Aristo Hist BK 2A Topic 7

Journey Through History - New Topic-based Series Study Notes
Topic 6 European colonial expansion
Journey Through History -

New Topic-based Series
Study Notes
Topic 6:
European colonial expansion
©2021 Aristo Educational Press Ltd. HN2A_SN_TOPIC_6-1

Impact
Impact of
of European
European colonial
colonial expansion
expansion (p.126-132)
(p.126-132) Main reasons (p.113-114)
Economic aspect
Strong demands for resources and markets
Huge population
Journey Through History - New Topic-based Series Study Notes and resources in Asia and Africa
Political aspect
Topic 6 European colonial expansion Limited room for expansion in Europe
Rise and development of nationalism
Social and cultural aspects: Ideas of the 'white
man's burden' and spreading Christianity
Background
Background ofof and
and reasons
reasons for
for the
the early
early expansion
expansion Background
Background of
of and
and reasons
reasons for
for the
the later
later expansion
expansion
(early-16th
(early-16th to
to late-18th
late-18th centuries)
centuries) (p.107-108)
(p.107-108) (late-19th
(late-19th to
to early-20th
early-20th centuries)
centuries)
(p.112-114)
Background (p.107) Background (p.112-113)

Discovery of new sea routes and new lands: Ambition enhanced by early colonial expansion
Europeans successfully opened up new sea
routes to Asia and Africa, and also discovered Independence of colonies in the Americas
the Americas.
Supremacy of European countries
Main reasons (p.108)

Political aspect: expansion of territory
Economic aspect: developing trade and exploiting
local resources
Social and cultural aspects: spreading Christianity
and the pursuit of religious freedom
Making
Making and
and formation
formation of
of colonial
colonial policy
policy (p.118)
(p.118)
Earlier
Earlier on:
on: focused
focused mainly
mainly on
on trade
trade and
and resources
resources
Later:
Later: more
more concerned
concerned with
with extending
extending their
their rule
rule overseas
overseas Ways
Ways of
of European
European colonial
colonial expansion
expansion (p.119-125)
(p.119-125)
Political
Political expansion:
expansion: Establishing
Establishing footholds,
footholds, spheres
spheres of
of
influence,
influence, protectorates
protectorates and
and colonies
colonies
Economic
Economic expansion:
expansion: Exploitation
Exploitation of
of resources
resources (natural,
(natural, land
land
and
and human
human resources),
resources), Control
Control over
over colonial
colonial markets
markets
Social
Social and
and cultural
cultural expansion:
expansion: Spreading
Spreading religion
religion and
and culture
culture
Impact on the Americas, Asia and Africa (p.128-132)

Political aspect: accelerating modernization, causing discrimination and oppression
Impact on Europe (p.126) Economic aspect ： Infrastructure improvement, causing economic exploitation and
Forming a European-centred destruction of traditional economy
world economic system Social and cultural aspects: Improvements in education and living standards,
Causing colonial disputes and problems of plagues and slavery and changes in population structure
conflicts

A. Introduction to European colonial expansion
 From the 16th to the early 20th centuries, European countries carried out colonial
expansion. This period can be further divided into two stages.
 Early 16th to late 18th centuries - Early expansion
 Following the start of the Voyages of Discovery in the 15th century, European
countries began to expand overseas.
 From the early 16th to the late 18th centuries, they expanded into Asia, Africa
and the Americas in various ways, mainly in the Americas.
 This wave of colonial expansion is called the 'Old Imperialism'.
 Late 19th to early 20th centuries - Later expansion
 In the late 19th century, European countries started a new round of expansion in
Asia and Africa. Several new colonial countries became involved in the
expansion.
 By the early 20th century, most of Africa and Southeast Asia had become
European colonies.
 This wave of colonial expansion is known as the 'New Imperialism'.
Early colonial expansion Later colonial expansion
Period Early 16th - late 18th centuries Late 19th - early 20th centuries
Major
European Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, Britain,
Britain, France, Germany, Italy
countries France
involved
 Ambition enhanced by the early colonial
expansion
Background Discovery of new sea routes and new lands
 Independence of the colonies in the Americas
 Supremacy of European countries
 Political aspect: to expand territories  Political aspect: limited room for territorial
 Economic aspect: to expand trade expansion in Europe; rise and development of
Reasons and plunder local resources nationalism
 Social and cultural aspects: to  Economic aspect: strong demand for resources
spread Christianity and pursue and markets; huge population and resources in
Asia and Africa

religious freedom  Social and cultural aspects: idea of the 'white
man's burden' and to preach

Guiding Question
B. Reasons for European colonial expansion  What were the reasons for
European colonial expansion
since the 16th century?
1. Background of and reasons for the early expansion
(a) Background: discovery of new sea routes and new lands
 In the 15th and 16th centuries, European navigators started naval explorations.
The Voyages of Discovery made great achievements.
 Europeans successfully opened up new sea routes to Asia and Africa. They also
discovered the Americas.
- This broadened their horizons greatly. They built coastal footholds in the
Americas, Asia and Africa, laying the foundations for future expansion.
In 1488, Portuguese navigator Diaz sailed

from Western Europe to the Cape of Good
Hope, Africa. Between 1497 and 1498,
1. Sailed directly from
Portuguese navigator da Gama sailed
Western Europe to
around the Cape of Good Hope and
India
reached Calicut, India. His journey
opened up a new direct sea route from
Diaz
Western Europe to India.
In 1492, Italian navigator Columbus led a
Spanish fleet and sailed westwards. He
2. Discovered the reached present-day West Indies, which

Americas includes the Bahamas and Cuba.
Columbus discovered the Americas
hitherto unknown to Europeans. Columbus
In 1519, Portuguese navigator Magellan

led a Spanish fleet and sailed westwards.
3. Completed the first
He reached the southern tip of the
circumnavigation of
Americas and sailed to the Pacific. In
Earth
1522, his fleet returned to Spain. This was
the first global circumnavigation.
Magellan

Major voyages between 1487 and 1522
(b) Main reasons
(i) Political aspect

 After the discovery of new sea routes and new lands, strong European kings
wanted to expand into Asia and Africa to increase their territories and economic
power. This could enhance their prestige.
(ii) Economic aspect
 Mercantilism, an economic theory stressing the accumulation of wealth, began to

rise in Europe in the 16th century. It reached its climax in the 17th and 18th
centuries.
 Under the influence of Mercantilism, European countries sped up overseas
expansion to develop trade and exploit local resources.
(iii) Social and cultural aspects
 Europeans wanted to expand overseas to spread Christianity.

 Some supported exploring new lands in pursuit of freedom.
- For example, British Puritans, in pursuit of religious freedom, became the
early colonists in North America.

European colonies in the Americas

in the mid-18th century
1. Background of and reasons for the later expansion
 In the late 19th century, European countries were more ambitious and powerful.
They started a new wave of colonial expansion and actively built colonies in
Asia and Africa.
(a) Background
(i) Ambition enhanced by early colonial expansion
 After the Voyages of Discovery, European countries competed to build overseas

trading footholds and colonies. A European-centred world trading system was
formed.
 Economic exploitation created wealth, and thus European countries became more
ambitious to expand overseas. Existing footholds became the bases for
expanding colonial rule.
(ii) Independence of colonies in the Americas
 In the 18th and 19th centuries, the European colonies in the Americas became
independent one after another.

 In 1823, the United States announced the 'Monroe Doctrine'. It demanded that
the Americas should no longer be regarded as targets of colonization.
 European countries therefore sought to build new colonies in Asia and Africa
after losing their colonies in the Americas.
(iii) Supremacy of European countries
 After the Industrial Revolution, European countries' technological and military

strength increased significantly.
 In the 18th and 19th centuries, traditional Asian powers such as China and India
began to decline, while the Southeast Asian and African countries were weak.
 Difference in national power aroused European countries’ ambitions to expand
into Asia and Africa.
(b) Main reasons
(i) Economic aspect
 Strong demands for resources and markets

 The Industrial Revolution drove European countries to find raw materials,
markets and investment opportunities overseas.
 They expanded colonial rule to develop and consolidate their economic interests.
 Huge population and resources in Asia and Africa

 There were cheap labour and raw materials in Asia and Africa.
 Cotton in India was a source of raw material for the British textile industry.
 In Africa, copper and diamonds were discovered in the mid-19th century. This
fuelled European ambitions to scramble for Africa.
(ii) Political aspect
 Limited room for expansion in Europe

 Following the nationalist revolutions in the first half of the 19th century,
Germany and Italy were unified in the 1870s. The map of Europe largely took
shape. The land for expansion in Europe was limited.
- Therefore, European countries expanded abroad.

 Rise and development of nationalism

 Nationalism arose in Europe in the early 19th century and first advocated
national independence.
 Later, it advocated gaining national wealth and glory by overpowering other
peoples.
- This idea urged European countries to speed up aggression against other
peoples. They carried out colonial expansion to gain national glory and
enhance international influence.
 In the 19th century, idea of the 'white man's burden' became popular in Europe.
 Europeans (white people) believed that it was their duty to educate the inferior
Asians and Africans (non-white people).
 Some missionaries supported overseas expansion in order to spread Christianity
to Asia and Africa.
Western colonial
expansion in
Southeast Asia in the
early 20th century
European colonial
expansion in Africa in
the early 20th century

C. The making of European colonial policy and Guiding Questions

 How did European countries colonize
the impact of colonial expansion the Americas, Africa and Asia?
 What impact did European colonial
expansion have on these regions?
1. The making of European colonial policy
(a) Formation of colonial policy in early expansion

period
 From the early 16th to the late 18th centuries, European countries expanded to
increase wealth.
 Early colonial expansion focused mainly on trade and resources. Territorial
expansion and political control were less important.
- At the time, European countries set up colonies in the Americas. However, in
Asia and Africa, they mainly built coastal footholds to trade and exploit local
resources.
(b) Change of colonial policy in later expansion period
 With rising nationalism and national power in the late 19th century, European
powers had greater territorial and political ambitions besides acquiring markets
and resources.
 European powers became more concerned with extending their rule overseas.
- Therefore, they actively established spheres of influence, protectorates and
colonies in Asia and Africa.
Changes of European colonial policy from early expansion period to later expansion period
"Resources and markets are what matter. Overseas "Resources, markets, overseas territories
territories are of secondary importance ..." and national glory are all important!"

2. Ways of European colonial expansion
(a) Political expansion
(i) Establishing footholds

 During the early expansion period: Europeans set up coastal footholds in the
Americas, Asia and Africa to obtain supplies and trade.
- Examples include Goa in India and Ceuta in Africa.
 Later, they used these footholds as bases to expand inland.
 European countries also set up chartered companies. These companies enjoyed a
trade monopoly in specific footholds or regions and administered the occupied
areas.
- For example, the governor-generals of the British East India Company and the
Dutch East India Company were allowed to administer India and Indonesia
respectively.
(ii) Establishing spheres of influence

 Spheres of influence: They were zones controlled by European colonial powers
with special rights.
 European countries set up spheres of influence when they faced keen
competition and could not establish sole control in a particular country or region.
 European colonial powers enjoyed exclusive rights to trade, and build factories
and railways in their spheres of influence.
 In the late 19th century, countries such as Britain, France, Germany and Russia
set up their spheres of influence in China.
(iii) Establishing protectorates
 Protectorates: They were countries or regions protected by European colonial
powers.
 European colonial powers forced other countries to sign treaties under the pretext
of 'protection' to form a suzerain-protectorate relationship.
 The suzerains ruled their protectorates through local rulers. This could lower
administrative costs and reduce people's resistance.
 These rulers must follow the orders of the suzerains.
 The Mosquito Coast in the Americas, Somaliland in Africa and the Maldives in
Asia were British protectorates.
(iv) Establishing colonies

 Colonies: They belonged and had lost their sovereignty to their suzerains.
 European colonial powers set up new governments in their colonies to replace
existing local governments. They appointed colonial officials (such as governors)
to rule directly.
- Famous example: Vietnam
Footholds
 Introduction: coastal bases for European countries to expand to the
interior
 Sovereignty: belonged to local rulers who allowed Europeans to get
supplies and trade
 Examples: Goa (India), Ceuta (Africa)
Spheres of influence
 Introduction: zones with special rights set up by European countries
when they could not solely control a particular country or region
 Sovereignty: belonged to local rulers who were forced to grant special
rights to European countries within the spheres of influence
 Example: China (Asia)
Protectorates
 Introduction: countries or regions protected by European
countries
 Sovereignty: belonged to local rulers who had lost their power
 Examples: The Mosquito Coast (the Americas), Somaliland
(Africa) and the Maldives (Asia)
Colonies
 Introduction: overseas territories of European countries
 Sovereignty: belonged to European suzerains which replaced
the existing governments and appointed colonial officials to
rule directly
 Example: Vietnam (Asia)

(b) Economic expansion
(i) Exploitation of resources
 Natural resources
 European countries plundered the natural resources of their occupied territories.
These resources were used as raw materials or were exported.
- Britain mined gold and diamonds in South Africa;
- Spain exploited silver and other minerals in Mexico.
 Land resources
 European countries built plantations in their occupied territories.
 They forced local people to grow single cash crops such as spices and tobacco.
These products were then sold to the suzerains at low prices.
- Ceylon (present-day Sri Lanka) in Asia was forced to grow tea leaves;
- Central and South America mainly grew sugar cane and cocoa beans.

Human
resources
 European countries captured many American Indians and imported African
slaves to work for their plantations in the Americas. The Atlantic slave trade
began.
 Between the 16th and 19th centuries, more than 15 million Africans were sold to
the Americas as slaves.
(ii) Control over colonial markets
 European countries adopted a policy of trade monopoly.

- Colonies were not allowed to trade directly with other countries or colonies, or
to produce similar products exported by their suzerains.
- This policy protected the trading interests of the suzerains without being
threatened by the colonies.
 In addition, after the start of the Industrial Revolution, European countries
obtained cheap raw materials from their colonies, and sold their expensive
surplus industrial products back to colonies.
 Some countries even set up factories in the colonies, using local cheap labour to
make and sell products directly.

(b) Social and cultural expansion
 The desire to spread religion and the idea of the 'white man's burden' encouraged
European countries to spread their religion and culture overseas.
 Measures included:
 Building many Christian churches and spreading Christianity;
 Making European languages such as English, French and Spanish the local
official languages;
 Making European languages the medium of instruction in schools, and
introducing modern Western subjects such as chemistry and geography;
 Hiring Western-educated local people as civil servants, thus more people were
attracted to receive Western education.
3. Impact of European colonial expansion
(a) Impact on Europe
(i) Forming a European-centred world economic system
 European countries set up huge colonial empires in the Americas, Asia and
Africa to get cheap local resources. They then exported industrial products at
high prices, and thus successfully promoted their own economic development.
 In the meantime, the development of international trade also tended to satisfy
their interests. A European-centred world economic system was formed in the
early 20th century.
(ii) Causing colonial disputes and conflicts
 The competition for colonies and trade among European countries caused
disputes.
 In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the scramble for colonies in Africa and
Asia led to a series of conflicts among the powers.
- The international situation grew tense.
(b) Impact on the Americas, Asia and Africa

(i) Political aspect
 Modernization
 Some countries carried out reforms in response to European colonial expansion.
- For example, China, Japan and Siam (later Thailand) introduced political,
economic and diplomatic reforms to promote national modernization in the
late 19th century.
- Among them, Japan became a world power after a series of successful
reforms.
 European countries introduced Western modern administrative systems in their
colonies and improved local governance.
- The introduction of Western parliamentary and judicial systems helped
establish the spirit of the rule of law.
- Some colonies such as Malaysia kept the colonial administrative and judicial
systems after independence from colonial rule.
 Discrimination and oppression

 Colonial rule was characterized by racial discrimination and colonized people
faced unfair political treatment.
- European colonists enjoyed many special rights. They had great political
power and were appointed as major officials;
- Local people did not share real power and could only become junior officials.
- France, Portugal and the Netherlands even introduced high-handed policies,
which suppressed the colonized people by force.
(ii) Economic aspect
 Infrastructure improvement
 To facilitate transportation, European countries improved the transport systems
in their colonies by building roads, railways and piers.
- For example, owing to the railways built by the British, present-day India has
the fourth largest railway network in the world.
 Many economic activities also developed around these infrastructures.
 Economic exploitation
 Europeans plundered the natural resources of the colonies and monopolized
plantations, mines, oil wells, etc.
 Slave trade greatly reduced the workforce in Africa, making the economic
development of Africa lag behind other regions.
 Colonial rulers mainly developed agriculture and mining, and ignored industry in
their colonies. This hindered the colonies' long-term economic development.
 Destruction of traditional economy

 European suzerains built large plantations and forced their colonies to grow cash
crops such as rubber and pepper.
 They also sold their surplus industrial goods Colonies
(names of Main cash
to the colonies, leading to the decline of Continents present-day crops
local traditional handicraft industries. countries)
Coffee
- These measures destroyed the traditional Brazil
Americas bean
self-sufficient economy of the colonies. Cuba Sugar cane
Malaysia Rubber
Asia
They also greatly reduced the size of Indonesia Spices
Ghana Cocoa bean
farmlands for growing food, causing Africa
Senegal Peanut
many famines in the colonies.
 Improvements in education and living standards

 European colonial rulers and missionaries introduced modern education, Western
ideas, science and technology to their colonies. This broadened the horizons of
the colonized people.
 Some European countries built hospitals and introduced telegraph systems which
improved the living conditions of the colonized people.

Problems
of
plagues and slavery

 Infectious diseases such as smallpox and measles brought by European colonists
led to serious plagues in the Americas. American Indians died in huge numbers
from infections and many tribes went extinct.
 Besides, Europeans started the Atlantic slave trade. Numerous African slaves
were killed during trafficking and work.

 Changes in population structure

 European expansion changed the ethnic composition of population in different
regions.
 In the Americas:
- American Indians were nearly extinct due to migration and wars;
- European colonists became the majority of population;
- Africans sold to the Americas also became a new major ethnic group in the
region.
 In Asia:
- Colonial rulers imported Chinese and Indians to Southeast Asia as workers,
multi-ethnic societies were formed;
- Some Chinese and Indians married Southeast Asian natives. New ethnic
groups emerged.

*History extended: East Asia during European colonial expansion: China
 Background: China in the early 19th century
 In 1644, the Manchus set up the Qing Dynasty in China.

 China's economy was self-sufficient. The Qing Dynasty, therefore, did not value
foreign trade.
 In 1757, the Qing Dynasty imposed more foreign trade regulations. It only
opened Guangzhou to foreign trade.
 Foreign merchants were unhappy with the trade regulations.
 Western demand for Chinese goods such as tea, silk and porcelain was great.
However, China demanded few foreign goods. Western countries faced an
increasing trade imbalance.
 European countries were unhappy and wanted to change this situation. A conflict
between China and the West over trade was about to happen.
 China's first response: starting military resistance
 Westerners exported opium to China

 Western countries including Britain exported large amounts of opium to China.
- They wanted to remedy their trade imbalance with China.
 In 1839, the Qing government had banned opium trade and ordered to destroy all
the opium stocks.
 Britain believed that the act harmed its interests. A war between China and
Britain was about to break out.
 Results of two foreign wars

 1840: The First Opium War (1840-1842) broke out.
- The Qing government was defeated and was forced to sign the Treaty of
Nanjing (1842).
 1856: Britain and France attacked China again. The Second Opium War (1856-
1860) broke out.
- The Qing Dynasty lost the war and was forced to sign the Treaty of Tianjin
(1858) and the Convention of Beijing (1860).

 By the 1860s, China had been defeated in two foreign wars and was forced to
sign several unequal treaties. This showed that China's policy of military
resistance could not stop Western expansion.
A summary of the treaties signed after the Opium Wars
First Opium War Second Opium War

Treaty signed Treaty of Nanjing Treaty of Tianjin Convention of Beijing
(year) (1842)* (1858) (1860)
Territory ceded Hong Kong Island / Kowloon Peninsula
Indemnities paid to
Britain: 4 million taels
Britain and France in the
of silver
Indemnity paid 21 million silver dollars Treaty of Tianjin both
France: 2 million taels
increased to 8 million
of silver
taels of silver
Number of new
5 10 1
ports opened
Rights of inland
The tariff would be fixed Allowed missionaries to
Important rights navigation; allowed
by the Chinese and British buy land and houses in
granted foreign diplomats to live
government China
in Beijing
*The Treaty of Humen（虎門條約）signed in 1843 was supplementary to the Treaty of Nanjing. It granted
extraterritoriality ( 治外法權 , British criminals in China being tried by British laws only) and most-
favoured-nation treatment ( 最惠國待遇 , Britain enjoyed any and all special rights that China granted to
other countries).
 China's second response: carrying out reforms to strengthen itself
 Self-Strengthening Movement
 After China's repeated defeat in wars, the Qing government carried out Western-
style reforms. The Self-Strengthening Movement (1861-1895) was the first
attempt.

 Hundred Days' Reform

 China was defeated in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895).
- This showed that China remained weak and the Self-Strengthening Movement
had failed.
 Foreign powers turned China into their spheres of influence. Faced with the
danger of being partitioned, the Qing government started the Hundred Days'
Reform (1898) to save China.
 Late Qing Reform

 The Hundred Days' Reform failed after about a hundred days.
 In 1900, Western countries including Britain, Germany and France started the
Eight-Power Allied Expedition. China was defeated and forced to sign the Boxer
Protocol (1901).
 The Qing government started the Late Qing Reform (1901-1911) to save the
dynasty.
A summary of the three reform movements of China in the 19th century
Self-Strengthening
Hundred Days' Reform Late Qing Reform
Movement
Period 1861-1895* 1898 1901-1911
Mainly military and Mainly military and education Mainly political and education
Features
economic reforms reforms reforms
 dismissed idle officials,  started constitutional
simplified government reforms, introduced local
 built arsenals and
structure elections and prepared to
set up a new navy
 set up a modern army and introduce constitutional
 developed trade
navy rule
Main and industry
 reformed the education  reformed the education
measures  built railways and
system and set up modern system; abolished the
telegraph systems
schools civil service
 sent students to
 encouraged agricultural, examinations
study abroad
industrial and commercial  introduced Western
developments military training
*It is generally understood that China’s defeat in the Sino-Japanese War marked the failure of the Self-
Strengthening Movement. However, some scholars believe that the Self-Strengthening Movement did
not end in 1895 as some policies and initiatives, such as Zongli Yamen ( 總理衙門), were still effective
after 1895.
 China's third response: starting a revolution to save the country
 The reforms of the Qing government laid the foundation for China’s
modernization. However, they failed to cope with domestic problems and foreign
aggression.
 Some Chinese advocated saving the country through radical means.
 In 1911, a revolution broke out and spread throughout the country.
 In 1912, the Republic of China was founded. Sun Yixian became the Provisional
President; later, the Qing emperor abdicated.
 However, the new republican government was also incapable of stopping foreign
aggression towards China in the early half of the 20th century.

*History extended: East Asia during European colonial expansion: Japan
 Background: Japan in the early 19th century
 After 1603: the Tokugawa Shogun and his government (called the shogunate or
bakufu) ruled Japan. Japan was a feudal country, but the emperor was the ruler
only in name.
 1637: the Tokugawa Shogun introduced a policy of seclusion (called sakoku).
- Only a few Dutch, Korean and Chinese merchants were allowed to live and
trade in Nagasaki;
- However, they could not contact the Japanese population freely;
- This situation lasted until the early 19th century.
 Japan's first response: opening its doors peacefully
 The coming of Perry

 In 1853, American Commodore Perry arrived in Japan with four warships, and
demanded Japan open its ports to foreign trade. He threatened to return with
more ships the following year.
 The signing of the Treaty of Kanagawa

 In 1854, Perry led a bigger fleet to Japan.
 After witnessing the defeat of China earlier, the Shogunate decided to avoid war.
- The Shogunate signed the Treaty of Kanagawa with the United States. Japan
agreed to open two trading ports.
 The signing of the Ansei Treaties

 In 1858, the Shogunate signed the Ansei Treaties with the United States, Britain,
France, Russia and the Netherlands. Japan gave up some sovereign rights in
exchange for peace. The policy of seclusion of the Shogunate came to an end.
 Japan's second response: carrying out reforms to strengthen itself
 The incapability of the Shogunate provoked civil wars in Japan.

 1868: The Shogunate was overthrown. Emperor Meiji was restored as head of
Japan. This event was known as the Meiji Restoration.

 The new Meiji government carried out the Meiji Modernization (1868-1912).
- It introduced modern reforms in various aspects.
 Political modernization: abolished the feudal system to centralize authority;

introduced constitutional monarchy.
 Economic modernization: reformed the currency; introduced Western
technology and supported private capitalists to promote industrial and
commercial development; improved transportation and communication.
 Education modernization: introduced compulsory education; introduced
modern subjects such as science and geography; sent students to study abroad.
 Military modernization: introduced conscription; modelled Japan's armed
forces after the British navy and German army.
 Judicial modernization: set up the Ministry of Justice; introduced new criminal,
civil and commercial codes.
 Japan's third response: became a colonial power
 The Meiji Modernization strengthened Japan greatly.

 It defeated China in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) and then defeated
Russia in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). It was the first Asian country to
defeat a European power in modern history.
 In the early 20th century, Japan successfully resisted Western aggression.
- It ended the unequal treaties with the powers and formed an alliance with
Britain.
 Later, it even expanded in East Asia and became one of the colonial powers.
- It annexed Taiwan, the Pescadores and Korea.

 Summary: Comparison of China and Japan's responses to Western

expansion
China Japan
 Both countries allowed only limited foreign trade and contact in the early
19th century.
 Both countries were forced to open their doors in the mid-19th century.
Similarities
 Both countries were forced to sign unequal treaties with Western powers.
 Afterwards, both countries carried out Western-style reforms to strengthen
themselves.
Differences
Japan opened to foreign trade peacefully.

Course of China was forced to open its doors
Japan accepted foreign demands to open
opening up after losing the Opium Wars.
its doors to avoid war.
 The treaties, signed after
 The treaties were signed without
China's defeats in wars, were
Content of wars.
very harsh.
unequal  Japan did not have to cede land and
 China had to cede land, pay
treaties pay indemnities, but lost some
heavy indemnities, and lost
sovereign rights.
some sovereign rights.
 The reform movements failed
 The Meiji Reforms changed Japan
to strengthen China. In the
into a strong modern power. Japan
early 20th century, China faced
was able to maintain its
the danger of being partitioned.
Results of independence. It even had colonies in
 The 1911 Revolution set up the
the reform East Asia after winning foreign wars.
Republic of China and
movements  By the early 20th century, Japan was
overthrew the Qing Dynasty.
able to gain equality with the West. It
Foreign powers continued to
ended the unequal treaties and formed
enjoy their special rights and
an alliance with Britain.
territorial concessions.
 China did not respond to Western expansion as successfully as Japan.
Conclusion  In the early 20th century, China remained weak while Japan became a
world power and even became aggressive towards China.

Time Important event Extended point

 This proved that the Atlantic and Indian
Diaz sailed to the Cape of Good Hope, Ocean were connected
1488
Africa  This also led to further voyages exploring
the new trade route to India
Columbus reached the West Indies and  The Spanish discovered the Americas
1492
discovered the Americas which hitherto unknown to Europeans
Da Gama sail around the Cape of Good  He opened up a new sea route from
1497
Hope and reached Calicut, India Western Europe to India
 Magellan became the first navigator to
Magellan led a Spanish fleet and sailed
1498 enter the Pacific Ocean through the
westwards
Atlantic Ocean
16th European countries started the early
century colonial expansion
 Magellan's fleet completed the first
1522
circumnavigation of the Earth
1526 The Atlantic slave trade began
Spanish Armada was defeated by  Spain’s naval supremacy was replaced by
1588
Britain England.
 Britain built and administered overseas
British East India Company was
1600 colonies through the chartered company,
established
and obtained great military power
Britain and France fought for control
1754  This became the Seven Years' War
over the colonies in North America
1756 Seven Years' War began
 It demanded that the Americas should no
longer be regarded as targets of
The United States announced the colonization
1823
Monroe Doctrine  European countries therefore sought to
build new colonies in Asia and Africa after
losing their colonies in the Americas
 The map of Europe had largely taken
shape, and the demand for land was
1870s Germany and Italy were unified
further intensified
 European countries expanded abroad

1874 British East India Company disbanded

Late-19th European countries started the late
century colonial expansion
European countries held the Berlin  European countries reached a consensus
1884
Conference on the occupation of Africa
1885 Britain annexed Burma  This made the local situation tense
France and Germany competed for
1905  The two countries’ relations worsened
Morocco and caused conflicts

Reasons for European colonial expansion
1. Voyages of Discovery (15th – 16th centuries)

- It was a series of voyages initiated by voyagers. After more than a century, they
discovered new routes to Asia and Africa, and discovered the Americas.
2. Mercantilism
- An economic theory stressing the accumulation of wealth, began to rise in
Europe in the 16th century. It reached its climax in the 17th and 18th centuries.
Under its influence, European countries sped up overseas expansion to develop
trade and exploit local resources.
3. Monroe Doctrine (1823)

- It was announced by the United States, demanding that the Americas should no
longer be regarded as targets of colonization. European countries therefore
sought to build new colonies in Asia and Africa after losing their colonies in the
Americas.
4. Ideas of the ‘white man’s burden’

- In the 19th century, idea of the 'white man's burden' became popular in Europe.
Europeans (white people) believed that it was their duty to educate the inferior
Asians and Africans (non-white people) and accelerate local development.
Ways and impacts of European colonial expansion
1. Footholds
- Europeans set up coastal footholds in the Americas, Asia and Africa for getting
supplies and trade. Later, they used these footholds as bases to expand inland.
2. Chartered companies
- European countries also set up chartered companies. These companies enjoyed a
trade monopoly in specific footholds or regions and administered the occupied
areas. One example was the British East India Company.

3. Spheres of influence
- Spheres of influence were zones controlled by European colonial powers with
special rights.
- European countries set up spheres of influence when they faced keen
competition and could not establish sole control in a particular country or region.
4. Protectorates
- Protectorates were countries or regions protected by European colonial powers.
- European colonial powers forced other countries to sign treaties under the pretext
of 'protection' to form a suzerain-protectorate relationship.
5. Colonies
- Colonies lost their sovereignty and belonged to their suzerains.
- European colonial powers set up new governments in their colonies to replace
the existing local governments. They appointed colonial officials (such as
governors) to rule directly.

Diaz (1451-1500)
Portuguese navigator Diaz led his fleet south to
the Cape of Good Hope in the Southern region
of Africa. He passed the West coast of Africa
on his way.
Da Gama (1460-1524)
Portuguese navigator da Gama rounded the Cape of
Good Hope and sailed North, reaching Calicut, India
in 1498. His journey opened up a new sea route from
Western Europe to India.
Columbus (1450-1506)
In 1492, Italian navigator Columbus led a Spanish
fleet and sailed westwards. He reached the
present- day West Indies, which includes the
Bahamas and Cuba.
Magellan (1480-1521)
Portuguese navigator Magellan was the first
navigator to enter the Pacific Ocean by sailing
through the Atlantic. He was killed by Filipino
aboriginals when he reached the Philippines in
Asia. His fleet returned to Spain and completed
first global circumnavigation.

 Reasons for European colonial expansion: Background of and reasons for the
early expansion
Time span
 Time span: the early 16th to the late 18th centuries
and target
 Target regions: Asia, Africa and the Americas
regions
 Discovery of new sea routes and new lands
- The Voyages of Discovery between the 15th and 16th centuries
made great achievements
Background - Europeans successfully opened up new sea routes to Asia and
Africa. They also discovered the Americas.
- They built coastal footholds in the Americas, Asia and Africa,
laying the foundations for future expansion.
 Political aspect
- Strong European kings wanted to expand into Asia and Africa to
increase their territories and economic power. This could enhance
their prestige.
 Economic aspect
Main
- Under the influence of Mercantilism, European countries sped up
reasons
overseas expansion to develop trade and exploit local resources.
 Social and cultural aspects
- Spreading Christianity
- Some Europeans supported exploring new lands in pursuit of
religious freedom.

 Reasons for European colonial expansion: Background of and reasons for the
later expansion
Time span and  Time span: the late 19th to early 20th centuries
target regions  Target regions: Asia and Africa
 Ambition enhanced by early colonial expansion
- Economic exploitation created wealth, and thus Europeans countries
became more ambitious to expand overseas.
- Existing footholds became the bases for expanding colonial rule.
 Independence of colonies in the Americas
- In the 18th and 19th centuries, colonies in the Americas became
independent from colonial rule.
Background - European countries sought to build new colonies in Asia and Africa.
 Supremacy of European countries
- After the Industrial Revolution, European countries' technological and
military strength increased significantly.
- Traditional Asian powers such as China and India began to decline, while
Southeast Asian and African countries were weak.
- Difference in national power aroused European countries' ambitions to
expand into Asia and Africa.
Main reasons  Economic aspect
- Strong demands for resources and markets: European countries sought
raw materials and overseas markets for selling industrial goods
- Huge population and resources in Asia and Africa
 Political aspect
- Limited room for expansion in Europe: The map of Europe largely took
shape. The land for expansion in Europe was limited.
- Rise and development of nationalism
 Nationalism changed and later advocated national prosperity by
overpowering other peoples.
 This idea urged European countries to speed up aggression against
other peoples. They carried out colonial expansion to gain national
glory and enhance international influence.

 Social and cultural aspects

- Ideas of the 'white man's burden': Europeans (white people) believed
that it was their duty to educate the inferior Asians and Africans (non-
white people).
- Some missionaries supported overseas expansion in order to spread
Christianity to Asia and Africa.

 The making of European colonial policy and its impact of colonial expansion
 Formation of colonial policy in early expansion period

- Early colonial expansion focused mainly on trade and resources.
Territorial expansion and political control were less important.
- European countries set up colonies in the Americas. However, in Asia
The making of and Africa, they mainly built coastal footholds to trade and exploit local
European resources
colonial policy  Change of colonial policy in later expansion period
- European powers became more concerned with extending their rule
overseas
- They actively established spheres of influences, protectorates and
colonies in Asia and Africa
 Establishing footholds
- Introduction: coastal bases for European countries to expand to the
interior
- Sovereignty: belonged to local rulers who allowed Europeans to get
supplies and trade
- Examples: Goa (India), Ceuta (Africa)
 Spheres of influence
- Introduction: zones with special rights set up by European countries
which could not solely control a particular country or region
- Sovereignty: belonged to local rulers who were forced to grant special
Political
rights to European countries within the spheres of influence
expansion
- Example: China (Asia)
 Protectorates
- Introduction: countries or regions protected by European countries
- Sovereignty: belonged to local rulers who had lost their power
- Examples: the Mosquito Coast (the Americas), Somaliland (Africa) and
the Maldives (Asia)
 Colonies
- Introduction: overseas territories of European countries
- Sovereignty: belonged to European suzerains which replaced the existing

governments and appointed colonial officials to rule directly

- Example: Vietnam (Asia)
 Exploitation of resources
- Natural resources (raw materials and minerals), land resources (building
plantations) and human resources (slave trade)
- Control over colonial markets
 Trade monopoly: Colonies were not allowed to trade directly with other
Economic
countries or colonies, or to produce similar products exported by their
expansion
suzerains
 European countries acquired cheap raw materials from their colonies, and
at the same time sold expensive surplus industrial products to them.
 Some countries even set up factories in the colonies, using cheap labour
to make and sell products directly.
 Building many Christian churches and spreading Christianity;
 Making European languages such as English, French and Spanish the
local official languages;
Social and
 Making European languages the medium of instruction in schools.
cultural
Modern Western subjects such as chemistry and geography were
expansion
introduced;
 Hiring Western-educated local people as civil servants, thus more people
were attracted to receive Western education.

 Impact of European colonial expansion
 Forming a European-centred world economic system

- European countries acquired cheap local resources from their colonies, then
exported industrial products at high prices, and thus successfully promoted
their own economic development.
- A European-centred world economic system was formed in the early 20th
Impact on
century.
Europe
 Causing colonial disputes and conflicts
- In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the scramble for colonies in Africa
and Asia intensified.
- This led to a series of conflicts among the powers. The international situation
grew tense.
Political aspect
 Modernization
- Some countries carried out reforms in response to European colonial
expansion
 Examples: China, Japan and Siam (later Thailand)
- European countries introduced Western modern systems in their colonies
and improved local governance. The introduction of Western parliamentary
and judicial systems helped establish the spirit of the rule of law
Impact on  Example: Malaysia kept the colonial administrative and judicial systems after
the independence from colonial rule
Americas,
 Discrimination and oppression
Asia and
- Colonial rule was characterized by racial discrimination. Colonial people
Africa
faced unfair political treatment.
- France, Portugal and the Netherlands even introduced high-handed policies,
which suppressed the colonial people by force.
Economic aspect
 Infrastructure improvement
- To facilitate transportation, European countries improved the transport
systems in their colonies
 Owing to the railways built by the British, present-day India has the fourth

largest railway network in the world.

 Economic exploitation
- Europeans plundered the natural resources of the colonies and monopolized
plantations, mines, oil wells, etc.
- Slave trade greatly reduced the workforce in Africa, making the economic
development of Africa lag behind other regions
- Colonial rulers mainly developed agriculture and mining, and ignored
industry in their colonies. This hindered the colonies' long-term economic
development
 Destruction of traditional economy
- European suzerains built large plantations and forced their colonies to grow
cash crops such as rubber and pepper
- They also sold their surplus industrial goods to the colonies, leading to the
decline of local traditional handicraft industries
- These measures destroyed the traditional self-sufficient economy of the
colonies
- They also greatly reduced the size of farmlands for growing food, causing
many famines in the colonies
Social and cultural aspects
 Improvements in education and living standards
- European colonial rulers and missionaries introduced modern education,
Western ideas, science and technology to their colonies
 This broadened the horizons of the colonized people
- Some European countries built hospitals and introduced telegraph systems
 This improved the living conditions of the colonized people.
 Problems of plagues and slavery
- Infectious diseases such as smallpox and measles brought by European
colonists led to serious plagues in the Americas
 American Indians died in huge numbers from infections
- Europeans started the Atlantic slave trade
 Numerous African slaves were killed during trafficking and work
 Changes in population structure
- The Americas

 American Indians were nearly extinct due to migration and wars

 European colonists became the majority of population
 Africans sold to the Americas became a new major ethnic group in the region
- Asia
 Colonial rulers imported Chinese and Indians to Southeast Asia as workers,
multi-ethnic societies were formed
 Some Chinese and Indians married Southeast Asian natives. New ethnic
groups emerged.
1. Which continent did the Europeans discover through the ‘Voyages of Discovery’?
A. Africa
B. The Americas
C. Asia
D. Antarctica
2. Which of the following is NOT a reason why European countries carried out the
early expansion?
A. Strong rulers wished to expand their territory and economic power
B. The influence of mercantilism
C. To spread Christianity
D. The influence of feudalism
3. Which country was the ‘Monroe Doctrine’ announced by?

A. France
B. Britain
C. The United States
D. Germany
4. Which two continents was the later expansion of European countries concentrated
in?
A. The Americas and Asia
B. The Americas and Africa

C. Africa and Oceania

D. Asia and Africa
5. Which of the following is NOT a reason why European countries carried out the
late expansion?
A. To obtain overseas investment opportunities
B. To look for cheap labour
C. Prevalence ideas of ‘Black man’s burden’
D. To enhance national prestige

6. Which of the following terms is NOT matched with the correct definition?
A. Footholds: for getting supplies and trade
B. Spheres of influence: sovereignty belonged to the suzerain
C. Colonies: were ruled directly by colonial officials
D. Protectorates: belonged to local rulers
7. European countries captured many American Indians and imported American

slaves. What was the slave trade known as?
A. The Pacific slave trade
B. The Atlantic slave trade
C. The Mediterranean slave trade
D. The West Indian slave trade
8. Which of the following was NOT a social and cultural way of European colonial
expansion?
A. Building many Christian churches
B. Making European languages the medium of instruction in schools.
C. Making European languages the local official languages

D. Prohibiting local people from becoming civil servants
9. Which country rose to power through modern reforms in the 19th century?
A. Japan
B. China
C. Siam
D. Ceylon
10. Which of the following was NOT an economic impact of European colonial
expansion on the Americas, Asia and Africa?
A. Local infrastructure improvement
B. Greatly reducing the size of farmlands for growing food
C. Accelerating local industrial development

D. Destroying the traditional self-sufficient economy of the colonies

Study the source and answer the questions that follow. (10 marks)
Source: An extract from a passage about the Japanese response to European

colonial expansion
In the 1850s, Japan decided to peacefully open up to foreign countries after

witnessing the defeat of the China in its wars with Britain and France. Although
this brought humiliation to Japan, there were also opportunities for
advancement. Japan gave up some of the country’s sovereignty and signed trade
agreements with the United States, Britain, Russia and the Netherlands. After
that, the Japanese were determined in building a modernized nation that was on
par with, or would even surpass Western countries…
The Japanese eventually succeeded. … From 1868 onwards, Japan began the
‘Meiji Restoration’, which lasted for over 40 years. Through modern reforms in
various aspects, its political, economic and military powers significantly
increased. … It succeeded in preventing further encroachment from foreign
powers, and even defeated Russia in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905).
1. According to the source, why did Japan decide to peacefully open up to foreign
countries in the 1850s? (1 mark)
2. Why did the source point out that peacefully opening up to foreign countries,
‘brought humiliation to Japan, but there were also opportunities for
advancement’? (2 marks)
3. ‘European colonial expansion not only directly, but also indirectly accelerated
the progress of Asia’s modernization.’ Explain your answer with reference to the
Source, and using your own knowledge. (7 marks)

1. According to the source, why did japan decide to peacefully open up to

foreign countries in the 1850s? (1 mark)
2. Why did the source point out that peacefully opening up to foreign countries
‘brought humiliation to Japan, but there were also opportunities for
advancement’? (2 marks)
3. ‘European colonial expansion not only directly, but also indirectly

accelerated the progress of Asia’s modernization.’ Explain your answer with
reference to the Source, and using your own knowledge. (7 marks)

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Journey Through History - New Topic-based Series Study Notes

Topic 6 European colonial expansion

Journey Through History -

©2021 Aristo Educational Press Ltd. HN2A_SN_TOPIC_6-1

Background (p.107) Background (p.112-113)

Supremacy of European countries

Main reasons (p.108)

Impact on the Americas, Asia and Africa (p.128-132)

©2021 Aristo Educational Press Ltd. HN2A_SN_TOPIC_6-2

A. Introduction to European colonial expansion

 Early 16th to late 18th centuries - Early expansion

 Late 19th to early 20th centuries - Later expansion

Early colonial expansion Later colonial expansion

Asia and Africa

©2021 Aristo Educational Press Ltd. HN2A_SN_TOPIC_6-4

1. Background of and reasons for the early expansion

(a) Background: discovery of new sea routes and new lands

In 1488, Portuguese navigator Diaz sailed

2. Discovered the reached present-day West Indies, which

In 1519, Portuguese navigator Magellan

©2021 Aristo Educational Press Ltd. HN2A_SN_TOPIC_6-5

Major voyages between 1487 and 1522

(b) Main reasons

(i) Political aspect

(ii) Economic aspect

 Mercantilism, an economic theory stressing the accumulation of wealth, began to

(iii) Social and cultural aspects

 Europeans wanted to expand overseas to spread Christianity.

©2021 Aristo Educational Press Ltd. HN2A_SN_TOPIC_6-6

European colonies in the Americas

1. Background of and reasons for the later expansion

(i) Ambition enhanced by early colonial expansion

 After the Voyages of Discovery, European countries competed to build overseas

(ii) Independence of colonies in the Americas

©2021 Aristo Educational Press Ltd. HN2A_SN_TOPIC_6-7

(iii) Supremacy of European countries

 After the Industrial Revolution, European countries' technological and military

(b) Main reasons

(i) Economic aspect

 Strong demands for resources and markets

 Huge population and resources in Asia and Africa

(ii) Political aspect

 Limited room for expansion in Europe

©2021 Aristo Educational Press Ltd. HN2A_SN_TOPIC_6-8

 Rise and development of nationalism

(iii) Social and cultural aspects

©2021 Aristo Educational Press Ltd. HN2A_SN_TOPIC_6-9

C. The making of European colonial policy and Guiding Questions

(a) Formation of colonial policy in early expansion

(b) Change of colonial policy in later expansion period

©2021 Aristo Educational Press Ltd. HN2A_SN_TOPIC_6-10

2. Ways of European colonial expansion

(a) Political expansion

(i) Establishing footholds

(ii) Establishing spheres of influence

(iv) Establishing colonies

©2021 Aristo Educational Press Ltd. HN2A_SN_TOPIC_6-12

(b) Economic expansion

(i) Exploitation of resources

(ii) Control over colonial markets