important terms/concepts; the purpose of research should be clearly defined and
common concepts used in research should be clearly defined
(v). Research should be procedural (objectivity); Research should be carefully planned to yield results
that are as objective as possible
(vi). Good research must be systematic; this means research is structured with specific steps to be taken in
specific steps to be taken in specific sequence in accordance with the well-defined set of rule
systematic characteristic help to reject the use of guessing and intuition.
(vii). A good research should be logical; this implies that research is guided by the rules of logical
reasoning and logical process, which are of great value in carrying out research.
(viii). Goal research must be replicable; this characteristics allows a research results to be verified by
replicating the study and there by building a sound for decision. This is to say methods and
procedures used are to be described carefully and clearly so that someone else can be able to
reproduce it and use its design in a study.
(ix). Goal research should be empirical; this implies research is related basically to one or more aspects of
the real situation and deals with concrete data which base on observable evidence and research
conclusion is researched from the collected data.

PROBLEMS FACING FIELD RESEARCHERS

1. Transportation problem: for example roads, (infrastructure to arrive at the study area)
2. Financial constraints (costs): High cost is involved in transport. The researchers have to work
long distance from one respondent to the next; stationery costs, and accommodation costs
3. Language barrier: Language can be as constraint during the field work when some respondent
may sometimes not understand the research language hence translation of the instrument into
local language.
4. Unfavorable weather conditions (climate factor) for example rainfall or in area like central
Tanzania temperature sometimes reach 340C. it become difficult to collect data in such condition
5. Remoteness/inaccessibility of the research sites
6. Lack of access of strictly confidential information

RESEARCH PROCESS
The research process is a series at activities that are to be followed over time when caring out a research.
It consist at steps necessary to effective carry out research and the desired sequencing at these steps
What is to note is that there is no precise number of stage agreed by different school at thought.
Formulating the research problem: There are two types of research problems, that is, those which
relate to states of nature and those which relate to relationships between variables. Initially the problem
may be stated in a broad general way and then the ambiguities, if any, relating to the problem be resolved.
The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem, thus, constitutes the first step in a
scientific study. Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research problem, namely
understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical
point of view.
Extensive literature review: Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written
down. At this juncture the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with the
problem. In this process, it should be remembered that one source will lead to another.

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Development of working hypotheses: Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw
out and test its logical or empirical consequences. As such the manner in which research hypotheses are
developed is particularly important since they provide the focal point for research.
They also affect the manner in which tests must be conducted in the analysis of data and indirectly the
quality of data which is required for the analysis. The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by
delimiting the area of research and to keep him on the right track. It sharpens his thinking and focuses
attention on the more important facets of the problem. It also indicates the type of data required and the
type of methods of data analysis to be used.
Preparing the research design: The preparation of research design facilitates research to be as efficient
as possible yielding maximal information. The function of research design is to provide for the collection
of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.
Determining sample design: All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute
‘universe’ or ‘population’. A sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually
collected for obtaining a sample from a given population. Samples can be either probability samples or
non-probability samples.
Collecting the data: There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably
in context of money costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher.
Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the researcher conducts an
experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help of which he examines
the truth contained in his hypothesis.
Execution of the project: Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process. If the
execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and
dependable.
Analysis of data: The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as
establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and
then drawing statistical inferences. Thus, researcher should classify the raw data into some purposeful and
usable categories. Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the categories of data are
transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted.
Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding. With coding the stage is ready
for tabulation. Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in the
form of tables.
Hypothesis-testing: After analyzing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the
hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier. This is the usual question which should be answered while
testing hypotheses. Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by
statisticians for the purpose. Hypothesis testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in
rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with, generalizations established on the basis of
data may be stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent researches in times to come.
Generalizations and interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and repeated several times, it may be
possible for the researcher to arrive at generalization that is to build a theory. If the researcher had no
hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as
interpretation. The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may
lead to further researches.
Preparation of the report or the thesis: Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has
been done by him.
IDENTIFICATION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM
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There are two types of research problems, namely those which relate to states of nature and those which
relate to relationships between variables. At this every outset the researcher must single out the problem
he wants to study, that is he must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter that he
would like to inquire into. Initially the problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the
ambiguities, if any, relating to the problem be resolved. Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has to
be considered before a working formulation of the problem can be set up. The formulation of a general
topic into a specific research problem, thus, constitutes the first step in a scientific enquiry. Essentially
two steps are involved in formulating the research problem, namely understanding the problem
thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.

THE MEANING OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

Research is any difficult in which a researcher experiences in the context of either a theoretical or
practical situation and wants to find/obtain a solution for the same. It is any question that a researcher
finds a solution through data collection. It is a question that is to be solved through data collection by a
researcher.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM

1. It should contain the two or more variables
2. It should be clear and unambiguous
3. It should be empirical
4. It should be researcheable/verifiable
5. It should be new
6. It should be objective
7. It should pertain/relevant to the particular society
8. It should be goal-oriented
9. It should be specific

THE CRITERIA OF SELECTING A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM

1. Considering the interest on the problem
2. Consideration of the significance of the topic
3. Availability of the resources (time and finance/money), sample.
4. Availability of data
5. Institution guidelines
6. Availability of relevant supervisors
7. Considering the issue of literature review
8. Career goals consideration
9. Ethics
10. Considering a good research method

THE SOURCES OF A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM

1. The classroom, school, home and community
2. Current social and economic issues
3. Research documents such as bulletins, encyclopedias, abstracts, reports, journals, dissertations
and thesis.
4. Textbooks, assignments, special assignments
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 5. Personal interests and experiences
6. Theory deduction
7. Past researches and literature reviews
8. Casual observation

THE STEPS IN SELECTING A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM

1. Determining the field of research
2. Developing or determining the mastery of the area of research
3. Reviewing the researches conducted in that area
4. Considering the priority field of study
5. Employing the personal experiences or experts of the field of study
6. Pinpointing the specifications of the problem which need to be investigated.

VARIABLES
This is a factor or characteristics of interest that a researcher would like to handle, observe or manipulate
in the research process. A quantity which can vary or change from one individual o another.

Types of variables
1. Dependent variable- they depend on the other variables and they can be affected by the other
variables
2. Independent variable- they do not depend upon other variables
3. Controlled variables
4. Confounding variables- these influence the dependent variables but their effects can be confused
with independent variables. Intervening variables the variables that relate to the independent
variables. Extraneous variables are the variables which are not related to the independent
variables but they can affect the dependent variables.

FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS/RESEARCH QUESTIONS

THE MEANING OF HYPOTHESIS
Hypothesis is the researcher own speculation about the problem in question. It is a tentative answer to the
problem in question or intelligent guess for the answer of the problem to be researched. Therefore it is a
theory or statement of fact which has not get been proved. The hypothesis must cover the cause of the
problem, effect of the problem, possible solution and recommendation. Hypothesis involves testing of
variables and experimentation process.

TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
There are two types of hypothesis
1. Null hypothesis
It is the one stated negatively showing no relationship between two variables for example there is no
relationship between soil erosion and farming along Uluguru Mountain.
2. Alternative/substantive hypothesis
It is the one stated positively showing that there is relationship between two variables for example there is
relationship between soil erosion and farming along Uluguru Mountain.
Researcher may use either of the two whenever formatting hypothesis for a study
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CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS
(i). It has an element of comparison, where by two or three terms are compared
(ii). It leaves room for “yes’ or “no”.
(iii). It must be related to the objective of study
(iv). The quantities words used are easily measurable for example more, most, majority.
(v). Hypothesis is not obvious

FUNCTIONS OF HYPOTHESIS
(i). It enables to relate theories into observation and observation into theories
(ii). It presents a suggested solution to the problem
(iii). It presents a simple form of a statement of researcher expectations
(iv). It gives researcher direction to the collection and interpretation of data
(v). It provides a framework for reporting conclusion of one’s study
(vi). It refines the research problems

CRITERIA FOR A GOOD HYPOTHESIS

(i). It should be relevant (relevance) should reflect the topic or problem of study
(ii). It should be testable (testability) there must be some way of acquiring evidence that would
confirm or disconfirm the hypothesis.
(iii). It should be compatible (compatibility) should fit well with what we already believe about natural
order of things that is consist ant to statement of fact, theories or laws.
(iv). It should be simple, clear, and precise (simplicity).
(v). It should easily predict the consequences/ out come and be applicable to many other types of
circumstance (predictive power)
(vi). It should be specific and limited in scope.

IMPORTANCE OF HYPOTHESIS
(i). It defines which facts are relevant and which one are not
(ii). It indicates the type of data required
(iii). The role at hypothesis is to help researcher by limiting area of research
(iv). It determines the most appropriate technique of data analysis
(v). It contributes to theory development

THE PROBLEM OF POORLY FORMULATED RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

1. It can efficiency and effectiveness in answering the questions
2. It will limit the collection of data and obtaining the enough pertinent data
3. It will limit the application of certain the statistical measures in the analysis of results.
4. It may prevent the drawing of conclusions and generalizations

LITERATURE REVIEW
THE MEANING OF LITERATURE REVIEW

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It is a stage involving intensive ready of many relevant literature on the particular problem so as to gain or
expand knowledge on the problem to be tackled. Such literature sources include books, journals,
newspapers, magazine, articles, letters, research reports (dissertation for academic purpose or thesis) and
other relevant materials.
Therefore Literature review defined as the process of identifying, locating, evaluating, summarizing and
incorporating in the study document having materials which are related to the problem under
investigation. It involves reading, analyzing, evaluating, and summarizing the scholarly materials about a
specific topic. The quotations from different authors and it must be associated with footnotes, which later
come to constitute references.

THE OBJECTIVES OF LITERATURE REVIEW

1. To collect more information/data
2. To identify theories that will be tested using the data (to put the study into perception).
3. To avoid unnecessary repetition of works which have already been done by other researchers.
4. To avoid plagiarism (an act of using someone’s ideas) works and pretending that they are yours)
5. To select appropriate research design
6. To enable the researcher to formulate hypothesis

THE IMPORTANCE OF LITERATURE REVIEW

1. It is important for identification of theories and ideas that will be tested using the data.
2. It helps the researcher to determine recommendations made for further investigation by previous
researchers
3. It helps the researchers to avoid unnecessary repetitions of works which have already done by
other researchers
4. It helps to discover controversy that exists in published documents.
5. It is important in avoiding plagiarism. Plagiarism is an act of using someone’s ideas, works
without acknowledgement.
6. It helps researchers to select the appropriate research design and methodology strategies.
7. Literature review helps the researcher to select adequate sample and sampling techniques.

TYPES OF LITERATURE SOURCES

The sources of literature review are divided into two types, namely primary literature sources and
secondary literature sources
Primary sources of literature, these are the original materials. They are materials that have not been
filtered through interpretation or evaluation. They are original materials on which other researchers are
based. They are usually the first formal appearance of results in physical, print or electronic format. They
present original thinking, report a discovery and share new information
Examples of these sources include published and unpublished sources;
(i). Textbooks, reports, thesis or dissertation written for academic purposes
(ii). Journals, articles, letters, newspapers and newsletters, committee minutes, encyclopedias
(iii). Company reports such as income statement, performance reports
(iv). Audio and video tapes
(v). Internet sources
(vi). Electronic sources such as CDs, DVDs

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 Secondary literature sources; they are material containing information which has been published
before. Secondary sources are not evidence but rather commentary on and discussion of evidence. They
are interpretation and evaluations of primary sources. These materials are less specialized and they give
general background and theory.
Examples of these secondary literature sources includes; textbooks, bibliographies, commentaries,
dictionaries, journal articles, magazine and newspapers

THE CONTENTS OF LITERATURE REVIEW

Literature review consists mainly of three parts as follow
Introduction; it explains the focus, and establishes the importance of the subject. It discusses what kind of
work has been done on the topic and identifies any controversies within the field or any recent research
which has been raised questions about earlier assumptions.
Body; it is divided into headings and sub headings and notes the major themes or topics.
Conclusion; it sums up the findings of your research into the literature and shows its significance.

GUIDELINES IN MAKING LITERATURE REVIEW

(i). Prepare a plan in advance
(ii). Start with recent document /findings
(iii). Start extracting the most general but relevant studies
(iv). Read the sources of literature in depth in order to determine the relevant feature at your study
(v). Indicate how the reviewed research literature relates to your study.
(vi). Compare and contrast the works of the key writers
(vii). Acknowledge authors of the material or documents used
(viii). Italic or quotations marks should be use when exact words of the authors are cited.
(ix). Avoid reproducing the same material; just describe, summarize, paraphrase and evaluate the
literature.

PREPARATION OF RESEARCH DESIGN

THE MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGN
It refers to the overall strategy that you choose to integrate the different components of the study in a
coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring you will effectively address the research problem; it
constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data.
It is conceptual structure within which research is conducted or a logical and systematic plan prepared for
directing a research study.
It is the plan structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain answer to research question.
Research design specifies the objectives of the study, methodology and techniques to be applied for
achieving the specified research objectives.
In a nutshell the design of research provided a systematic plan of the procedures for the researcher to
follow.
It is blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

Research designs are used for the following objectives;
(i). To minimize the expenditure:
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 (ii). To facilitate the smooth scaling:
(iii). To collect the relevant data and technique:
(iv). To provide blue print for plans:
(v). To provide an overview to other experts:
(vi). To provide a direction:

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN

(i) Objectivity: The research design should permit the measuring instruments which are fairly
objective in which every observer or judge scoring the performance must precisely give the same
report.
(ii) Reliability: It refers to consistency throughout a series of measurements. For So the researcher
should frame the items in a questionnaire in such a way that it provides consistency or reliability.
(iii) Validity: Any measuring device or instrument is said to be valid when it measures what it is
expected to measure.
(iv) Generalizability: It means how best the data collected from the samples can be utilized for
drawing certain generalizations applicable to a large group from which sample is drawn. Thus a
research design helps an investigator to generalize his findings provided he has taken due care in
defining the population, selecting the sample, deriving appropriate statistical analysis etc. while
preparing the research design.
(v) Adequate information: the most important requirement of good research design is that it
should provide adequate information so that the research problem can be analyzed on a wide
perspective.
(vi) Other Features: Some other important features of a good research design are flexibility,
adaptability, efficiency, being economic and so on. A good research design should minimize bias and
maximize reliability and generalization.

THE TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

1. Case study design
It is an in-depth comprehensive study at social or natural phenomena in any branch of knowledge.
Case study aims at studying everything about something rather than something about everything.
Its purpose is to understand the interaction between factors that explain the present status or the
development of the study unit over a period of time
It involves the study of a single study unit like a family, a community, a group, a class and a specific
geographical area.
The case study design can be classified as an intensive investigation of a single unit or group.

Features of case study design

1. It focuses only a single social unit for example a school,
2. Methods of data collection are flexible as both primary and secondary data collection methods are
used.
3. The data obtained are used for the particular organization only and they cannot be used to
generalize other social units.

Advantages of a case study design

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 (i). It is flexible with respect to data collection method
(ii). It provides an opportunity for the intensive analysis of many specific details that are overlooked
in other methods or designs
(iii). Case study can extend virtually to any dimension of the topic to be studied
(iv). Case study may be conducted practically to any kind of social and natural settings.
(v). It gives to the researcher a wide range of insights into human life.
(vi). It is useful for testing the hypothesis about the structural and procedural characterizes of a
specific social on geographical unit.

Disadvantages of case study design

(i). It is not suitable in generation at facts and findings (limited generalization ability) this is because
studies are studies of stray cases which are not sufficient enough for making meaningful
generalization of larger studies.
(ii). Time consuming
(iii). It is inadequate for an analysis of macro problems.
(iv). There is a danger of researcher’s over- confident

2. Survey research design

It is a broad based investigation of phenomena through administration of data collection instrument to a
target population or a sample of respondents selected from the target population.
It is extensive investigation of a particular research problem covering a large number of study units.
It is useful for testing hypotheses about large social or geographical aggregates and allows generalization
of a study finding if based on a representative sample, the survey of research design if appropriate for
making descriptive studying of large population.
Only two methods of data collection can be used. The methods are interview and questionnaire.

Advantages of survey design

1. It has rate of representativeness of a large population.
2. It has a low costs
3. It is convenient for data collection
4. It has a good statistical significance
5. It has limited biases and errors
6. It provides a precise results

Disadvantages of survey design

1. Inflexibility; it is difficult to change the methods used in data collection
2. It is not ideal for controversial issues
3. It provides the possible inappropriateness of questions.

3. Experimental research design

It is a type of research design involving random classification at the respondents or items understudying
into experimental group and control group and then conducting an experiment through exposing the
experimental group to unusual conditions.
These bases on experimental groups of people or items. Two similar groups are used where one becomes
experimental and another control group to see if the deference is worthwhile.
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After the experimental group being given special treatment the researcher is to observe any change that
might be taking place to the experimental group or making comparison between the control and
experimental so long as the two groups were assumed to be initially equivalent
It consist of;-
Experimental group It is the one exposed to some novel or special condition
Control group It is the one exposed to normal existing condition
Treatment It is an object or specific condition subjected to the experimental group to as to see whether
can induce or influence some changes to this experimental group.

Advantages of experimental design

1. It is useful in controlling the independent variables and removes the unwanted variables.
2. It provides the easy determination of cause-and-effect relationship.
3. It provides the better results
4. It is flexible, that the experiments can be repeated and results be checked.
5. Gaining insights to instruction methods
6. Determining the best for the population

Disadvantages of experimental design

1. Failure to do experiments due to ethical or practical problems.
2. It creates the artificial situations and hence controls the irrelevant variables.
3. It is subjected to human errors
4. There is a lack of generalization into real life situations
5. It is time consuming and expensive

4. Descriptive research design

It is a research design used to describe the state of affairs as if exists involving the fact finding and about
people’s attitude, opinion, habits or any variety at natural or social issue under study (state of affair –
situational condition).
Descriptive research designs help provide answers to the questions of who, what, when, where, and how
associated with a particular research problem; a descriptive study cannot conclusively ascertain answers
to why. Descriptive research is used to obtain information concerning the current status of the phenomena
and to describe "what exists" with respect to variables or conditions in a situation.

Advantages of descriptive research design

(i). The subject is being observed in a completely natural and unchanged natural environment. True
experiments, whilst giving analyzable data, often adversely influence the normal behavior of the
subject.
(ii). Descriptive research is often used as a pre-cursor to more quantitatively research designs, the
general overview giving some valuable pointers as to what variables are worth testing
quantitatively.
(iii). If the limitations are understood, they can be a useful tool in developing a more focused study.
(iv). Descriptive studies can yield rich data that lead to important recommendations.
(v). Approach collects a large amount of data for detailed analysis.

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Disadvantages of descriptive research design
(i). The results from a descriptive research cannot be used to discover a definitive answer or to
disprove a hypothesis.
(ii). Because descriptive designs often utilize observational methods [as opposed to quantitative
methods], the results cannot be replicated.
(iii). The descriptive function of research is heavily dependent on instrumentation for measurement and
observation.

5. Historical research design

It is a research design concerned with the study of past records and other information sources with a view
of reconstructing the origin and development of an institution, phenomena or movement or system and
discovering the trend in the past. It is descriptive in nature describing fact on the past situation.
This design depends upon inference and logical analysis of recorded data and indirect evidence rather
than upon direct observation.
The purpose of a historical research design is to collect, verify, and synthesize evidence from the past to
establish facts that defend or refute your hypothesis. It uses secondary sources and a variety of primary
documentary evidence, such as, logs, diaries, official records, reports, archives, and non-textual
information [maps, pictures, audio and visual recordings]. The limitation is that the sources must be both
authentic and valid.

Advantages of historical research design

(i). The historical research design is unobtrusive; the act of research does not affect the results of the
study.
(ii). The historical approach is well suited for trend analysis.
(iii). Historical records can add important contextual background required to more fully understand
and interpret a research problem.
(iv). There is no possibility of researcher-subject interaction that could affect the findings.
(v). Historical sources can be used over and over to study different research problems or to replicate a
previous study.

Disadvantages of historical research design

(i). The ability to fulfill the aims of your research is directly related to the amount and quality of
documentation available to understand the research problem.
(ii). Since historical research relies on data from the past, there is no way to manipulate it to control
for contemporary contexts.
(iii). Interpreting historical sources can be very time consuming.
(iv). The sources of historical materials must be archived consistently to ensure access.
(v). Original authors bring their own perspectives and biases to the interpretation of past events and
these biases are more difficult to ascertain in historical resources.
(vi). Due to the lack of control over external variables, historical research is very weak with regard to
the demands of internal validity.
(vii). It rare that the entirety of historical documentation needed to fully address a research problem is
available for interpretation; therefore, gaps need to be acknowledged.

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6. Correlation research design (causal comparative)
This is the research design which enables the researcher to assess the degree of relationship that exists
between two or more variable.
It analyses the correlation between two or more variable under study for example, compare the geography
find exams results of a group of students who frequently attended geography periods and those who rarely
attended geography period.

7. Cross- cultural research design

This is a research design used to compare the behavior patterns of different culture. Using this design a
researcher can perceive how various cultures experience given economical, political, educational and
social outcomes.
Cross-sectional research designs have three distinctive features: no time dimension, a reliance on existing
differences rather than change following intervention; and, groups are selected based on existing
differences rather than random allocation. The cross-sectional design can only measure differences
between or from among a variety of people, subjects, or phenomena rather than change. As such,
researchers using this design can only employ a relative passive approach to making causal inferences
based on findings.

Advantages of cross-cultural design

(i). Cross-sectional studies provide a 'snapshot' of the outcome and the characteristics associated with
it, at a specific point in time.
(ii). Cross-sectional designs focus on studying and drawing inferences from existing differences
between people, subjects, or phenomena.
(iii). It entails collecting data at and concerning one point in time. While longitudinal studies involve
taking multiple measures over an extended period of time, cross-sectional research is focused on
finding relationships between variables at one moment in time.
(iv). Groups identified for study are purposely selected based upon existing differences in the sample
rather than seeking random sampling.
(v). Cross-section studies are capable of using data from a large number of subjects and, unlike
observational studies, are not geographically bound.
(vi). Can estimate prevalence of an outcome of interest because the sample is usually taken from the
whole population.
(vii). Because cross-sectional designs generally use survey techniques to gather data, they are relatively
inexpensive and take up little time to conduct.

Disadvantages of cross-cultural designs

(i). Finding people, subjects, or phenomena to study that are very similar except in one specific
variable can be difficult.
(ii). Results are static and time-bound and, therefore, give no indication of a sequence of events or
reveal historical contexts.
(iii). Studies cannot be utilized to establish cause and effect relationships.
(iv). Provide only a snapshot of analysis so there is always the possibility that a study could have
differing results if another time-frame had been chosen.
(v). There is no follow up to the findings.

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 8. Action research design
The essentials of action research design follow a characteristic cycle whereby initially an exploratory
stance is adopted, where an understanding of a problem is developed and plans are made for some form of
interventionary strategy. Then the intervention is carried out (the action in Action Research) during which
time, pertinent observations are collected in various forms. The new interventional strategies are carried
out, and the cyclic process repeats, continuing until a sufficient understanding of (or implement able
solution for) the problem is achieved. The protocol is iterative or cyclical in nature and is intended to
foster deeper understanding of a given situation, starting with conceptualizing and particularizing the
problem and moving through several interventions and evaluations.

Advantages of action research designs

(i). A collaborative and adaptive research design that lends itself to use in work or community
situations.
(ii). Design focuses on pragmatic and solution-driven research rather than testing theories.
(iii). When practitioners use action research it has the potential to increase the amount they learn
consciously from their experience. The action research cycle can also be regarded as a learning
cycle.
(iv). Action search studies often have direct and obvious relevance to practice.
(v). There are no hidden controls or preemption of direction by the researcher.
Disadvantages of action research designs
(i). It is harder to do than conducting conventional studies because the researcher takes on
responsibilities for encouraging change as well as for research.
(ii). Action research is much harder to write up because you probably can’t use a standard format to
report your findings effectively.
(iii). Personal over-involvement of the researcher may bias research results.
(iv). The cyclic nature of action research to achieve its twin outcomes of action (e.g. change) and
research (e.g. understanding) is time-consuming and complex to conduct.

9. Exploratory research Design

An exploratory design is conducted about a research problem when there are few or no earlier studies to
refer to. The focus is on gaining insights and familiarity for later investigation or undertaken when
problems are in a preliminary stage of investigation.
The goals of exploratory research are intended to produce the following possible insights:
(i). Familiarity with basic details, settings and concerns.
(ii). Well grounded picture of the situation being developed.
(iii). Generation of new ideas and assumption, development of tentative theories or hypotheses.
(iv). Determination about whether a study is feasible in the future.
(v). Issues get refined for more systematic investigation and formulation of new research questions.
(vi). Direction for future research and techniques get developed.

Advantages of exploratory designs

(i). Design is a useful approach for gaining background information on a particular topic.
(ii). Exploratory research is flexible and can address research questions of all types (what, why, how).
(iii). Provides an opportunity to define new terms and clarify existing concepts.
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(iv). Exploratory research is often used to generate formal hypotheses and develop more precise
research problems.
(v). Exploratory studies help establish research priorities.

Disadvantages of exploratory designs

(i). Exploratory research generally utilizes small sample sizes and, thus, findings are typically not
generalizable to the population at large.
(ii). The exploratory nature of the research inhibits an ability to make definitive conclusions about the
findings.
(iii). The research process underpinning exploratory studies is flexible but often unstructured, leading
to only tentative results that have limited value in decision-making.
(iv). Design lacks rigorous standards applied to methods of data gathering and analysis because one of
the areas for exploration could be to determine what method or methodologies could best fit the
research problem.

10. Longitudinal Design

A longitudinal study follows the same sample over time and makes repeated observations. With
longitudinal surveys, for example, the same group of people is interviewed at regular intervals, enabling
researchers to track changes over time and to relate them to variables that might explain why the changes
occur. Longitudinal research designs describe patterns of change and help establish the direction and
magnitude of causal relationships. Measurements are taken on each variable over two or more distinct
time periods. This allows the researcher to measure change in variables over time. It is a type of
observational study and is sometimes referred to as a panel study.

Advantages of longitudinal research design

(i). Longitudinal data allow the analysis of duration of a particular phenomenon.
(ii). Enables survey researchers to get close to the kinds of causal explanations usually attainable only
with experiments.
(iii). The design permits the measurement of differences or change in a variable from one period to
another [i.e., the description of patterns of change over time].
(iv). Longitudinal studies facilitate the prediction of future outcomes based upon earlier factors.

Disadvantages of longitudinal research design

(i). The data collection method may change over time.
(ii). Maintaining the integrity of the original sample can be difficult over an extended period of time.
(iii). It can be difficult to show more than one variable at a time.
(iv). This design often needs qualitative research to explain fluctuations in the data.
(v). A longitudinal research design assumes present trends will continue unchanged.
(vi). It can take a long period of time to gather results.
(vii). There is a need to have a large sample size and accurate sampling to reach representativeness.

CONSIDERATIONS IN FORMULATING THE RESEARCH DESIGN

(i). Identify the research problem clearly and justify its selection,
(ii). Review previously published literature associated with the problem area,

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(iii). Clearly and explicitly specify hypotheses [i.e., research questions] central to the problem
selected,
(iv). Effectively describe the data which will be necessary for an adequate test of the hypotheses and
explain how such data will be obtained,
(v). Describe the methods of analysis which will be applied to the data in determining whether or not
the hypotheses are true or false.

DETERMINING THE SAMPLE DESIGN

CONCEPTS USED IN SAMPLING
Sample; this is a part of population; it is a set of selected elements from a population for study. It must be
selected elements from a population for study. It must be selected according to principles of sampling and
this will make it move representative of total population
Sampling; It is the process of selecting small number of people or objects or units (sample) to represent
the entire population for data collection, for example to checking the soil type it may be taken small
amount of soil the amount taken is said to be sample
Population or universe; It is the group of individuals, items, and objects from which samples taken for a
particular study. It is the targeted group. ‘Universe’ refers to the total of the items or units in any field
of inquiry, whereas the term ‘population’ refers to the total of items about which information is
desired.
Elements; These include individual persons, objects or units about which information is collected.
Sample size; This refers to the total number of item or individual to be selected from the population to
constitute a sample. The larger the sample sizes the lower the likely error in generalization to the
population. Also the larger the sample sizes, the more the money and time needed to carry out the
researcher.
Sampling design; A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from the sampling frame. It
refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting some sampling units from
which inferences about the population is drawn.
Sampling frame; This is a complete or reliable list of all elements in a population from which a sample
will be selected or drawn. It is a complete list of every unit in the universe or population.
Variable; This is a factor of characteristics of interest which may change or vary during the research
process. Variables are divided into two main groups that is independent and dependent variable.
Parameter; This is a summary description of given variables in a population.
Bias; is the lack of justice to the items due to the different reasons which affects the validity and
efficiency of the system. Bias may occur due to lack of knowledge, laziness, and lack of enough
resources.
Strata; is the section of the population chosen by taking the more or less homogeneous units.
Sampling error; the errors that occur because the samples are not the true representatives of the
population.
Systematic errors; is the error due to wrong use of equipment or data handling system used or due to the
inappropriate usage of the theories.

OBJECTIVES OF SAMPLE DESIGN

Sampling is used in practice for a variety of objectives such as:

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 (i). Sampling can save time and money. A sample study is usually less expensive than a census study
and produces results at a relatively faster speed.
(ii). Sampling may enable more accurate measurements for a sample study is generally conducted by
trained and experienced investigators.
(iii). Sampling remains the only way when population contains infinitely many members.
(iv). Sampling remains the only choice when a test involves the destruction of the item under study.
(v). Sampling usually enables to estimate the sampling errors and, thus, assists in obtaining
information concerning some characteristic of the population.

THE TYPES OF SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

(i). Probability sampling
(ii). Non- probability sampling

Probability Sampling
It is a random selection is a sample. This is a sampling method where selection at sample is done
randomly by chance. Each individual in a population has an equal chance of being included in the sample
Types of probability sampling
1. Sample random sampling
2. Systematic random sampling
3. Stratified sampling
4. Multi-stage sampling
5. Cluster sampling

Simple random sampling

This gives every possible combination element in a population equal chance of being included in the
sample. It is chance sampling technique where each of every items or individual in the population has an
equal opportunity in the inclusion the sample.
It is used when the population members are similar to one another on important variables.

Advantages of simple random sampling:

1. It needs only a minimum knowledge of the study group of population in advance.
2. It is free from errors in classification.
3. This is suitable for data analysis which includes the use of inferential statistics.
4. Simple random sampling has high representative of the population
5. It is totally free from bias and prejudice
6. The method is simple to use.
7. It is very easy to assess the sampling error in this method.

Disadvantages of Simple random sampling

1. This method carries larger errors from the same sample size than that are found in stratified sampling.
2. In simple random sampling, the selection of sample becomes impossible if the units or items are widely
dispersed.
3. It cannot be employed where the units of the population are heterogeneous in nature.
4. This method lacks the use of available knowledge concerning the population.
5. Sometimes, it is difficult to have a completely representation of universe.
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6. It may be impossible to contact the cases which are very widely dispersed.
7. It time consuming and tedious.

b. Systematic sampling
It is the type of probability sampling by selecting of individual or items on a given regular interval. It is
very applicable when population sample is large and the target population is evenly distributed

For example formula of sampling interval [K = ]

Whereby,
N- Total number of population
n- Sample size
K- Sampling Interval

To obtain the sample using systematic sampling

Question. If the total population is 1000 individual, and the number of people who must be in the sample
are 100, what will be sampling interval
Steps
I. Calculate sampling interval or fraction

K=Fraction (K) or sampling interval =

Sampling interval =

Sampling interval = 10
Then,
Picking the starting point by any method of simple random sampling
Picking systematically with the specific interval (k) by adding (k) to the pick number until the required
single is achieved.
Systematic sampling is used when the population members are similar to one another on important
variables.

Advantages
1. It ensures a high degree of representativeness
2. It does not need the use of table of random numbers
3. It is easier than stratified random sampling and more effective than simple random sampling
4. It is cost effective; stratification would cost lots of resources. Thus systematic random sampling
is more effective than others.
5. It avoids judgments; it involves probability to a greater extent. So, judgments are avoided. Once
the first sample is chosen, the role of the judgment finishes.
6. It is less time consuming; it does not cost the time for stratification nor it leaves any doubt on
reliability.
7. It has higher degree of control

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Disadvantages
1. It is time consuming and tedious
2. It is less random
3. Size of the population may not be known before the sampling starts
4. Assumption that the population is uniform may not always prove to be true

c. Stratified sampling
It is a type of probability sampling involving a selection of study sample by dividing the targeted
population into the homogeneous sub group (strata) and then simple random sampling in each sub group.
It is used when the population is heterogeneous and contains several different groups some of which are
related to the topic of the study.
For example, suppose the target population consist of 700 male sub-population and 300 female sub-
population. Create male and female sub sample provided that 100 total population sample is required
Steps
(i). Calculate the total number of the population
(ii). Finding the sampling ratio, Given by ratio
(iii). Calculate sub-sample of male and female by taking sampling ratio multiplying by sample
population of each

Male = x 700 = 70 males

Female = x 300 = 30 females

Example: in a research conducted in Ngara district there were 3,000 students, 100 staff, 50 non-teaching
staff members. Using stratified sampling technique prepare sample for a particular studying of 10%.

Steps to calculate sub-samples

Students x 3000=300

Teachers x 100=10

Non teachers X 50=5

Therefore 300 + 10 + 5 = 315

The sample of the particular study is 315

Advantages of stratified sampling

(i). It is more representative than simple random sampling of the same size drawn from the same
population
(ii). Conclusion from stratified sample is more general sable than simple random.
(iii). Stratified random sampling provides better precision as it takes the samples proportional to the
random population.
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(iv). Stratified random sampling helps minimizing the biasness in selecting the samples.
(v). Stratified random sampling ensures that no any section of the population is underrepresented or
overrepresented.
(vi). As this method provides greater precision, greater level of accuracy can be achieved even by
using small size of samples. This saves resources.

Disadvantages of stratified sampling

(i). The technique is complex because it need researcher to analyze the population carefully to
discover its true composition
(ii). Chance that researcher get wrong stratum, subgroups are great.
(iii). It is time consuming and tedious
(iv). Stratified random sampling requires more administrative works as compared with simple random
sampling.
(v). It is sometimes hard to classify each kind of population into clearly distinguished classes.
(vi). Stratified random sampling can be tedious and time consuming job to those who are not keen
towards handling.

d. Cluster/area /spatial sampling

It is the type of at probability sampling used when target population is displaced over a wide geographical
area. Under this the total area at study is divided.
The total area into a number at smaller non-overlapping areas, generally called geographical clusters Then
a number of smaller areas are randomly selected. All units in these small areas are included in the sample.
It is used when the population consists of units rather than individuals.

Advantages
1. it is easy and convenient

Disadvantages
1. it is time consuming and tedious

e. Multi stage sampling

This is further development of the idea cluster sampling. This technique is meant for big inquiries
extending to a considerably large geographical area like an entire country.
Under this, the first stage may be to select large primary sample unit such as state, then region then
district, then town and finally certain families within towns that is the second sample is selected or drawn
from the first sample, the third sample from the second sample.
For example: population of 2500 people is spread over Temeke district. A sample of 600 household needs
to be selected from this population for study
Researcher will list down all divisions in Temeke district. Let us say there 10 dimension so in this stage
he may take five division (of them)
List down all the wards in those five division let us say there are six (6) wards in each division that is
6 x5 = 30 wards. In the second stage, sample wards = 10 wards

23
List down villages or streets in these 10 wards and there are 10 streets or villages in each ward. Thus 10
x10 =100 villages in the third stage the villages = 25 sample village
List down households of each village and let us say there 100 house hold house holds
In the fourth stage sample the household = 500 households
Thus our sample is 500 households

Non-probability sampling
It is the type at sampling which does not give each items or element in target population equal chance to
be included in sampling. Non-probability sampling derives its control from the judgement of the
investigator. In non-probability sampling, the cases are selected on bases of availability and researcher’s
judgement. Non-probability sampling has its strength in the area of convenience.

Types of non-probability sampling

(i). Accidental/convenience sampling
(ii). Snow-ball sampling
(iii). Purposive/judgmental sampling.
(iv). Quota sampling

Convenience/Accidental sampling
Under this method, the researcher collects data from responds for a given research study he/she meets
accidentally during the period research.
Convenience sampling is generally known as careless, unsystematic, accidental or opportunistic
sampling. The sample is selected according to the convenience of the sample. The researcher selects
certain units convenient to him. It requires no pre-planning for the selection of items. Convenience
sampling ensures convenience in respect of availability of source list and accessibility of the units.
Despite being unscientific, a large number of samples are convenient sampling.
A convenience sampling is used in the following situations: when the universe is not clearly defined;
where sampling unit is not clear and when a complete source list is not available.

Snow ball sampling

The researcher starts his/her research with small number of respondents who are available and ask them
to call for other who will fit in the study.

Purpose/judgment sampling
It is the type of non- probability sampling where researcher purposeful chooses respondent whose in
his/her own opinion thought are to be relevant of the study.
Judgement sampling involves the selection of a group from the population on the basis of available
information. It is the selection of the group by intuition on the basis of criteria deemed to be self evident.
Under this method, units are included in the sample on the basis of the judgement that the units possess
the required characteristics to qualify as representatives of the population.

Advantages of judgement sampling

1. Judgement sampling eliminates the cost and time in preparing the sample

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2. Judgement sampling method enables the researcher to include the positive aspects of stratification in
the sample.

Disadvantages of judgement sampling

1. There is uncontrolled variability and bias in the estimates in judgement sampling.
2. The success of judgement sampling method is solely dependent on a thorough knowledge of the
population and elimination of the use of inferential parametric statistical tools for the purpose of
generalization.
3. Complete reliance on intuition and hunch is risky in judgement sampling.

Quota sampling
In stratified sampling the cost of taking random samples from individual strata is often expensive that
interviewer are simply given quota to be filled from different strata, the actual selection of items for
sample being left to the interviewers judgment
The size of the quota for each stratum is generally, proportionate to the size that stratum in the population
(If that stratum is ¼ of the total population then the researcher take a ¼ of individual in that particular
stratum)
Quota sampling combines the features of purposive sampling and stratified sampling. Under quota
sampling, the field workers include only those units which conform to certain specified parameters in the
sample. Each field worker is assigned quotas of number of units to include according to one or more
characteristics. In order to increase the representativeness of a quota sample, the field worker may be
instructed to contact every fourth house and interview one person till the quota is fulfilled.

Advantages of quota sampling

1. Quota sampling ensures convenience in executing sampling study.
2. When the respondent refuses to cooperate, he may be replaced by another person who is ready to
furnish information.
3. Quota sampling is less expensive and speedy
4. When the population has no suitable frame, quota sampling is the only practical method.
5. Collection of data through quota sampling method is not a time consuming one.

Disadvantages of quota sampling

1. The interviewer interviews people who are easily available and accessible. So, the possibility of
collecting valuable data is affected in quota sampling.
2. Bias arises in the matter of selection of sample units.
3. The work of the interviewer cannot be supervised properly. So, there is no certainty of correctness of
data.
4. Quota sampling method requires several investigators. Each one cannot be equally competent. So, the
results derived from the study may not be uniform.

THE CONSIDERATIONS IN SELECTING THE SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

(i). The reasons for and objectives of sampling.
(ii). The relationship between accuracy and precision.
(iii). The reliability of estimates with varying sample size.
(iv). The determination of safe sample sizes for surveys.
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 (v). The variability of data.
(vi). The nature of stratification and its impact on survey cost.
(vii). The risks posed by biased estimates.

DATA COLLECTION
DATA AND DATA TYPES
Data is the body of information presented in numerical form. It can be treated either qualitatively or
quantitatively. At this stage the researcher go to the field and collect data physically.

Primary Data
Primary data are information collected by a researcher specifically for a research assignment. In
other words, primary data are information that a company must gather because no one has
compiled and published the information in a forum accessible to the public. Companies generally take
the time and allocate the resources required to gather primary data only when a question, issue or
problem presents itself that is sufficiently important or unique that it warrants the expenditure
necessary to gather the primary data.
Primary data are original in nature and directly related to the issue or problem and current data. Primary
data are the data which the researcher collects through various methods like interviews, surveys,
questionnaires. The primary data have own advantages and disadvantages:

Advantages of primary data:

Advantages of primary data are as follows:
(i). The primary data are original and relevant to the topic of the research study so the
degree of accuracy is very high.
(ii). Primary data is that it can be collected from a number of ways like interviews, telephone surveys,
focus groups etc. It can be also collected across the national borders through emails and posts. It
can include a large population and wide geographical coverage.
(iii). Moreover, primary data is current and it can better give a realistic view to the researcher about the
topic under consideration.
(iv). Reliability of primary data is very high because these are collected by the concerned and
reliable party.

Disadvantages of primary data

Following are the disadvantages of primary data
(i). For collection of primary data where interview is to be conducted the coverage is limited and for
wider coverage a more number of researchers are required.
(ii). A lot of time and efforts are required for data collection. By the time the data collected, analyzed
and report is ready the problem of the research becomes very serious or out dated. So the purpose
of the research may be defeated.
(iii). It has design problems like how to design the surveys. The questions must be simple to understand
and respond.
(iv). Some respondents do not give timely responses. Sometimes, the respondents may give fake,
socially acceptable and sweet answers and try to cover up the realities.
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 (v). With more people, time and efforts involvement the cost of the data collection goes high.
The importance of the research may go down.
(vi). In some primary data collection methods there is no control over the data collection.
(vii). Incomplete questionnaire always give a negative impact on research.
(viii). Trained persons are required for data collection. In experienced person in data collection may give
inadequate data of the research.

Secondary Data
Secondary data are the data collected by a party not related to the research study but collected
these data for some other purpose and at different time in the past. If the researcher uses these data then
these become secondary data for the current users. These may be available in written, typed or
in electronic forms. A variety of secondary information sources is available to the researcher
gathering data on an industry, potential product applications and the market place. Secondary data is
also used to gain initial insight into the research problem. Secondary data is classified in terms of its
source – either internal or external. Internal, or in-house data, is secondary information acquired
within the organization where research is being carried out. External secondary data is obtained from
outside sources. There are various advantages and disadvantages of using secondary data.

Advantages of Secondary Data

Advantages of secondary data are following:-
(i). The primary advantage of secondary data is that it is cheaper and faster to access.
(ii). Secondly, it provides a way to access the work of the best scholars all over the world.
(iii). Thirdly, secondary data gives a frame of mind to the researcher that in which direction he/she
should go for the specific research.
(iv). Fourthly secondary data save time, efforts and money and add to the value of the
research study.

Disadvantages of Secondary data

Following are the disadvantage of secondary data:
(i). The data collected by the third party may not be a reliable party so the reliability and accuracy of
data go down.
(ii). Data collected in one location may not be suitable for the other one due variable
environmental factor.
(iii). With the passage of time the data becomes obsolete and very old
(iv). Secondary data collected can distort the results of the research. For using secondary data a
special care is required to amend or modify for use.
(v). Secondary data can also raise issues of authenticity and copyright.

METHODS/INSTRUMENTS USED IN COLLECTION OF DATA

A. Interview Method Technique
An interview is a conversation for gathering information. A research interview involves an interviewer, who
coordinates the process of the conversation and asks questions, and an interviewee, who responds to those
questions. Interviews can be conducted face-to-face or over the telephone. The internet is also emerging as a
tool for interviewing.

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When is an Interview an Appropriate Research Method?
1. Interviews are an appropriate method when there is a need to collect in-depth information on people’s
opinions, thoughts, experiences, and feelings.
2. Interviews are useful when the topic of inquiry relates to issues that require complex questioning and
considerable probing.
3. Face-to- face interviews are suitable when your target population can communicate through face-to-face
conversations better than they can communicate through writing or phone conversations (e.g., children,
elderly or disabled individuals).

Types of Interviews
Interviews can be designed differently depending on the needs being addressed and the information. They
can be grouped into three types:
Structured interviews: In a structured interview, the interviewer asks a set of standard, predetermined
questions about particular topics, in a specific order.
The respondents need to select their answers from a list of options. The interviewer may provide
clarification on some questions. Structured Interviews are typically used in surveys.
Semi-structured interviews: In a semi-structured interview, the interviewer uses a set of predetermined
questions and the respondents answer in their own words. Some interviewers use a topic guide that serves as
a checklist to ensure that all respondents provide information on the same topics. The interviewer can probe
areas based on the respondent’s answers or ask supplementary questions for clarification. Semi-structured
interviews are useful when there is a need to collect in-depth information in a systematic manner from a
number of respondents or interviewees (e.g., teachers, community leaders).
Unstructured interviews: In an unstructured interview, the interviewer has no specific guidelines,
restrictions, predetermined questions, or list of options. The interviewer asks a few broad questions to
engage the respondent in an open, informal, and spontaneous discussion. The interviewer also probes with
further questions and/or explores inconsistencies to gather more in-depth information on the topic.
Unstructured interviews are particularly useful for getting the stories behind respondents’ experiences or
when there is little information about a topic.

Steps in Conducting an Interview

Before the Interview
i. Define your objectives; identify what you want to achieve and the information you need to gather. Make
sure an interview is the appropriate way to meet your objectives.
ii. Choose the type of interview; Review your required
iii. Information, budget, time, and potential respondents and decide whether you need to conduct
structured, semi-structured, or unstructured interviews.
iv. Choose the appropriate respondents; Depending on the type of interview, decide on the
characteristics of interviewees and the number of interviews required.
v. Decide how you will conduct the interviews; Consider telephone or face-to face interviews. For large
surveys, consider computer-aided interviewing and recording.
vi. Decide how to recruit your respondents; Obtain contact information for a number of respondents larger
than the number of interviews you need, since some may not respond. Contact them by phone, e-mail, or
regular mail and introduce yourself, your organization, and your project. Explain the purpose of the
interview, the importance of their participation, and set up an appointment.
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 vii. Decide how you will record the interviews; Depending on the type of interview; you may fill in a
prepared form, use written notes, voice recorders, or computer- aided devices.
viii. Make a list of questions and test them with a sample of respondents; the questions must be aligned
with the type of interview.

After the interview

(i). Make sure the interview was properly recorded; make additional notes, if needed.
(ii). Organize your interview responses; responses from unstructured and semi-structured interviews
need to be transcribed. Responses from structured interviews need to be entered into a data
analysis program.
(iii). Get ready for data analysis; search for resources for analyzing qualitative and/or quantitative data.
(iv). Decide who will conduct the interviews; develop an information kit that includes an introduction
to the research topic and instructions. For unstructured interviews, you may need to hire skilled
interviewers.

During the interview

(i). Introduce yourself and initiate a friendly but professional conversation.
(ii). Explain the purpose of your project, the importance of their participation, and the expected duration of
the interview.
(iii). Be prepared to reschedule the interview if a respondent has a problem with the timing.
(iv). Explain the format of the interview.
(v). Tell respondents how the interview will be recorded and how the collected information will be
used; if possible, obtain their written consent to participate.
(vi). Ask respondents if they have any questions.
(vii). Control your tone of voice and language; remain as neutral as possible when asking questions or
probing on issues.
(viii). Keep the focus on the topic of inquiry and complete the interview within the agreed time limit.
(ix). Ensure proper recording; without distracting the respondent, check your notes and voice recorder
regularly.
(x). Complete the session; make sure all questions were asked, explain again how you will use the
data, thank the respondent, and ask them if they have any questions.

Advantages of interview method

1. It is includes or suitable for both literacy and illiteracy respondents making it to have wide coverage.
People who cannot read or write are accommodated in the sample.
2. They are flexible. Unlike to questionnaire which cannot change within a time but interview can change.
3. The researcher can give clarification when a question is not well understood. It ensures the researcher
whether the respondent understood the question or not.
4. Direct contact with the respondent enables the researcher to estimate the accuracy of the responses.
5. A researcher can get as many answers as possible due to freeness of the respondent.
6. It can be used to collect data on sudden, issues such as diseases outbreak or an accident. Thus it is very
useful to journalist

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7. There is high rate of responses as compared to questionnaire method. Due to the fact, interviewers and
interviewee have direct contact

Disadvantages of interview
1. It is very expensive method especially when large and widely spread geographical sampled is taken.
2. Language barrier is a most likely problem that can hinder smooth running of the interview. This results
into the need to an interpreter which increase costs
3. Time consuming as the researcher can only talk to one respondent at a time
4. Interview is not effective for researches and respondents with physical disabilities for example dumb
and deaf persons
5. It is affected by subjectivity there is possibility of the bias of interviewer and that of interviewer.
6. It is difficult to conduct where population is scattered as there is always lack of accessibility to
respondent.

Questionnaire Method
Questionnaire refers to the prepared written questions which are handled or given to the respondents on
hand, posted or mailed to be answered so as to provide relevant information for a particular problem of
research. This type of research instrument is suitable in gathering information over a large sample or
geographical area.
Questionnaire is a set of questions has been prepared to ask a number of questions and collect
answers from respondents relating to the research topic.
A number of questions usually in printed or electronic form are to be answered by the individuals. The
forms often have blank spaces in which the answers can be written. Sets of such forms are distributed to
groups and the answers are collected relating to research topic.
A questionnaire is a series of questions asked to individuals to obtain statistically useful information
about a given topic.
When properly constructed and responsibly administered, questionnaires become a vital instrument
by which statements can be made about specific groups or people or entire populations.
Inappropriate questions, incorrect ordering of questions, incorrect scaling, or bad questionnaire format
can make the survey valueless, as it may not accurately reflect the views and opinions of the participants.

There are two types of questionnaire

(a) Closed-ended /rigid/structured questionnaire
This refers to question which are accompanied by a list of possible alternative from which the
respondents select the appropriate answer. For example, the answer may be limited to “YES’ or “NO’
True- false.

b) Open-ended/unstructured questionnaire (guide/direct)

These also known as lead questions. These are types of question that allow the respondents to answers
them as seem appropriate. The questions are asked and space is provided for respondents to fill in using
their own words. The respondents are given complete freedom of expressing their views.

Advantages of questionnaire

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1. It saves time since several questionnaires may be distributed to many respondents and being filled at
the same time
2. It is free from the bias of researcher.
3. It is less expensive even for respondents scattered over a wider geographical area because can be
posted
4. It is easy to analyze as they give minimum explanation.
5. The researcher is able to win the respondent's trust or any fears that respondents might have.
6. It provides enough chance for the respondents to think carefully and give the best answers.
7. Adequate and large quantity of information can be gathered.

Disadvantages of questionnaire
1. Questionnaire may not be effective when the respondents are illiterate or language barriers.
2. There is no opportunity to ask for further information or clarification of some misunderstanding.
3. Mailed questionnaires may be lost once they are sent.
4. No clean reasons can be given for incomplete responses.
5. Accuracy of answers is not assured since the respondent may cheat as the researcher has no direct
content.
6. Response rate can be quite low.

Observation method
It is a type of research data collection method under which the information is sought by looking at
phenomena without asking the respondent. It is the systematic method of data collection which involves
the use of eyes than voice and ears. Observation is a carefully and accurate watching and recording of the
events as they occur in their natural setting. The researcher goes to the field with idea of what he/she is
going to observe and he/she expects to see everything carefully and closely. The research should records
what he/she sees not what he/she hears.

Kind/type of observation method

1. Participant observation method
Researcher becomes part and parcel of people under observation. This is the one where researcher joins in
the daily life of a group or organization he/she is studying for a period of time for example. 1-3 months, a
year depending on what he/she is studying.
2. Non- participant observation
Researcher observes without participating in the life of the observed. Here researcher observes actions,
behavior and activities of the group he/she is studying without participation in the daily life of the people
he/she is studying

Advantages of observation methods

(i). If observation done accurately, subjectivity is eliminated because it does not involve the respondent
(ii). It overcomes the language barrier
(iii). The method is independent of the respondent's willingness to respond
(iv). The method allows full participation of the researcher in the field research process
(v). It helps in developing observation skill to researcher
(vi). It is suitable for both literate and illiterate groups

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(vii). Only the relevant data is collected

Disadvantages of observation
(i). The researcher is involved in extensive traveling making the exercise tiresome and time consuming
(ii). It is an expensive method
(iii). It may not be possible to collect data of past activities
(iv). Visual impairment may limit effectiveness of this method (blindness)
(v). When people know that they are studied they use to change their behavior

Focus group discussion (FGD)

It is an intensive free discussion where qualitative data on how people in a group or community think
about a given situation issue or problem are collected. The size of the group is small ranging between five
and ten people but preferably 6-8 people who share certain characteristics which are relevant to the study
FGD is a special type of group in term of the propose size, composition and procedures conducting a
carefully planned and design as discussion in order to obtain information on the participants beliefs and
perception.
FGD should be composed of homogeneous members of the target population for example similar age,
Education level, profession and gender. Researcher should have specific topic to be discussed and a
recording list of the discussion should be made.
In FGD researcher becomes facilitator and therefore FGD require good planning and training of group
moderator.

FGD planning
Focus group discussion consist of;-
1. Facilitator: who is also a researcher (moderator)
2. Recorder: Is an assistant of the facilitator taking notes
3. Discussion guide: sub topic
4. Report establishment: involving and making good relationship with people
5. Participants: the respondents.
6. Participant selection: formation of homogeneous based on various Criteria

Discussion Procedure
1. Facilitator expressing the general purpose of the discussion
2. Member introducing themselves in order to obtain preliminary information about the group
3. Facilitator allow a free discussion for every individual
4. Facilitation may ask permission to record some important information
5. Recorder going on taking notes while observing participant
6. Before the end of the free discussion the facilitator should be making sure that all discussion guide are
adequately tackled and all important data are obtained

Advantages of FGD
(i). The method is less expensive
(ii). It saves time because take about 45 minutes
(iii). It is the best method for identifying and exploring belief ideas or opinions in a community.

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 (iv). It stimulates free discussion where people can talk and express their view clearly and freely (because
they feel sense of involvement in the discussion)
(v). FGD can produce a lot of information quickly
(vi). Respondents acquire speaking, listening and coordinating skill
(vii). Researcher became active person in the discussion compare to questionnaire or observation
(viii). It is good for generating hypothesis for larger studies

Disadvantages of FGD
(i). Only few respondents may be active in discussion and dominate others.
(ii). This method is not representative since very small sample size of the population is involved
(iii). It is mostly intended to generate views and not getting correct answers
(iv). Since it is a surprise, members may not be in a good position to participate in discussion and give
their contributions.
(v). The researcher has less control over the flow of discussion and the results are hard to analyze.
(vi). Selection of the group may involve subjectivity and biasness

Measuring Method
It is a method which uses height, length (distance) weight method and angle measuring devices in field
data collection. This method is accurate and quick. Measurement of scale includes ordinal, nominal,
interval and ratios.

Rapid Appraisal Method:

This is another kind of discussion where the researcher invited mass conduct of discussion or meeting

GUIDELINES IN WRITING A GOOD QUESTIONNAIRE

DATA ORGANIZATION AND ANALYSIS

THE MEANING AND TYPE OF DATA ANALYSIS

Data organization means putting the data into some systematic form. Data analysis refers to the process to
examining the coded data critically and making inferences. Data are tabulated and various satisfied
measures such as measure of central tendency are assessed.
The data are stored by means of paper storage or electronic storage where statistical software package
such as word processor, spread sheet or database may be asked. Under this stage of field research the raw
data collected are edited, coded, recorded and analyzed.

Qualitative data analysis methods

Several methods are available to analyze qualitative data. The most commonly used data analysis
methods are:
(i). Content analysis: it is the process of categorizing behavioral data or verbal data for the purpose
of classifying, summarizing, and tabulating the data. When to use this method depends on the
research questions. Content analysis is usually used to analyze responses from interviewees.
(ii). Narrative analysis: This method is used to analyze content from various sources, such as
interviews of respondents, observations from the field, or surveys. It focuses on using the stories

33
 and experiences shared by people to answer the research questions. It involves the reformulation
of the stories presented by respondents taking into account context of each case and different
experiences of each respondent.
(iii). Discourse analysis: it focuses on analyzing the social context in which the communication
between the researcher and the respondent occurred. Discourse analysis also looks at the
respondent’s day-to-day environment and uses that information during analysis.
(iv). Grounded theory: This refers to using qualitative data to explain why a certain phenomenon
happened. It does this by studying a variety of similar cases in different settings and using the
data to derive causal explanations. Researchers may alter the explanations or create new ones as
they study more cases until they arrive at an explanation that fits all cases. It involves the analysis
of a single case to formulate a theory, general statement or concept about a population then
examining the additional cases to if they contribute to the theory.

Steps of analyzing the qualitative data

1. Data organization and transcription
2. Data coding; categorization of data. A code is a word or short phrase that represents a theme or
an idea such as event, behaviour, activity or meaning. Data coding can be done manually or using
the software such as SPSS.
3. Identifying themes, patterns and relationships; this involves the following; word and phrase
repetitions, primary and secondary data comparison, searching information and metaphors and
analogues.
4. Data summarization

Advantages of qualitative data analysis

(i). It provides depth and detail : looks deeper than analyzing ranks and counts by recording attitudes,
feelings and behaviours
(ii). It creates openness: encouraging people to expand on their responses can open up new topic areas
not initially considered
(iii). It simulates people's individual experiences: a detailed picture can be built up about why people
act in certain ways and their feelings about these actions
(iv). Attempts to avoid pre-judgments: if used alongside quantitative data collection, it can explain
why a particular response was given

Disadvantages of qualitative data analysis

(i). Usually fewer people studied: collection of qualitative data is generally more time consuming that
quantitative data collection and therefore unless time, staff and budget allows it is generally
necessary to include a smaller sample size.
(ii). It is less easy to generalize because fewer people are generally studied it is not possible to
generalize results to that of the population. Usually exact numbers are reported rather than
percentages.
(iii). It is difficult to make systematic comparisons: for example, if people give widely differing
responses that are highly subjective.
(iv). It is dependent on skills of the researcher: particularly in the case of conducting interviews, focus
groups and observation.

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Quantitative data analysis. It is a systematic approach to investigations during which numerical data is
collected and/or the researcher transforms what is collected or observed into numerical data. It often
describes a situation or event; answering the 'what' and 'how many' questions you may have about
something. This is research which involves measuring or counting attributes (i.e. quantities).

Steps in quantitative data analysis

1. Data preparation- is the process of organizing or arranging the data in numerical form or to
quantify the data.
2. Data tabulation; is the process of organizing the numerical data in a table using the frequencies
and percentages distribution tables.
3. Data analysis; using either descriptive or inferential statistical measures such as mean, mode,
median, range, standard deviation, variance, ANOVA, ANOCOVA, multivariate analysis.
4. Data processing; is the process of editing, coding, classification and tabulation of the collected
data so as to give meaning.
5. Data editing; it refers to the process of examining the collected raw data to be in a position to
identify errors and omissions if any and find ways to rectify them where possible so as to secure a
quality standard on the data.
6. Data classification; is the process of arranging data in groups or classes in the basis of common
characteristics. It helps to reduce a large volume of raw data into homogeneous groups so that
researcher can get meaningful relationships.
7. Data presentation; representing data in tables, charts, circles, maps.

Advantages of data quantitative analysis

(i). It allows for a broader study, involving a greater number of subjects, and enhancing the
generalization of the results
(ii). It can allow for greater objectivity and accuracy of results. Generally, quantitative methods are
designed to provide summaries of data that support generalizations about the phenomenon under
study.
(iii). Quantitative methods allow us to summarize vast sources of information and facilitate
comparisons across categories and over time.
(iv). personal bias can be avoided by researchers keeping a 'distance' from participating subjects and
employing subjects unknown to them

Disadvantages of quantitative data analysis:

(i). It collects a much narrower and sometimes superficial dataset
(ii). results are limited as they provide numerical descriptions rather than detailed narrative and
generally provide less elaborate accounts of human perception
(iii). The research is often carried out in an unnatural, artificial environment so that a level of control
can be applied to the exercise. This level of control might not normally be in place in the real
world yielding laboratory results as opposed to real world results
(iv). In addition preset answers will not necessarily reflect how people really feel about a subject and
in some cases might just be the closest match.

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(v). The development of standard questions by researchers can lead to 'structural' bias and false
representation, where the data actually reflects the view of them instead of the participating
subject.

TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS
THE METHODS USED IN HYPOTHESIS TESTING
Hypothesis testing refers to the method in which a researcher selects samples to learn more about the
characteristics in a given population. It is really a systematic way to test claims or ideas or hypothesis
about a parameter in a group or population using data measured in sample.
The original hypothesis is then tested against the research results and if the fact/data support the
hypothesis generalization may be made. If the hypothesis appears wrong the researcher goes back to the
field and start afresh and ways of collecting data must be changed.

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF HYPOTHESIS TESTING

The goal of hypothesis testing is to determine the likelihood that a population parameter, such as the
mean, is likely to be true.

STAGES IN CONDUCTING HYPOTHESIS TESTING

State the hypotheses. The basis of the decision is to determine whether this assumption is true. Likewise,
in hypothesis testing, we start by assuming that the hypothesis or claim we are testing is true. This is
stated in the null hypothesis. The basis of the decision is to determine whether this assumption is likely to
be true.
The null hypothesis (H0), stated as the null, is a statement about a population parameter, such as the
population mean, that is assumed to be true. The null hypothesis is a starting point. We will test whether
the value stated in the null hypothesis is likely to be true.
An alternative hypothesis (H1) is a statement that directly contradicts a null hypothesis by stating that that
the actual value of a population parameter is less than, greater than, or not equal to the value stated in the
null hypothesis.

Set the criteria for a decision. Level of significance, or significance level, refers to a criterion of
judgment upon which a decision is made regarding the value stated in a null hypothesis.
To set the criteria for a decision, we state the level of significance for a test. We collect data to show that
the null hypothesis is not true, based on the likelihood of selecting a sample mean from a population (the
likelihood is the criterion). The likelihood or level of significance is typically set at 5% in behavioral
research studies. When the probability of obtaining a sample mean is less than 5% if the null hypothesis
were true, then we conclude that the sample we selected is too unlikely and so we reject the null
hypothesis.

Compute the test statistic. The test statistic is a mathematical formula that allows researchers to
determine the likelihood of obtaining sample outcomes if the null hypothesis were true. The value of the
test statistic is used to make a decision regarding the null hypothesis.
We use a test statistic to determine this likelihood. Specifically, a test statistic tells us how far, or how
many standard deviations, a sample mean is from the population mean. The larger the value of the test

36
statistic, the further the distance, or number of standard deviations, a sample mean is from the population
mean stated in the null hypothesis.

Make a decision. The decision is based on the probability of obtaining a sample mean, given that the
value stated in the null hypothesis is true. If the probability of obtaining a sample mean is less than 5%
when the null hypothesis is true, then the decision is to reject the null hypothesis. If the probability of
obtaining a sample mean is greater than 5% when the null hypothesis is true, then the decision is to retain
the null hypothesis. In sum, there are two decisions a researcher can make:
1. Reject the null hypothesis. The sample mean is associated with a low probability of occurrence when
the null hypothesis is true.
2. Retain the null hypothesis. The sample mean is associated with a high probability of occurrence when
the null hypothesis is true.

ERRORS IN HYPOTHESIS TESTING

Type 1 error; is the probability of rejecting a null hypothesis that is actually true. The probability of this
type of error is determined by the researcher and stated as the level of significance or alpha level for a
hypothesis test.
Type II error; is the probability of retaining a null hypothesis that is actually false.

RESEARCH PROPOSAL
THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL
A researcher proposal may be defined as a systematic plan, suggestion or request which brings together in
organized form the preliminary scheme that will be required to fulfill a particular research project.
A research proposal (referred to as proposal) is a concise and coherent summary of the proposed
research. A proposal is the most important document developed to clearly express a research idea. It
sets out the central issues or questions that the researcher intends to address. It outlines the general
area of study within which the research falls, referring to the current state of knowledge and any
recent debates on the topic.
It also demonstrates the originality of the proposed research work. It also gives an opportunity to
demonstrate the aptitudes of the researcher and the feasibility of the proposed research. Furthermore,
it is through the research proposal that a researcher demonstrates the ability to communicate
complex ideas clearly, concisely and critically. The proposal also helps to match the research interest
with current community need.
The research proposal is used to provide to guideline to the research during the research process and also
provide a means of evaluating the research study. The research proposal is considered to be a plan since
puts forward for consideration one’s scheme of intent. When written, a research proposal uses a third
person singular with a future time (for example it will….)

Purposes of Research Proposal

1. A research proposal is used to administrative purpose. It is a basis for written agreement or contract
between the researcher and management (sponsor). A proposal acts as a record for agreement.
2. It helps the researcher to think over important issues about the study (about what he/she wants to do)
(the what, why, how, where and to whom the research to be conducted are thought out and answered at
this stage of developing proposal.

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3. Before conducting researches sometimes a researcher need to get go ahead from his client. A client can
be from the organization you are working with, sponsor or university. For example NGO’s providing
funds for research will not sponsor any form of research until they have received and approved a detailed
research proposal.
4. Proposals are used to make a choice among the competing suppliers (researchers) and to influence
positively the decision to fund the proposal study

FORMAT OF CONTENT OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Components of research proposal
A research proposal should normally include the following information:
Title
This is just a tentative title/topic (precise and concise ideally, 10-12 words) for the intended research.
Once approved, it can be subject to modification in the course of the research implementation.
Abstract
The proposal should include a concise (no more than 300 words) one- paragraph statement, on one page
explaining the intended research. This may be a couple of sentences setting out the problem that you want
to examine or the central question that you wish to address, the methodology that will be used and the
expected results/outputs.

Introduction
Background
This is set to explain the broad background against which the research will be conducted. It should
include a brief overview of the general area of study within which the proposed research falls,
summarizing the current state of knowledge and recent debates on the topic. This allows demonstration of
a familiarity with the relevant field as well as the ability to communicate clearly and concisely.

Problem Statement
A problem statement is a brief overview of the issues or problems existing in the concerned area selected
for the research. It is an explanation of the issues prevalent in a particular sector which drives the
researcher to take interest in that sector for in-depth study and analysis, so as to understand and solve
them. This focuses on why the study will be undertaken, or why the thesis will be written. Do not repeat
the abstract.
Research Question (s)
Developing a good research question is one of the first critical steps in the research process. A research
question is an answerable inquiry into a specific concern or issue. It is the initial step in a research project.
The 'initial step' means after you have an idea of what you want to study, the research question is the first
active step in the research project. The research question should be a clear, focused question that
summarizes the issue that the researcher will investigate. Without a question, you can't have a hypothesis.
Without the hypothesis, you won't know how to study what you're interested in.
Hypothesis
At its most basic, the research hypothesis states what the researcher expects to find. It is the tentative
answer to the research question that guides the entire study.
Objectives
General/Global/Main/Overall Objective

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The objectives provide an accurate description of the specific actions you will take in order to reach
the aim of the study.
As with the problem formulation, the overall objective should be framed in a single sentence. The
overall objective should be written as an infinitive sentence.
Specific Objectives
A specific objective consists of one infinitive sentence and should be phrased in a way that makes it
possible to draw a conclusion from within the scope of the thesis. The more precisely you formulate your
specific objectives, the simpler it will be to define the type of study and which method(s) you will use in
your further research.
Scope of the study
A thesis is not a place to summarize everything you have ever read on a subject. Explain what will and
will not be included.
Significance of Research
The proposal should demonstrate the originality of your intended research. You should therefore explain
why your research is important (for example, by explaining how your research builds on and adds to the
current state of knowledge in the field or by setting out reasons why it is timely to research your proposed
topic).
Structure/Organization of the Study
This is a summary/a road map that may guide readers through the reading and understanding of the
dissertation. In this activity, you will provide readers with a roadmap to your dissertation that illustrates
what they should expect that is, how the study is organized and conducted from chapter one up to chapter
five.

Literature Review
Researchers explore and discuss key published literature in the same area as the current research
topic. It is also a text of a scholarly paper, which includes the current knowledge articles, books and
other sources (e.g. dissertations, conference proceedings including substantive findings, as well as
theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic in relation to the research problem
being investigated.
Theoretical Framework
These are theories that are developed from academic books and journal articles and other research
outputs. They are known as secondary sources, and do not report new or original experimental work
relevant to a particular issue, area of research, or theory, providing a description, summary, and
critical evaluation of each work.
Conceptual Framework
A theoretical structure of assumptions, principles, and rules that holds together the ideas comprising
a broad concept. It involves variables such as independent variables and dependent variables that
form a topic of a research study. The purpose of conceptual framework is to test the theories, make
research findings more meaningful and generalizable, stimulate situation and predict and control the
research situation.

Methodology
A research method is a systematic plan for conducting research. Research methodology refers to the
study of how research is to be conducted involving the development and analysis of the theories,
principles, approaches and view to be employed in a particular research.
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It concerned with the rational and the philosophical assumption that underlie a given study.
It covers study area, study population, sampling design as well as data gathering and analysis
It involving the principle or rules underlying series of process, admit and task to be performed in a given
research study.
It involves the use both qualitative and quantitative research methods, including experiments,
survey research, participant observation, and secondary data. Quantitative methods aim to classify
features, count them, and create statistical models to test hypotheses and explain observations,
interview and use of questionnaires. Qualitative methods aim for a complete, detailed description of
observations, including the context of events and circumstances.

Research Site
It is a geographical area where research study will be conducted. For example the research study will
conducted at Nyangao ward, in Lindi district, in Tanzania.
Research Design
It refers to the overall strategy that you choose to integrate the different components of the study in a
coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring you will effectively address the research problem; it
constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data.
The researcher(s) select can select the type of research design to use such Cross-sectional research
designs, an exploratory design, Experimental designs, historical research design or descriptive
designs. The researcher(s) decide the type of research design to during investigation.
Target Population/Population of the Study
A study of a group of individuals taken from the general population who share a common characteristic,
such as age, sex, or health condition. A population commonly contains too many individuals to study
conveniently, so an investigation is often restricted to one or more samples drawn from it.
Sample Size
Research requires an understanding of the statistics that drive the range of sample size decisions you
need to make. A simple equation will help you put the migraine pills away and sample confidently
knowing that there is a high probability that your survey is statistically accurate with the correct
sample size. The researcher (s) can use formula to compute the population into percentages in order
to determine the sample size to use.
Methods and techniques (data collection & analysis)
The proposal should outline your research methods, explaining how the research will be conducted.
The methods may include visiting particular libraries or archives, field work or interviews, or
laboratory and/or field experiments. This section should also explain how you are going to analyze
your research findings.
Budget & Timeline
This consists of tables highlighting monetary value of the activities and items required to implement the
proposed research. A separate table is also required to specify when each activity will be implemented.
Bibliography/Reference
The proposal should include a short bibliography identifying the most relevant works for your topic.

QUALITIES OF AN EFFECTIVE RESEARCH PROPOSAL

It should clearly state:
(i). The main purpose of research
(ii). The researchers and respondents
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 (iii). Research area
(iv). Budget and timeframe

RESEARCH REPORT
This is the last stage in conducting a field research whereby the finding, obtained in the research are
documented or published and being handed over to the appropriate authority for action to be taken or kept
for other to see it.
Research report; a detailed account of the research experience from selection and definition of the
problem, formulation of hypotheses, gathering, analyzing and interpreting data, testing of
hypotheses, making conclusion and suggesting further research in the related problem area

Content Title Page/preliminary information

This page contains: the research title, author names, institution, faculty/department, month & year of
submission, research supervisor (s).
Abstract
A good abstract explains in one line why the study is important. It then goes on to give a summary of
major methodologies used, key obtained results, conclusion and recommendations. The final
sentences explain the major implications of the accomplished work. A good abstract is concise,
readable, and quantitative. The length should be a 1-page paragraph, approximately, 300-400 words.
Abstracts generally do not have citations. Information in the title should not be repeated. It should be
explicit and use numbers where appropriate.
Acronyms/abbreviation
Beware not to confuse ‘acronym and Abbreviation’ as the three are often interchanged, yet they
are quite distinct. The main point of reference is that abbreviations are merely a series of letters
while acronyms form new words and abbreviations, and acronyms are typically considered informal
and should be carefully considered and defined before including them in more formal writings.
Certification
I certify that this project report titled is the bonafide work of Mr/ Ms/Mrs
..who carried out the research under my supervision.
I certify further that, to the best of my knowledge, the work reported herein does not form part of any
other project report or dissertation on the basis of which a degree or award was conferred on an earlier
occasion on this or any other candidate.
Names and signature of the supervisor: .
Name and signature of the HOD:
Date: .

Dedication
The dedication page is optional. It is not counted, numbered or listed in the table of contents. It is
used to acknowledge those who have supported you during graduate studies. This is not typically the
place to recognize those who assisted you in your academic research, which is done on the required
acknowledgements page. There are no restrictions on the style or format.
Acknowledgement
Thank advisor/supervisor(s) and anyone who helped you: technically (including materials, supplies)
intellectually (assistance, advice) financially (for example, departmental support, and travel grants).
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Table of contents
This lists all headings and subheadings with page numbers, and indent for subheadings.
List of figures
It should include a short title for each figure (but not the whole caption) and corresponding page
numbers in the text file.
List of tables
It should include a short title for each table (but not the whole caption) and corresponding page numbers
in the text file.

Chapter One: Introduction

Background
Be sure to include a hook at the beginning of this introductory part. This is just a statement of something
sufficiently interesting to motivate/draw the readers in and make them want to read the rest of the thesis.
It can be an important/interesting general or national scientific knowledge under which the study falls.
This section should contain sufficient background information to allow the reader understand the context
and significance of the question the author is trying to address. Remember to include proper
acknowledgement (citation) of the previous similar work on which you are building. The next paragraphs
in the introduction should then go on to explain why the current work was necessary (your work, of
course).
Problem statement
A problem statement is a brief overview of the issues or problems existing in the concerned area selected
for the research. It is an explanation of the issues prevalent in a particular sector which drives the
researcher to take interest in that sector for in-depth study and analysis, so as to understand and solve
them. This focuses on why the study was undertaken, or why the thesis was written. Do not repeat the
abstract.
Research question(s)
Developing a good research question is one of the first critical steps in the research process. A research
question is an answerable inquiry into a specific concern or issue. It is the initial step in a research project.
The 'initial step' means after you have an idea of what you want to study, the research question is the first
active step in the research project. The research question should be a clear, focused question that
summarizes the issue that the researcher will investigate. Without a question, you can't have a hypothesis.
Without the hypothesis, you won't know how to study what you're interested in.
Hypothesis
At its most basic, the research hypothesis states what the researcher expects to find – it is the
tentative answer to the research question that guides the entire study.
Objectives
General Objective
The objectives provide an accurate description of the specific actions you will take in order to reach
the aim of the study. As with the problem formulation, the overall objective should be framed in a
single sentence. The overall objective should be written as an infinitive sentence.
Specific Objectives
A specific objective consists of one infinitive sentence and should be phrased in a way that makes it
possible to draw a conclusion from within the scope of the thesis. The more precisely you formulate your
specific objectives, the simpler it will be to define the type of study and which method(s) you will use in

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your further research. Based on the above overall objective, the following specific objectives can be
formulated:
A thesis is not a place to summarize everything you have ever read on a subject. Explain what will and
will not be included.
Significance of research
The proposal should demonstrate the originality of your intended Research. You should therefore explain
why your research is important (for example, by explaining how your research builds on and adds to the
current state of knowledge in the field or by setting out reasons why it is timely to research your proposed
topic)
Structure/Organization of the Study
This is a summary/a road map that may guide readers through the reading and understanding of the
dissertation. In this activity, you will provide readers with a roadmap to your dissertation that illustrates
what they should expect that is how the study is organized and conducted from chapter one up to chapter
five.

Chapter Two: Literature Review

In the literature review section, the author should briefly cite previous research in the study area. This
section should also cite those who had the idea or ideas first, as well as those who have done the most
recent and relevant related work.

Chapter Three: Methodology

Information to allow the reader to assess the believability of your results. Information needed by
another researcher to replicate your experiment. The description of your materials, procedure,
theory, calculations, techniques, equipment, calibration including plots, is done in this section.
The description of your analytical methods, including reference to any specialized statistical
software is also done here. Do not include descriptions of results.

Chapter Four: Presentation and Discussion of Findings

The results are actual statements of observations, including statistics, tables and graphs. They also
indicate information on range of variation. This section, mentions negative as well as positive results. In
this chapter, do not interpret results.

Chapter Five: Conclusions and Recommendations

Conclusions
Refer back to problem stated, and describe the conclusions that you reached from carrying out this
investigation, summarize new observations, new interpretations, and new insights that have resulted from
the present work. Include the broader implications of your results. Do not repeat word for word the
abstract, introduction or discussion.
Recommendations
Include when appropriate (most of the time), remedial actions to solve the problems. Further
research to fill in gaps in your understanding. Directions for future investigations on this or related
topics.

Citations and References Citations

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With an adequate reference, a reader could, by going to the library, or a search engine, achieve a
sophisticated understanding of the context and significance of the study. Cite all ideas, concepts, and
text, data that are not your own if you make a statement, back it up with your own data or a
reference.
Examples of in-text citations:
Cite single-author references by the surname of the author (followed by year of the publication in
parenthesis).
For example: According to Hays (1994), the population growth is one of the greatest environmental
concerns facing future generations.
Cite double-author references by the surnames of both authors (followed by year of the publication
in parenthesis).
For example: Simpson and Hays (1994).
Cite more than double-author references by the surname of the first author followed by et al. and
then the Year of the publication.
For example: Pfirman, Simpson and Hays would be: Pfirman et al. (1994).

2. References
You can use footnotes or any reference other software, but the essential is to list all references cited in the
text-file in alphabetical order using the format below for different types of materials cited. It is acceptable
to put the initials of the individual authors behind their last names, e.g. Pfirman, S.L., Stute, M., Simpson,
H.J., and Hays, J (1996) followed by the research title, the publishing journal and the page numbers.
Use ‘Hanging by 038 inch’ for indentation, ‘single space’ for line spacing and leave 12points after
each reference.
Journal articles:
Hunt, S. (1966). Carbohydrate and amino acid composition of the egg capsules of the whelk. Nature,
210, 436-437.
Pfirman, S.L., M. Stute, H.J. Simpson, and J. Hays (1996) Undergraduate research at Barnard and
Columbia, Journal of Research, 11, 213-214.
Stute, M., J.F. Clark, P. Schlosser, W.S. Broecker, and G. Bonani (1995). A High Altitude
Continental Palaeo-temperature Record Derived From Noble Gases Dissolved In Groundwater From
the San Juan Basin, New Mexico. Quat. Res., 43, 209-220.
Websites
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (1997). Commonly asked questions about ozone.
http://www.noaa.gov/public- affairs/grounders/ozo1.html , accessed on 27th September 1997.
Books
Pechenik, J.A. (1987).A short guide to writing about biology. Harper Collins Publishers, New York,
194pp.
Book Chapters
Pitelka, D.R., and F.M. Child (1964). Review of ciliary structure and function. In: Biochemistry and
Physiology of Protozoa, Vol. 3 (S.H. Hutner, editor), Academic Press, New York, 131-198.
Lecture notes
Sambrotto, R. (1997). Lecture notes, Environmental Data Analysis, Barnard College, October 2,
1997.
News papers

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New York Times (1/15/00). PCBs in the Hudson still an issue, A2.

Appendices
This is a list of all relevant information in support of the study.
All the raw data
Reference data/materials not easily available (theses are used as a resource by the department and other
students).
Tables (where more than 1-2 pages).
Calculations (where more than 1-2 pages).
If you consulted a large number of references but did not cite all of them, you might want to include a list
of additional resource material.
List of equipment used for an experiment or details of complicated procedures.

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