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Condition Monitoring of Electrical Transformers Using the Internet of Things:

A Systematic Literature Review

Article in Applied Sciences · October 2024

DOI: 10.3390/app14219690

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 applied
sciences
Systematic Review
Condition Monitoring of Electrical Transformers Using the
Internet of Things: A Systematic Literature Review
Mzamo R. Msane, Bonginkosi A. Thango * and Kingsley A. Ogudo

Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering Technology, University of Johannesburg,

Johannesburg 2092, South Africa; richard.msane@yahoo.com (M.R.M.); kingsleyo@uj.ac.za (K.A.O.)
* Correspondence: bonginkosit@uj.ac.za; Tel.: +27-65-564-7287

Featured Application: IoT-based transformer monitoring enhances predictive maintenance, re-

duces downtime, and optimizes power grid reliability and efficiency in smart grids.

Abstract: The adoption of Internet of Things (IoT) technology for transformer condition monitoring
is increasingly replacing traditional methods. This systematic review aims to evaluate the existing
research on IoT frameworks used in transformer condition monitoring, providing insights into
their effectiveness and research trends. This review seeks to identify the leading IoT frameworks
employed in transformer condition monitoring; analyze the key research objectives, methods, and
outcomes; and assess the global research distribution and technological tools used in this field. A
systematic literature review was conducted by searching published databases using keywords related
to “Internet of Things”, “transformers”, “condition monitoring”, and “fault diagnosis”. The search
spanned publications released between 2014 and 2024, yielding 262 articles. Of these, 120 met the
predefined review criteria and were included for further analysis. This review found that Arduino
boards are the most used microcontrollers for monitoring and analyzing transformer operational
parameters, with Arduino IDE 1.8 being the predominant software for programming. The primary
research focus in the reviewed literature is the identification of transformer faults. The geographical
distribution of research contributions shows that India leads with 65% of the studies, followed by
China (11%) and Pakistan (5%). The findings indicate a strong global interest in developing IoT-based
transformer condition monitoring systems, particularly in India. This review highlights the potential
of IoT technologies to enhance transformer monitoring and diagnostics. The insights gained from
Citation: Msane, M.R.; Thango, B.A.; this review can guide future research and the development of more advanced IoT frameworks for
Ogudo, K.A. Condition Monitoring of transformer condition monitoring.
Electrical Transformers Using the
Internet of Things: A Systematic Keywords: condition monitoring; electrical transformer; systematic literature review; Internet
Literature Review. Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, of Things
9690. https://doi.org/10.3390/
app14219690

Received: 5 September 2024

Revised: 15 October 2024 1. Introduction
Accepted: 16 October 2024 The primary goal of the Internet of Things (IoT) is to link physical objects with digital
Published: 23 October 2024 world together so that they can exchange data and communicate. The IoT involves embed-
ding sensors and actuators in physical objects (including nature, people, and animals) [1].
These sensors monitor changes (e.g., temperature, motion) and communicate via wired or
wireless networks with computing systems [2]. The phrase “Internet of Things” originated
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
in 1999 from Kevin Ashton, a British computer scientist. Ashton suggested embedding
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
radio-frequency identification (RFID) computer chips to track products within a supply
distributed under the terms and
chain. The Internet of Things has made big breakthroughs in industries like pharmaceuti-
conditions of the Creative Commons
cals and smart homes. Previously, only computers, smartphones, and tablets had access
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// to the Internet; now, the IoT allows devices to be connected to the Internet to exchange
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ data. The number of devices connected to the Internet is rapidly increasing. In [3] it is
4.0/). stated that at the end of 2023, there were approximately 16.1 billion connected IoT devices,

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 9690. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14219690 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 9690 2 of 39

which is expected to rise to 39.9 billion by 2033. Condition monitoring of transformers is

crucial to ensure their reliability and prevent unexpected failures [3]. Current practices
require that a team of technicians be dispatched on-site to manually assess the condition
of transformers; this process is subject to human error and hampers continuous condition
monitoring. To achieve their return on capital investment, every owner of a transformer
wants to see that such crucial equipment runs as efficiently and productively as possible.
Historically, transformer owners have maintained this equipment using predictive and
corrective maintenance techniques. Although it requires utility in labor, downtime, and
non-routine maintenance requirements, corrective maintenance ensures that transformer
parts can be used without reservation. By carrying out preventive maintenance, which
involves determining the lifespan of specific parts and carrying out maintenance before
actual breakdown occurs, several utility owners have been able to utilize transformers for
long periods of time. Although the high costs of labor, planned downtime, and underuse of
the component during its operational lifespan persist, this strategy prevents unanticipated
and catastrophic failures. Utility owners are now leaning toward developing a predictive
maintenance model that improves the maintenance cycle and follows a corrective and pre-
ventative maintenance approach, thanks to the development of the Internet of Things (IoT).
Just-in-time component replacement is a strategy used in predictive maintenance. By re-
ducing unplanned maintenance and labor expenses, this technique extends a component’s
lifespan, in addition to replacing components that are closer to failure. It was not until 2014
that early research on the application of IoT technology, specifically in transformers, began
to surface [4,5]. The evaluation of IoT applications’ timeliness, prediction, and visibility in
comparison to traditional monitoring systems was a specific focus of this review. A total
of 262 academic publications that were published between 2014 and 2024 were evaluated
based on predefined criteria. PRISMA for systematic review was employed to evaluate
the 262 publications. PRISMA refers to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews
and Meta-Analyses [6]. PRISMA mainly gives recommendations for the presentation of
systematic reviews that evaluate the effectiveness of interventions [7]. Some critical aspects
of the PRISMA 2020 checklist were adopted and used in this review paper to conduct an
effective systematic literature review. After the screening process, a total of 120 publications
were considered for this review. A detailed examination of the primary research elements
of IoT technology in transformer condition monitoring, including the type of transformer
or physical item, the examined transformer aspect, the microcontroller, the communication
channel, and the cloud, was conducted. Eight research questions described below are
presented in this systematic literature review (SLR):
• What are the primary research objectives and goals addressed in the collected literature
on Internet of Things technology for electrical transformer condition monitoring?
• Which research methods and approaches have been predominantly utilized in the
literature to study IoT applications in transformer monitoring?
• From which countries or regions do most of the articles on IoT technology for trans-
formers originate?
• What specific software and tools have been frequently mentioned and employed in
the articles related to IoT technology in transformer condition monitoring?
• How has the research landscape on IoT technology for electrical transformer monitor-
ing evolved, and what trends emerge from the collected literature?
• What emerging opportunities and technological advancements are highlighted in the
collected literature that may shape the future of transformer monitoring using IoT?
• Which transformer types does the collected literature investigate?
• What are the common challenges and limitations documented in the collected litera-
ture regarding the implementation of Internet of Things technology in transformer
condition assessment?
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 9690 3 of 39

1.1. Rationale
The current literature reviews provided knowledge about both the technical and
operational components of transformer condition monitoring through the IoT. However,
there is a dearth of in-depth analysis of how this new technology will be deployed, what
the obstacles of adoption and sustainability are, and what the uniformity over time will be.
Furthermore, depending on various features of the IoT and geographies, the benefits of
IoT-based transformer condition monitoring may change, complicating the situation. IoT-
based transformer condition monitoring has grown swiftly and is altering the technology
world, offering benefits such as interoperability, dynamic capabilities, scalability, and
affordability, which transformer operators and utility owners value. However, the use of
the IoT is growing in other areas such as smart homes, agriculture, and pharmaceuticals.
Nevertheless, there is a lack of broad comprehension of the adoption of an IoT smart
monitoring system for electrical transformers and its overall effectiveness. This systematic
review seeks to generate a body of information regarding the present results of using IoT
technology for transformer condition monitoring. This assessment aims to identify the
developments, possibilities, and issues connected with the use of IoT technology to collect
real-time data needed to track the condition of transformers. Various studies published on
the subject were reviewed. This evaluation will provide helpful information to transformer
operators, stakeholders, and academics.

1.2. Objectives
The Internet of Things (IoT) has transformed everyday life, and breakthroughs have
been made to revolutionize transformer condition monitoring. The IoT provides various
advantages, including affordability, scalability, interoperability, dynamic capabilities, and
improved business processes. However, the deployment and long-term viability of this new
technology in power system environments remain crucial areas of research. The purpose
of this systematic review is to investigate what various researchers have accomplished
in terms of real-time transformer condition monitoring utilizing IoT technology. This
study will undertake a thorough evaluation of the key research elements of IoT technology
in transformer condition monitoring, such as the type of transformer or physical item,
the analyzed transformer aspect, the microcontrollers, the communication channel, IoT
clouds, and sensors. By examining these research factors, this study seeks to provide a
comprehensive understanding of how the introduction of the Internet of Things will change
transformer condition monitoring. Thus, the objectives of this research are as follows:
• Determine how the integration of various sensors is achieved to ensure effective
transformer condition monitoring using IoT systems.
• Understand how different types of microcontrollers and peripherical components are
used to develop an IoT prototype for transformer condition monitoring.
• Evaluate the acceptance of IoT-based transformer condition monitoring.
• Evaluate the Internet of Things’ role in improving transformer condition monitoring
compared to previous methodologies.
• Investigate the long-term implications and viability of transformer condition monitor-
ing using IoT technology.
• Determine the common challenges and limitations documented in the collected litera-
ture regarding the implementation of Internet of Things technology in transformer
condition assessment.

1.3. Research Contribution and Novelty

The task at hand includes evaluating novel aspects. Based on the writers’ current un-
derstanding, there is currently no previous research in the published literature that presents
a PRISMA systematic review of Internet of Things-based transformer condition monitoring,
solely concentrating on the interfacing of multiple sensors to form a community of sensors
to ensure effective transformer condition monitoring in a real, practical environment set-
ting. This study follows a PRISMA 2020 checklist to present a complete examination of
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 9690 4 of 39

an IoT-based transformer condition monitoring system. This study further presents the
most preferred transformer types, investigated aspects, IoT clouds, microcontrollers, and
IoT implementation challenges such as standardization, data security, and the computing
power of IoT cloud services and microcontrollers.
With regard to the rapidly developing field of Internet of Things technology for electri-
cal transformer condition monitoring, this SLR significantly advances the field. It serves as
a thorough and perceptive examination of the most recent advancements and patterns in
this developing field. This SLR carefully examines the field of research, including important
details about the main goals of the study, the publications that are most recommended,
the study’s place of origin, and the types of transformers that are being examined. It also
revealed microcontrollers, communication channels, software for programming the micro-
controllers, tools, and IoT cloud platforms that researchers chose, providing insight into
their preferences. Notably, this SLR explores the type of transformers being investigated
and the investigated aspects. Power and distribution transformers are highlighted, and the
types of transformers that have been the subject of research are categorized and discussed.
This SLR also provides a temporal perspective, illuminating the dynamic progress of this
field’s study. It points out typical problems and restrictions with the use of the Internet
of Things and highlights new developments and prospects that could influence the direc-
tion of transformer monitoring with the IoT in the future. This SLR essentially acts as a
lighthouse, shedding light on the present situation and future direction of a revolutionary
technology that is poised to completely alter the field of electrical transformer condition
monitoring. This literature review is important because it demonstrates the potential to
change how the power systems industry approaches transformer condition monitoring and
maintenance through the implementation of IoT monitoring systems. This literature review
provides a workable substitute for more conventional, costly techniques by reviewing an
affordable IoT-based transformer condition monitoring system. A wider range of power
utilities, even those in resource-constrained regions, can now access advanced monitoring
technology thanks to the use of inexpensive components like Arduino boards, Raspberry
Pi, ESP32, ESP8266, etc.
The early identification of any faults is made possible by real-time monitoring of
critical transformer parameters like voltage, current, temperature, and oil level. This
prolongs the life of transformers and makes timely maintenance possible, thereby averting
catastrophic failures. Moreover, IoT integration makes it easier to gather data continuously
and remotely monitor systems, which eliminates the need for manual inspections and
on-site visits. This increases operational efficiency, saves a significant amount of money,
and optimizes resource allocation for power utilities. The suggested system’s modular
architecture guarantees its scalability and adaptability to different kinds of transformers and
power systems, making it simple to expand and customize in accordance with operational
and monitoring requirements. Furthermore, this study offers a useful illustration of the
Internet of Things use in power systems, making it an important teaching resource for
scholars and students. The components and software utilized are open source, which
promotes additional innovation and advancement in the industry. The IoT monitoring
system advances the development of smart grid technologies by incorporating IoT-based
monitoring into transformer maintenance procedures, thereby facilitating the shift to more
resilient, intelligent, and efficient power grids.

1.4. Study Implications

The findings of this systematic literature review (SLR) on Internet of Things technology
for electrical transformer condition monitoring have important ramifications for scholars
and practitioners in the field. This SLR emphasizes the importance of giving priority
to research areas including fault identification, health index development, and lifecycle
management since these are essential to guaranteeing the dependability and efficiency of
transformers. Furthermore, the preference for conference publishing over journal articles
implies that researchers ought to think carefully about the publication medium they choose,
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 9690 5 of 39

striking a balance between thorough peer review and quick distribution. India’s leadership
in this area emphasizes the possibility of international cooperation and promotes a thor-
ough comprehension of applications for the Internet of Things. Moreover, the multiplicity
of modeling techniques, AI algorithms, and software tools highlights how crucial it is to
customize these decisions to research goals. This work has been organized as follows:
Section 2 covers the conceptual and methodological aspects of IoT technologies in trans-
former condition monitoring. Section 3 introduces the research methodology based on the
PRISMA 2020 guidelines, Section 4 presents the results and discussions of the review, and
the following section concludes this work.

2. Literature Review
2.1. Transformer Maintenance: A Review
In the power industry, the field of maintenance expertise has started to change in
recent years. It is customary to immediately shut down the transformer when a fault is
found in the production area to prevent negative impacts; nevertheless, doing so typically
requires significant time and financial loss and is best carried out at opportune times [8].
Utility owners have therefore developed a new maintenance action plan to prevent mal-
functions and minimize financial losses. Maintenance can be divided into two types of
action plans: proactive and reactive. While post-fault diagnostic conditions and economic
losses are present in a reactive action plan, the major goals of a proactive maintenance
action plan are to save costs and keep the system operating at its peak capacity. As a
result, prognostic (i.e., predict and prevent) techniques have replaced diagnostics (i.e.,
fail and fix) procedures in the maintenance action plan [9–11]. Utility owners can use
sensors and digital platforms to gain insights about the state of their transformers as part
of the Fourth Industrial Revolution. By converting these data and comparing them with
other anomalous circumstances, we can forecast both the remaining operational lifespan of
the transformer in use, as well as future anomalous events. Utility owners can schedule
maintenance by providing this information to the relevant departments, allowing them to
resolve transformer failures that are unavoidable and prevent system breakdowns from oc-
curring. This is a thorough examination of current and relevant research works. A wireless
transformer monitoring parameter was proposed by the authors in [12–20]. This system’s
primary goal is to monitor and regulate the transformer using an RF module. Monitoring
and controlling are made possible by temperature sensors, microcontrollers, and wireless
communication technology, or RF transmission. Voltage, current, and temperature are the
three transformer parameters that are being observed. The tracked data are then sent to
a remote location after that. Data are transmitted between the client and the RF via the
controller. In [21–30] GSM technique is proposed. For systems with protection functions,
this approach is effective. These technologies were developed earlier and are based on
communication. In the event of network disruptions, the recommended GSM strategy
can increase the system’s dependability. Communication is accelerated using the GSM
technique, which is independent of the distance parameter [31]. The Internet of Things
could be used in conjunction with a distribution transformer monitor and control system,
according to authors in [32]. The graphical signatures of the oil temperature, winding
temperature, ambient temperature, current, voltage, and oil level were examined using
ThingSpeak. Seven embedded sensors, a microprocessor, and ThingSpeak, which is utilized
for processing, displaying, and storing, made this possible. To monitor the five power
transformer parameters’ current, voltage, oil level, winding temperature, and ambient
temperature, the authors in [33] looked at a tool for creating graphical signatures. This
was made possible in [34], by permitting early fault detection readings. Operators were
alerted by Pushing Box when any parameter exceeded pre-established limits. Using the
IoT, the study in [35] created the best possible protection for a power transformer. Two
embedded sensors were used with the ESP32 microcontroller. Specifically, temperature
and flow sensors were employed. The system proposed by [36] sends SMS messages to a
central database for further processing via a GSM modem. A GSM modem, several sensors,
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 9690 6 of 39

and a chip microcontroller are combined by the system to create an online monitoring
system. [37] demonstrated how a rapidly expanding field of machine-to-machine (M2M)
communication is referred to as the “Internet of Things” (IoT) and holds great potential
for facilitating data transfer between autonomous devices. Along with recording critical
dispersion transformer operational indicators like load current, voltage, transformer oil,
and ambient temperature and humidity, this task also entails developing, installing, and
testing a system for continuous transformer monitoring and fault detection. Data trans-
mission and retrieval were accomplished using Bluetooth and Wi-Fi. Nevertheless, the
IoT cloud platform and data processing tools were not mentioned in [38]. The authors
in [39–51] used an ESP8266 microcontroller embedded with four sensors—voltage, current,
oil level, and oil temperature—to monitor the voltage, current, oil temperature, and oil
level of a power transformer. An IoT monitoring system was created in [52] to obtain a
distribution transformer’s real-time status. The microcontroller utilized was an Arduino
UNO, which had three sensors, built-in voltage, current, and smoke. To avoid malfunctions
and unplanned shutdowns, the work in [53] remotely measured a power transformer’s
load current, voltage, and temperature. A subset of parameters, such as only temperature
and humidity or only current and voltage, are monitored in several publications. Systems
that combine a wide range of sensors (temperature, oil level, humidity, voltage, current,
etc.) to give a full picture of transformer health are scarce. Although many studies de-
scribe how to develop and execute IoT-based transformer monitoring systems, very few
conduct real-world validation of their prototypes. Researchers should explore and further
investigate the validation of the IoT system in real-world power system monitoring of big
transformers in the field.

2.2. Knowledge Gaps

The reviewed studies in the literature only track a limited number of characteristics
(for example, temperature and humidity or current and voltage). There are few publications
that combine a wide range of sensors to monitor the various parameters of a transformer
to ensure complete condition monitoring of the transformer. New studies should try to
close this research gap by combining various sensors into one cohesive system transformer
condition monitoring system. The lack of standardization within IoT-connected devices
sometimes causes problems when connecting devices and platforms in IoT systems. New
researchers should focus on this gap and explore new innovative ideas to overcome stan-
dardization issues within this field. Although this aspect is a work in progress, it is critical
that researchers highlight progress made in standardizing IoT protocols and how this
affects the implementation of such systems in transformer condition monitoring. Improve-
ments in connectivity technology and service providers might lead to service interruptions,
increasing complexity because of gateway changes. To address and identify huge numbers
of variable IoT devices, a distinctive address identity and ample space are required. Scala-
bility is an obstacle because of the large number of IoT devices interconnected to just one
application. Handling device dispersion and effectiveness demands flexible operations.
Integrating protocols and standards is pricey and difficult, making expansion and expense
minimization a significant problem. Internet of Things devices lack power-harvesting capa-
bilities. The Internet of Things devices require extended battery lifespans to incorporate
additional embedded devices, which results in challenges regarding battery replacement.
Gathering energy from renewable sources, like a Battery Energy Storage System, might
be a solution. Compatibility in diverse IoT infrastructures presents difficulties due to the
diverse technological advances, platforms, communication protocols, and privacy and
security measures involved. To ensure compatibility, programmers and producers must
offer solutions that are independent. Protocols assist with handling problems, arrangement,
effectiveness, and the security of networked gadgets. Reliability is crucial for compatibility,
as both software and hardware must remain available and compatible to ensure ongoing
services even during outages. Furthermore, communication protocols must be compact
enough to fit in IoT devices with limited space [8].
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 9690 7 of 39

2.3. The Internet of Things: A Review

Not all technologies or apps use the same IoT architecture. Every technology has its
own structure and best practices [54]. Nonetheless, IEEE suggested a smart grid architec-
ture standard and a draft of an IoT architectural framework for smart cities in 2018 and
2019 [55–60]. Because of its heterogeneity and breadth in terms of scalability when it comes
to addressing and providing, the Internet of Things can be complicated. Devices, networks,
and apps must all work together smoothly in an IoT design to transmit data in accordance
with user-accepted services and generate intelligent outcomes while taking security into
account. A minimal number of technological layers, protocols, and standards make up IoT
architecture. IoT characteristics are tabulated in Table 1.

Table 1. Notable IoT characteristics.

Characteristic Description Area

Devices are connected dynamically and/or
Dynamic disconnected from a service due to varying uptime Communication, Security, Application
and downtime.
The number of devices that are connected to one
Scalability another varies based on the application, which can Architecture, Technology
involve a small or big number of devices.
Because of variations in technological platforms and
Heterogeneity Communication, Security, Technology
network environments, devices are diverse.
Communication across devices with disparate
architectures and technologies makes networks
Interoperability Architecture, Communication, Technology
accessible and compatible, facilitating the use of
apps and services.

Transformer condition monitoring can be carried out with the IoT to evaluate the
health and functionality of transformers, as illustrated in Figure 1. The IoT can be used for
the following kinds of condition monitoring:
• Using a variety of state parameters, the IoT can assess a transformer’s general state
and provide valuable information about its functionality.
• Data gathered from the IoT can be used to discover and diagnose transformer faults,
such as winding failures or the deterioration of insulation.
• Real-time condition assessment, i.e., the IoT, can continually and instantly monitor the
state of transformers, which makes it possible to identify possible problems early and
schedule maintenance accordingly. Researchers have conducted studies on Internet
of Things (IoT)-based condition monitoring systems of transformers and concluded
that they can precisely identify and locate issues within a transformer. An IoT online
monitoring system will be able to handle these issues more rapidly as a result, protect-
ing transformers from damage and catastrophic failures. The IoT system utilizes IoT
sensors such as temperature, voltage, current, and oil level to monitor different param-
eters of the transformer. IoT technology uses microcontrollers to control embedded
sensors and peripheral devices with the goal of sending these data to the IoT cloud for
visualization and analysis using the Internet. The IoT system can also be able to send
messages when predefined settings are exceeded. Furthermore, the system can be
integrated into switchgear and protection relays to isolate the faulty transformer when
required. There are differences across IoT technologies in terms of cloud platform inte-
gration [61], hardware [62], and middleware [42]. Sensors form part of the hardware
part of IoT-based transformer condition monitoring architecture. Sensors play a vital
role in sensing the parameters of the transformer. Complete IoT-based transformer
condition monitoring systems are made up of sensors embedded on boards with a
microcontroller, microprocessor, and network interface as illustrated in Figure 1. The
Raspberry Pi and Arduino boards are the most widely used IoT hardware boards. The
transformer’s long service life is assured when a transformer is operated under rated
 IoT-based transformer condition monitoring systems are made up of sensors embed-
ded on boards with a microcontroller, microprocessor, and network interface as il-
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 9690 lustrated in Figure 1. The Raspberry Pi and Arduino boards are the most widely8used of 39
IoT hardware boards. The transformer s long service life is assured when a trans-
former is operated under rated conditions (as specified on the nameplate). [63] stated
conditions (as specified
that a transformer on the nameplate).
is designed [63] stated
to operate between 20 that a transformer
and 25 is designed
years. However, its de-
to operate between
pendability becomes 20impacted
and 25 years. However, itsheating,
by overloading, dependability becomes
low or high impacted
voltages and cur-by
overloading, heating, low or high voltages and currents, or both. In these cases,
rents, or both. In these cases, it will experience abrupt failure, and many users will it will
experience
lose power.abrupt failure, insulation
Overloading, and many failure,
users willandlose power. Overloading,
insufficient insulation
transformer cooling are
failure, and insufficient transformer cooling are the primary causes of
the primary causes of distribution transformer failure. Most of the papers reviewed distribution
transformer
in this paperfailure.
proposedMostIoTofsystems
the papers reviewed
to address in this
issues paper proposed
associated IoT systems
with overloading, oil
to address issues
temperature, loadassociated with overloading,
current, voltage, oil temperature,
and oil level. The extensiveload current, of
dispersion voltage,
trans-
and oil level.
formers Thesextensive
in today dispersion
electric networks of transformers
makes in today’sevaluate
it difficult to manually electric each
networks
one s
makes it difficult to manually evaluate each one’s condition; hence, researchers
condition; hence, researchers are delving more into the IoT-based transformer condi- are
delving more into the IoT-based transformer condition monitoring approach
tion monitoring approach for timely fault detection and condition monitoring of for timely
fault detection and condition monitoring of transformers.
transformers.

Figure1.1.A
Figure Atypical
typicaldiagram
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Internetof
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[5].

The papers
The papers collected
collected for for this
this review
review indicated
indicated thatthat there
there are
are layers
layers ofof technologies,
technologies,
protocols,and
protocols, andstandards
standards required
required for for IoT-based
IoT-based transformer
transformer condition
condition monitoring
monitoring archi-
tectureto
tecture toestablish
establishsuccessful
successfulIoT IoTcommunication.
communication.These Theselayers
layersarearecrucial
crucialin inassisting
assistingthe the
IoT-based transformer condition monitoring devices to communicate
IoT-based transformer condition monitoring devices to communicate with each other and with each other and
enable scalability,
enable scalability, heterogeneity,
heterogeneity,and andinteroperability
interoperability[63]. [63]. The
The level
level ofof layers
layers differs
differs as as
requiredby
required bythatthatapplication.
application. [64] [64] stated
stated that
that there
there are
are various
various layers, namely,
namely, three
three layers,
layers,
fourlayers,
four layers,five five layers
layers and
and OSIOSI layers
layers inin IoT systems,
systems, withwith OSI being a seven-layer system.
The
Thepapers
papersconsidered
consideredfor forthis
thisreview
reviewadopted
adoptedaathree-layer
three-layerapproach
approachwhere wheretheretherewas wasaa
top
top layer,
layer,middle
middlelayer,layer,andandbottom
bottomlayer.
layer.The Thetoptoplayer
layerisismainly
mainlyemployed
employed for for the
the user
user
functions requirement, the middle layer
functions requirement, the middle layer is utilized for is utilized for the network functions requirement,
requirement,
and
and the
thebottom
bottom layerlayer isis designated
designated for for the
thehardware
hardwarefunctions
functions requirement
requirement [65]. [65]. The
The toptop
layer
layer isis also
alsoknown
knownas asthe
theservice
servicedatadatalayer
layerforfordata
datastorage
storageandandvisualization;
visualization;in insimple
simple
terms,
terms,thisthisisisaacloud
cloudIoT IoTplatform
platformwhere wherethe thetransformer’s
transformer smonitored
monitoreddata dataare
arebeing
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tored
itoredandandstored.
stored.The Themiddle
middlelayer
layerfalls
fallsunder
undernetwork
networkand andcommunication
communicationand andincludes
includes
the
thenetwork
networklayer layer[65],
[65],transport
transport layer [66],
layer andand
[66], middleware
middleware layer [67] [67]
layer or Internet layerlayer
or Internet [68].
This layer oversees connections to other smart devices and
[68]. This layer oversees connections to other smart devices and network nodes, such network nodes, such as IoTas
clouds, gateways, servers, and routers. It offers a variety of services
IoT clouds, gateways, servers, and routers. It offers a variety of services to both the lower to both the lower and
upper
and upperlayers. This This
layers. layerlayer
manages
manages the transmission
the transmission of sensor datadata
of sensor via via
networks
networks suchsuchas
Wi-Fi,
as Wi-Fi,Bluetooth,
Bluetooth,ZigBee, GSM,GSM,
ZigBee, radioradio
frequency identification
frequency (RFID),
identification LAN, WAN,
(RFID), LAN, GPRS WAN,
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etc. Itcontrols data packet
also controls routing
data packet and processing.
routing and processing. The Themost used
most usedmethod
method of
communication for IoT-based transformer condition monitoring
of communication for IoT-based transformer condition monitoring was Wi-Fi due to many was Wi-Fi due to many
projects’
projects experiments
experimentsconducted
conductedin incontrolled
controlledareas areasand
and distance
distance being
being aa major
major constraint.
constraint.
The
The bottom layer is referred to as the sensing layer [69]. This layer connectsthe
bottom layer is referred to as the sensing layer [69]. This layer connects thephysical
physical
sensing
sensing devices
devices to to the
the digital
digital world,
world, allowing
allowing for for machine-to-machine
machine-to-machine communication.
communication.
The
The sensors
sensors on onthis
thislayer
layerdetect
detect and and collect
collect data,data, including
including physical
physical properties
properties of theof the
trans-
transformer such as the load current, voltage, transformer temperature, and oil level. The
former such as the load current, voltage, transformer temperature, and oil level. The
sensors can measure the humidity, pressure, temperature, voltage, current and level. The
value of the measured parameters is converted into signals and machine languages that
can be transmitted and received. The papers mostly used IoT technology to measure load
current, voltage, temperature, and oil level. Other papers utilized these data to estimate
the health index and conduct fault diagnosis in the transformer.
 can be transmitted and received. The papers mostly used IoT technology to measure load
current, voltage, temperature, and oil level. Other papers utilized these data to estimate
the health index and conduct fault diagnosis in the transformer.

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 9690

3. Materials and Methods 9 of 39

This review paper adopted procedures for systematic reviews proposed by [70] for
reviewing the related studies.and
3. Materials The process commonly comprises four stages; these are (1)
Methods
planning, (2) selection,This(3) review
extraction,
paper and
adopted(4) procedures
execution,for assystematic
shown inreviews
Figureproposed
2. The byplan-
[70] for
ning stage is a vitalreviewing
stage, asthe related studies.the
it incorporates The processfor
criteria commonly
inclusioncomprises four stages;
and exclusion, these are
as well
(1) planning,
as scholarly searches and keyword (2) selection,
searches.(3) extraction, and (4)
The selection execution,
stage as shown
comprises in Figure
the search 2. The
pro-
planning stage is a vital stage, as it incorporates the criteria for inclusion and exclusion,
cess and screening. as The
well extraction
as scholarly phase
searchesdeals with thesearches.
and keyword assessment of quality.
The selection stageThe final the
comprises
phase, which is thesearch
execution
processphase, deals with
and screening. data synthesis.
The extraction Thiswith
phase deals section describesofthe
the assessment quality.
methodology for conducting a proposed systematic review on transformer condition
The final phase, which is the execution phase, deals with data synthesis. This section
monitoring using IoT describes the methodology
technology. for conducting
This systematic a proposed
review systematic
evaluated reviewpapers
published on transformer
be-
condition monitoring using IoT technology. This systematic review evaluated published
tween 2014 and 2024.
papers between 2014 and 2024.

Figure 2. SystematicFigure
review flow diagram.
2. Systematic review flow diagram.

3.1. Eligibility Criteria

3.1. Eligibility Criteria
All peer-reviewed published papers that were pertinent to IoT-based transformer
All peer-reviewed
conditionpublished
monitoring papers that were
were reviewed pertinent prior
systematically to IoT-based transformer
to being selected for further
condition monitoring were A
evaluation. reviewed
review was systematically
only conducted prior to being
on papers publishedselected forbetween
in English further2014
and was
evaluation. A review 2024 only
concerning the useon
conducted of papers
IoT technology for transformer
published in Englishcondition
betweenmonitoring.
2014
Precise standards were devised to incorporate pertinent studies and omit those unrelated
and 2024 concerning the use of IoT technology for transformer condition monitoring. Pre-
to the use of the IoT for transformer condition monitoring. As a result, only peer-reviewed
cise standards were devised to
publications incorporate
that pertinent
primarily focused studies technology
on IoT-based and omit for those unrelated
transformer to
condition
the use of the IoT monitoring
for transformer condition
were given monitoring.
consideration. Included Asinathis
result,
were only peer-reviewed
publications that discussed
publications that primarily focused on IoT-based technology for transformer conditionfault
the outcomes of IoT system testing for proof of concepts, IoT-based transformer
diagnostics, health indexes using the IoT, and energy management using the IoT. Also
monitoring were given consideration. Included in this were publications that discussed
included were papers that were chosen from pertinent papers’ references. All the papers
the outcomes of IoT system
were finallytesting
assembled.for proof
As shownof concepts, IoT-based
in Table 2, the inclusiontransformer
and exclusionfault di-were
criteria
agnostics, health indexes
compiled.using
These the IoT,
criteria and energy
ensured management
that the selection using the
of the literature wasIoT. Alsowith
consistent in- the
study’s objectives and scope.
cluded were papers that were chosen from pertinent papers references. All the papers
were finally assembled. As shown in Table 2, the inclusion and exclusion criteria were
compiled. These criteria ensured that the selection of the literature was consistent with the
study s objectives and scope.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 9690 10 of 39

Table 2. Proposed inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Criteria Inclusion Exclusion

Must pertain to IoT technology in electrical
Articles unrelated to IoT technology
Topic transformer condition monitoring
for transformers
or fault diagnosis
Research Must include a research framework or
Articles lacking a clear research framework
Framework methodology
Language Must be written in the English language Articles published in languages other than English
Publication Period Must be published between 2014 and 2024 Articles published outside the specified timeframe

3.2. Information Sources

The scholarly articles that were examined in this systematic review were first sought
after in 2014. A comprehensive search of published scholarly publications was performed
utilizing IEEE Xplore (IX), Google Scholar (GS), IEEE Xplore (IX), Science Direct (SD),
Emerald Insight (EI), Springer Link (SL), Wiley Online Library, Taylor & Francis Online
(TFO), and ELSEVIER repositories to gather the literature for this SLR.

3.3. Search Strategy

To find publications that presented aspects of IoT-based transformer condition mon-
itoring experiments and transformer online monitoring, a search strategy was created
specifically for this review [26,71–134]. Repetitive pilot searches were utilized to choose
search phrases. Terms that failed to provide articles meeting the inclusion requirements
were eliminated. The synonyms of the designated terms were identified to guarantee
that the synonyms of the key terms were included. Thus, the synonyms for “transformer
condition monitoring” include “Transformer fault detection” “Transformer health index”,
and “Transformer asset management”. Defining terms for the term “Internet of Things”
were “IoT review,” and “IoT survey”, relating to transformer condition monitoring. Table 3
illustrates keyword searches utilized to facilitate the selection of relevant papers.

Table 3. Proposed keyword search.

Keywords Search
Internet of Things (IoT)
“Transformer Monitoring” or “Electrical Transformer Condition” or “Transformer Maintenance” or “Transformer Management”.
“Condition Assessment” or “Transformer Health” or “Transformer Diagnostics” or “Transformer Data Analysis”.
“Predictive Maintenance” or “Transformer Performance” or “Transformer Reliability”

Since keywords are the basis for the attainable nature of relevant material, choosing
the right keywords is crucial to the process of choosing academic works for this SLR.
The online match found with the above-mentioned keywords provided attainability to
262 research publications. Figure 3 illustrates the results, with 62 articles from IEEE Xplore,
60 papers from Google Scholar, 21 papers from Science Direct, 15 papers from Emerald
Insight, 11 papers from Springer Link, 46 papers from Wiley Online Library, 27 papers from
Taylor and Francis Online, 13 papers from ELSEVIER, and 5 papers from other sources
making up the obtained papers. These results comprise 142 additional study projects that
were discarded. A total of 120 research articles were gathered because of this survey.
 Appl.Sci.
Appl. Sci.2024,
2024,14,
14,9690
x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 39
11 of 42

Figure3.3.Search
Figure Searchresults
resultsofofselected
selectedonline
onlinerepositories.
repositories.

3.4.
3.4.Study
StudySelection
Selection
This
Thiscurrent
currentSLR SLRexamines
examinesa atotal totalofof
120120research
researchworks regarding
works regardingIoT-based
IoT-basedtechnol-
tech-
ogy in transformer
nology in transformer condition monitoring
condition that were
monitoring thatconducted from 2014
were conducted fromto 2024
2014intoorder
2024 toin
determine answers to the 8 primary research questions specified below.
order to determine answers to the 8 primary research questions specified below. To choose To choose pertinent
papers,
pertinent thepapers,
search procedure
the search steps recommended
procedure in [26,71–134]
steps recommended in were used inwere
[26,71–134] this review
used in
to choose
this review relevant papers.
to choose To findpapers.
relevant pertinentTo publications,
find pertinentfirst thorough searches
publications, of the
first thorough
eight research
searches of the databases or publishers
eight research databases (discussed above)(discussed
or publishers and a systematic
above) review database
and a systematic
were
reviewconducted.
database Secondly, journalsSecondly,
were conducted. with papers related
journals withto investigations
papers relatedinto transformer
to investigations
online monitoring and fault diagnosis using the IoT on transformers
into transformer online monitoring and fault diagnosis using the IoT on transformers were chosen. Next, all
pertinent papers that met the inclusion criteria had their reference
were chosen. Next, all pertinent papers that met the inclusion criteria had their referencelists examined. Every
reference list was examined for any further citations related to
lists examined. Every reference list was examined for any further citations related tothis SLR that would have
this
led to fresh publications. Those publications were gathered and
SLR that would have led to fresh publications. Those publications were gathered and ex- examined. The filtering
procedure
amined. The started after
filtering the search
procedure reached
started a the
after point of noreached
search furtherastudies
point ofbeing retrieved.
no further stud-
To guarantee relevancy, the primary selected papers were evaluated
ies being retrieved. To guarantee relevancy, the primary selected papers were evaluated and checked. The
following is a summary of the steps taken to facilitate a valid filtering
and checked. The following is a summary of the steps taken to facilitate a valid filtering process. Initially,
the topic of
process. each paper
Initially, was of
the topic assessed
each paperfor relevancy,
was assessed and for
then the contents
relevancy, andwere screened
then the contentsto
ensure that they were related to the topics being reviewed. They
were screened to ensure that they were related to the topics being reviewed. They were were evaluated further
based on the
evaluated following
further basedcriteria:
on thewhether
following thecriteria:
published paper the
whether waspublished
peer reviewed,
paperthewas paper
peer
type, the journal rank, and whether the paper was written in English.
reviewed, the paper type, the journal rank, and whether the paper was written in English. Included were the
most recent papers between 2014 and 2024, as well as those that covered the same subject.
Included were the most recent papers between 2014 and 2024, as well as those that covered
the Data
3.5. sameCollection
subject. Process
This section
3.5. Data describes
Collection Process the procedures for independent data extraction, the methods
for gathering data from the included papers, the roles played by the authors during the
Thisprocess,
reviewer section describes the procedures
and any other for independent
methods applied to validatedata
andextraction,
check the the methods
accuracy of
for gathering data from the included papers, the roles played by the authors
the data. The data used in this study were gathered from reputable online repositories on during the
reviewer process,
IoT-based transformerand condition
any other monitoring
methods applied to validate
publications. and check
IoT-based the accuracy
transformer condi-of
the data. The data used in this study were gathered from reputable online repositories
tion monitoring publications from various countries were the subjects of this systematic on
IoT-based
review. Thetransformer
technique for condition monitoring
extracting publications.
data is comparable IoT-based
to that employedtransformer condi-
in [26,71–134].
tion monitoring publications from various countries were the subjects of this systematic
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 9690 12 of 39

A standardized data extraction checklist was created specifically for this review. This
checklist was utilized to gather data from published papers of the included studies. The
data extraction process was carried out by three separate writers and reviewers. Data
were gathered by each reviewer independently from all relevant research. To verify data
accuracy and consistency, a comparison of the received data was performed amongst the
three reviewers/authors. Any contradictions discovered during this comparison process
were handled by conversation, and the final decision was reached by a consensus. Where
necessary, an additional reviewer was consulted to establish an agreement. Where in-
formation from the studies was ambiguous or lacking in completeness, we highlighted
the missing data and recorded them appropriately. No automation techniques were used
during the data collection procedure. When numerous reports referred to the same study,
established decision methods were used to select the most relevant data. To ensure the
integrity of the data included in the evaluation, any conflicts across recorded data were
addressed using a systematic validation technique.

3.6. Data Items

This section explains all of the outcomes and variables for which information was
collected, encompassing explanations and methods for selecting results that were pertinent.
Furthermore, it outlines the strategy for dealing with insufficient or ambiguous data, as
well as the hypotheses made throughout the data acquisition procedure.

3.6.1. Data Collection Method

This subsection identifies and describes the results for the information that was col-
lected, such as the transformer type being monitored, investigated aspects, IoT cloud
platform acceptance, and operational enhancements. For every result area, all relevant
results in line with these measurements were searched for, over a wide range of precise
moments in time, methodologies, and assessments. Where many results were available in
the same area, a systematic review was used to rank the most credible and acceptable evi-
dence based on specific requirements. This approach guaranteed that this study produced
a methodologically sound and comprehensive appraisal of each result.

3.6.2. Variable Data Collection

Along with transformer types, investigated aspects, and the four IoT elements, this
subsection identifies and gives all other variables for which data were sought. Variables
such as the study design were thoroughly reported. Gaps due to lacking information were
filled in with additional material from subsequent references. There were no assumptions
regarding any missing or confusing information. Gaps such as papers not mentioning the
cloud IoT or AI algorithms used for their publications were marked as “not specified” on
the excel spreadsheet. The collected data were explicitly explained to ensure clarity and
minimize the influence of partial or missing data on the overall study. Data were gathered
using Table 4 criteria.
Table 4. Variable data collection.

Criteria Description
Topic Specify a concise and comprehensive topic for the publication.
Year State the year the study was published.
Indicate where the research study was discovered (e.g., Science Direct, Springer Link,
Online Repository
Google Scholar, Emerald Insight, etc.).
Research Type Determine the type of research (e.g., journal, conference paper, article, or thesis).
Journal Name Specify the name of the journal or publishing source.
Number of Citations Specify the number of citations the paper has acquired.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 9690 13 of 39

Table 4. Cont.

Criteria Description
Geographic location Specify the country or the area where the research was conducted.
Consider whether the research originates from an industrialized developed country or
Economic Background
underdeveloped country.
Indicate monitored parameters of the transformer (e.g., voltage, current, temperature, oil
Monitored transformer parameters
level, etc.).
Iot Cloud Services List adopted IoT cloud services (Adafruit IO, ThingSpeak, Arduino Cloud, Blynk App, etc.).
Specify the cloud developers involved (e.g., Arduino, Adafruit industries, Microsoft Azure,
Technology Providers
MathWorks, AWS, etc.).
Indicate investigated transformer types (e.g., distribution transformer, power transformer,
Transformer type
dry-type transformer, etc.).
List investigated aspects (e.g., heath indices, fault identification, energy management,
Investigated Aspects
vibration monitoring, lifecycle management, etc.).
Provide microcontrollers used for data processing and command execution (e.g., ESP32,
Microcontrollers
Arduino nano, Arduino uno, Raspberry Pi, ESP8622, etc.).
Specify communication protocols adopted and utilized (e.g., Wi-Fi, BLE, GSM, ZigBee,
Communication Channel
Sigfox, etc.).
Identify the artificial intelligent (AI) algorithm model used (e.g., Ensemble Machine
AI Algorithm
Learning (EML), Neural Network, Linear Regression, etc.).
Research Design Specify the research design (e.g., survey, systematic literature review, article, etc.).
Explain the way data were gathered (e.g., surveys, keyword searches, reputable online
Data Collection Methods
repositories, etc.).
Data Analysis Techniques Determine how the data were examined (e.g., regression analysis, statistics analysis, etc.).
IoT Challenges Specify IoT challenges (e.g., stable Internet connection, privacy and security, etc.).
Determine the implications for the future, such as IoT system sustainability or
Long-Term Impacts
competitive edge.
Specify how IoT monitoring will impact and contribute towards revolutionizing
Contribution to the field
transformer condition monitoring.

3.7. Study Risk of Bias Assessment

This section describes the methodologies used to determine and evaluate the risk
of bias in the selected research publications, containing information on the tools used to
effectively deal with large amounts of data and discover possible prejudices that may have
been overlooked during the conventional evaluation procedure. A number of reviewers
evaluated each paper independently, ensuring that individual biases were reduced and
that a detailed analysis was achieved through conversations and agreements. This compre-
hensive technique ensured a rigorous, dependable, and uniform analysis of the risk of bias
across all papers chosen for this SLR. This process ensured that there were no systematic
errors that could deviate from the truth and lead to overscoring or underscoring.
In this systematic review of transformer condition monitoring through the IoT, each
selected study underwent a comprehensive risk of bias assessment to verify the validity
and reliability of the SLR’s findings. To examine both qualitative and quantitative data from
research relevant to the topic under investigation, unique bias assessment frameworks were
developed using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT). This evaluation addressed
five methodological quality criterion issues from the MMAT. Table 5 displays the mixed
method category and five pertinent methodological quality criteria questions for assess-
ing the risk of bias and ensuring that selected papers were scored appropriately. Three
authors independently assessed each manuscript, documenting explanations and support-
ing evidence for their risk-of-bias assessments. Each question contains three alternative
classifications, which the reviewers used to evaluate each study. The variable “yes” means
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 9690 14 of 39

the article fulfills the stated methodological standards, “no” means the research does not
satisfy the set methodological criteria, and “can’t tell” means the reviewer says neither yes
nor no. Any differences in their evaluations were resolved through collaborative exchanges,
and disagreements were resolved through consensus decision amongst the three authors
where necessary [121–134].

Table 5. Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool criteria.

Category of Study Design Methodological Quality Criteria

Is there an appropriate justification for utilizing a mixed methods strategy to answer
the research question?
Are the study’s components adequately combined to address the study’s question?
Mixed Methods Are the results of the combination of qualitative and quantitative components
appropriately determined?
Are the differences and discrepancies between quantitative and qualitative outcomes
effectively addressed?
Do the study’s components meet the quality criteria of each methodological approach concerned?

Table 6 tabulates all the steps consolidated with MMAT to ensure that the risk of bias
process is effective and efficient. This rigorous method meant that the risk of bias was
comprehensively examined on the IoT-based transformer condition monitoring perfor-
mance, as well as application issues, identifying major breakthroughs and addressing any
current deficiencies.

Table 6. Risk bias process.

Criteria Description Details

Develop MMAT risk of bias tool for MMAT technique, tailored for IoT-based
Risk of bias assessment tool
qualitative and quantitative data. transformer monitoring studies
Refer to the five methodological quality
Methodological quality criteria for bias Refer to Table 5
criteria questions listed in Table 5
Answer methodological quality
Methodological quality criteria questions Yes, No, Can’t tell
criteria questions.
Address divergences through
Agreement protocol Consensus decision through scoring
interactions.
Guarantee an exhaustive, accurate Defining the influence of the Internet of
Results assessment of risk among every Things in transformer condition
research study. monitoring

3.8. Data Synthesis

The synthesis techniques for this comprehensive literature review of IoT-based trans-
former condition monitoring were established to enable a solid, clear, and repeatable
aggregate of outcomes from the chosen papers. The method of choosing which papers were
deemed appropriate for consideration in each synthesis was undertaken in a structured
and a diligent manner, assuring conformity with the review’s targets, which concentrate on
the significance of IoT technology in revolutionizing condition monitoring of transformers.
Excel spreadsheets were developed and utilized to consolidate the data collected from the
research problems’ answers. The Excel spreadsheet played a vital role in facilitating and
ensuring that a valid data extraction process took place. During the synthesis stage, the
most popular keywords were used, and the terms that described the study subject were
standardized. These data were extracted from the 120 papers that met the minimum of 75%
in the quality assessment checklist. The Excel spreadsheet incorporated the following data:
(a) year of publication (b) research type (e.g., conference paper, journal, article, review),
(c) online repository, (d) country, (e) transformer type or physical object, (f) investigated
transformer aspect, (g), microprocessor (h) communication channel, and (i) IoT Cloud.
From all 120 of the publications that made up this review, the data listed in Table 2 were
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 9690 15 of 39

used to extract the relevant information. Using this approach, a clear picture was devel-
oped of the most favored microcontrollers for IoT-based transformer condition monitoring,
communication channels, IoT clouds, transformer types, and investigated aspects.
The process of data synthesis eligibility entailed meticulously choosing papers that
were relevant to transformer condition monitoring, used IoT technology, and aligned
with the predefined objectives of the author. A regulated assessment with established
requirements guaranteed that only relevant papers were included in the analysis, reducing
biases and improving the evaluators’ thoroughness. Information across numerous research
papers was eventually harmonized to enable logical comparisons. The missing data were
corrected using strategies such as multiple computation, resulting in a comprehensive and
trustworthy database for evaluation. Table 7 provides information on the process of data
extraction from relevant studies. The results were methodically sorted into tables, which
were critical for recognizing patterns and presenting the findings clearly and openly.

Table 7. Data extraction.

Information Description
Study Objective The study’s distinct objective
Study Details Topic, author, country, year
Online repository IEEE Xplore, Google Scholer, Science Direct, etc.
Publication Type Book, conference, journal
Data evaluation Qualitative/quantitative/mixed methods analysis
Methodology Experiment, prediction evaluation, fault diagnosis, health index
Tools Which tools were used in the research for transformer condition monitoring using the IoT
Environmental setting under which the IoT-based transformer condition monitoring experiment
Experiment environment
was conducted
Contribution What valuable contributions of the proposed research in transformer condition monitoring were

3.9. Reporting Bias Assessment

1. To reduce subjective bias, three impartial reviewers oversaw the entire evaluation
procedure. Any disputes between reviewers were handled through conversation or by
consulting an additional reviewer to obtain a consensus on the interpretation of results.
This study relied heavily on manual analysis and visualization. There were no auto-
mated tools explicitly designed to measure reported bias; rather, data were assessed
and visualized manually using Microsoft Excel. This method entailed constructing
charts and plots to uncover trends and potential biases in the reporting, allowing for
a thorough evaluation of the data without relying on computerized automated tools.
To assure that everything was correct and complete, an exhaustive manual search of
multiple web repositories was performed. This strategy allowed for the matching of
data from various studies and sources, correcting any differences or questions about
stated findings without requiring personal interaction with the writers.

Quality Assessment
This part discusses the procedures used to determine the degree of trust or assurance
in the data collected for each result, assuring the dependability and validity of the outcomes.
The acquired literature was then reviewed using criteria derived from a set of six quality
assessment (QA) examinations, as shown in Table 8. After filtration (n = 120), the quality
of the research works that were selected for further study was assessed using a quality
assessment (QA) checklist consisting of six categories. QA is just as important as the
inclusion and exclusion criteria covered in the section above.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 9690 16 of 39

Table 8. Quality assessment checklist questions.

Question # Questions
1 Are the objectives of the research work well defined?
2 Is there a clear specification of the research work methodology?
3 Is the research model reported?
4 Are the data collection methods properly detailed?
5 Is the study context/discipline clearly specified?
6 Do the results add to the literature?

References [16,18,23,25,55,56] were on the borderline, scoring 75%, as shown in Table 9.

A total of 66 publications obtained 92%, as depicted in Table 5. Papers [14,15,26,50,52,54,65,
66,72–80,96,100,101,118] scored 100%, meeting and exceeding the set QA checklist.

Table 9. Studies’ quality assessment scores.

Studies Score
[1–13,26–28,30,34,37–39,41–49,51,53,57,60–64,70,71,81,83–90,94,95,97–99,102–104,106,112–117] 92%
[16,18,23,25,55,56] 75%
[17,19–22,24,29,31–33,35,36,58,59,67–69,82,91–93,105,107–111] 83%
[14,15,26,50,52,54,65,66,72–80,96,100,101,118] 100%

The questions scoreboard card is based on a three-point rating system, where “No”
is worth zero points, “Partially” is worth 0.5 points, and “Yes” is worth one point. Every
research paper is eligible to receive one of six possible points. Each QA question weighs
a maximum of 1 point. A higher overall score for the research study indicated that QA
checklist questions were satisfied. Table 10 under Section 4 tabulates QA results, showing
how each study was scored per QA question.
Table 10. Gathered publications’ quality assessment results.

Ref. QA1 QA2 QA3 QA4 QA5 QA6 Total %

[1] 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 5.5 92
[2] 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 5.5 92
[3] 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 5.5 92
[4] 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 5.5 92
[5] 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 5.5 92
[6] 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 5.5 92
[7] 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 5.5 92
[8] 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 5.5 92
[9] 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 5.5 92
[10] 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 5.5 92
[11] 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 5.5 92
[12] 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 5.5 92
[13] 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 5.5 92
[14] 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 100
[15] 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 100
[16] 1 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 4.5 75
[17] 1 1 0.5 0.5 1 1 5 83
[18] 1 1 0.5 1 0.5 0.5 4.5 75
[19] 1 1 0.5 1 1 0.5 5 83
[20] 1 1 0.5 1 1 0.5 5 83
[21] 1 1 0.5 1 0.5 1 5 83
[22] 1 1 0.5 1 1 0.5 5 83
[23] 1 1 0.5 0.5 1 0.5 4.5 75
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 9690 17 of 39

Table 10. Cont.

Ref. QA1 QA2 QA3 QA4 QA5 QA6 Total %

[24] 1 1 0.5 1 0.5 1 5 83
[25] 1 1 0.5 0.5 1 0.5 4.5 75
[26] 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 5.5 92
[27] 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 5.5 92
[28] 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 5.5 92
[29] 1 1 0.5 0.5 1 1 5 83
[30] 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 5.5 92
[31] 1 1 0.5 0.5 1 1 5 83
[32] 1 1 0.5 0.5 1 1 5 83
[33] 1 1 0.5 0.5 1 1 5 83
[34] 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 5.5 92
[35] 1 1 0.5 0.5 1 1 5 83
[36] 1 1 0.5 0.5 1 1 5 83
[37] 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 5.5 92
[39] 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 5.5 92
[40] 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 5.5 92
[41] 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 5.5 92
[42] 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 5.5 92
[43] 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 5.5 92
[44] 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 5.5 92
[45] 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 5.5 92
[46] 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 5.5 92
[47] 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 5.5 92
[48] 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 5.5 92
[49] 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 5.5 92
[50] 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 100
[51] 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 5.5 92
[38] 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 5.5 92
[52] 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 100
[53] 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 5.5 92
[54] 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 100
[55] 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 4.5 75
[56] 1 1 0.5 0.5 1 0.5 4.5 75
[57] 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 5.5 92
[58] 1 1 0.5 0.5 1 1 5 83
[59] 1 1 0.5 0.5 1 1 5 83
[60] 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 5.5 92
[61] 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 5.5 92
[62] 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 5.5 92
[42] 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 5.5 92
[63] 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 5.5 92
[64] 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 5.5 92
[65] 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 100
[66] 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 100
[67] 1 1 0.5 0.5 1 1 5 83
[68] 1 1 0.5 0.5 1 1 5 83
[69] 1 1 0.5 0.5 1 0.5 4.5 83
[70] 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 5.5 92
[71] 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 5.5 92
[72] 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 100
[73] 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 100
[74] 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 100
[75] 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 100
[76] 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 100
[77] 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 100
[26] 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 100
[78] 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 100
[79] 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 100
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 9690 18 of 39

Table 10. Cont.

Ref. QA1 QA2 QA3 QA4 QA5 QA6 Total %

[80] 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 100
[81] 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 5.5 92
[82] 1 1 0.5 0.5 1 1 5 83
[83] 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 5.5 92
[84] 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 5.5 92
[85] 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 5.5 92
[86] 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 5.5 92
[87] 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 5.5 92
[88] 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 5.5 92
[89] 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 5.5 92
[90] 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 5.5 92
[91] 1 1 0.5 0.5 1 1 5 83
[92] 1 1 0.5 0.5 1 1 5 83
[93] 1 1 0.5 0.5 1 1 5 83
[94] 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 5.5 92
[95] 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 5.5 92
[96] 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 100
[97] 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 5.5 92
[98] 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 5.5 92
[99] 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 5.5 92
[100] 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 100
[101] 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 100
[102] 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 5.5 92
[103] 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 5.5 92
[104] 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 5.5 92
[105] 1 1 0.5 0.5 1 1 5 83
[106] 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 5.5 92
[107] 1 1 0.5 0.5 1 1 5 83
[108] 1 1 0.5 0.5 1 1 5 83
[109] 1 1 0.5 0.5 1 1 5 83
[110] 1 1 0.5 0.5 1 1 5 83
[111] 1 1 0.5 0.5 1 1 5 83
[112] 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 5.5 92
[113] 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 5.5 92
[114] 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 5.5 92
[115] 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 5.5 92
[116] 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 5.5 92
[117] 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 5.5 92
[118] 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 100

4. Results and Discussion

This section explains the outcomes, particularly how they were interpreted, and draws
certain implications from them.

4.1. Study Selection Results

A Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA)
flowchart that was suggested for the literature search and filtering phases of this systematic
literature review (SLR) is shown in Figure 4. With the use of the keyword search terms
tabulated in Table 3, the published papers were gathered from online repositories with
good reputations. From these papers, data extraction was performed as discussed in
Section 3.5. The inclusion and exclusion criteria were strictly applied and followed. After
obtaining 262 publications, their topics and abstracts were examined. Figure 3 in Section 3
illustrates the results, with 62 articles from IEEE XPLORE, 60 papers from Google Scholar,
21 papers from Science Direct, 15 papers from Emerald Insight, 11 papers from Springer
Link, 46 papers from Wiley Online Library, 27 papers from Taylor and Francis Online,
13 papers from ELSEVIER, and 5 papers from other sources making up the obtained papers.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 9690 19 of 39

As a result, 187 papers that passed the first screening stage after the screening were based
on the titles and abstracts of the published papers. The remaining publications underwent
a full-text review and met all the eligibility requirements included in this systematic review,
while the remaining publications were eligible for full-text review. A total of 67 papers were
eliminated after the full-text review was conducted, leaving 120 papers selected for this
review. The 67 papers were disqualified because the studies lacked detailed information
on research methodology or because they only examined the same parameters of the
transformer as other published papers. Rejected papers were categorized as below 75%
based on the qualifying requirements, whilst accepted papers were categorized as 75%
and above. Papers that achieved 92% and above from the qualifying assessment criteria
were categorized as very high level, whereas papers that achieved 75% and above were
categorized as high level. Papers that achieved below 75% were rejected, and the papers
that satisfied all four exclusion criteria were categorized as low level, while those that
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 42
fulfilled only three were categorized as extremely low level. The quantity of papers that
satisfied the inclusion and exclusion criteria is shown in Figure 4.

Figure4.4.Proposed
Figure ProposedPRISMA
PRISMAflowchart.
flowchart.

4.2. Study Characteristics

The initial identification search commenced with a keyword search, as shown in
Table The
3, and the year of
compilation publication.
of published The in
papers steps in the
Figure procedure
5 shows how thewere toofuse
field keyword
study on IoT
searches
technology for electrical transformer monitoring has evolved significantly over time. the
for search queries, assess the standard of the published literature, identify The
most
data,important
which spanresearch, gather
the years data
2014 to gathering,
2024, showrecord the review,
that both and, finally,
the amount determine
of research being
eligibility.
conductedMoreover, asand
on this issue it immediately defines
the interest in the reference
it are increasing. Theframework forthree
fact that only this studies
study,
were published in 2014 suggests that before 2018 little research has been conducted on the
use of IoT technology for transformer monitoring. The research landscape did not acquire
traction until fifteen and twelve new publications were published in 2019 and 2020, re-
spectively. The observed increase indicates that more people are becoming aware of the
potential advantages of IoT technology for transformer monitoring. The most significant
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 9690 20 of 39

the creation of the research topic is a crucial step in the SLR process. Keywords that
were applied during this stage are the Internet of Things, transformer online condition
monitoring, transformer fault diagnosis, IoT review, and IoT survey. The selected paper
cluster types were conference papers, journal articles, and review articles. The selected years
ranged from 2014 to 2024. The identification stage discovered a total of 262 articles. The
eligibility part incorporated an extraction process. During the exclusion part, to adopt and
implement a selection criterion that is valid, full-length papers from journals with a high
reputation were considered. This stage produced 187 papers. The last part of the screening
process involved quality assessment and classification based on IoT system architecture,
microcontrollers, adopted communication protocol, IoT cloud platform, security, and
challenges. Finally, the inclusion/exclusion criteria were applied, and quality assessments
were conducted. The last part of the screening produced 120 papers. The three steps of the
survey methodology used for this investigation are shown in Figure 4.

4.2. Study Characteristics

The compilation of published papers in Figure 5 shows how the field of study on
IoT technology for electrical transformer monitoring has evolved significantly over time.
The data, which span the years 2014 to 2024, show that both the amount of research being
conducted on this issue and the interest in it are increasing. The fact that only three studies
were published in 2014 suggests that before 2018 little research has been conducted on
the use of IoT technology for transformer monitoring. The research landscape did not
acquire traction until fifteen and twelve new publications were published in 2019 and 2020,
respectively. The observed increase indicates that more people are becoming aware of the
potential advantages of IoT technology for transformer monitoring. The most significant
movement happened in 2021 and 2022, where there noticeably were 24 and 35 new studies
published, respectively. This increase can be ascribed to the increased availability of
implementation tools and data, as well as the growing public awareness of IoT applications.
Researchers and practitioners seem to be quite interested in the idea of using the IoT to
improve transformer status monitoring. Research question two shows that conference
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 42
papers make up the bulk of the landscape with 55% of publications, while journal articles
only account for 45% of publications.

Figure 5.
Figure 5. Trends
Trendsover
overthe
theyears
yearson
onIoT-based
IoT-basedtransformer
transformercondition
conditionmonitoring.
monitoring.

4.3. Risk of Bias in the Studies

The 120 papers included underwent a thorough process to ensure effective evalua-
tion without bias. The findings of the studies that were part of this SLR and the QA that
went along with them are illustrated in Table 9 and Figure 6, which indicates that all 120
research projects met the QA requirements, indicating that they were accepted and qual-
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 9690 21 of 39

4.3. Risk of Bias in the Studies

Figure 5. Trends over the years on IoT-based transformer condition monitoring.
The 120 papers included underwent a thorough process to ensure effective evaluation
without bias. The 4.3.
findings ofinthe
Risk of Bias studies that were part of this SLR and the QA that went
the Studies
The 120 papers
along with them are illustrated inincluded
Table 9underwent
and Figurea thorough processindicates
6, which to ensure effective
that allevalua-
120 research
tion without bias. The findings of the studies that were part of this SLR and the QA that
projects met the QA requirements, indicating that they were accepted and qualified
went along with them are illustrated in Table 9 and Figure 6, which indicates that all 120 for
additional examination. Figure
research projects 6 the
met illustrates that 4.65%
QA requirements, ofthat
indicating studies
they wereevaluated
accepted andusing
qual- the QA
checklist obtainedified
75for additional examination. Figure 6 illustrates that 4.65% of studies evaluated using
percent. Of the studies, 23.15% obtained an 83 percent QA score,
the QA checklist obtained 75 percent. Of the studies, 23.15% obtained an 83 percent QA
50.38% of the evaluated studies obtained a 92 percent
score, 50.38% of the evaluated studies obtained aQA score,QAand
92 percent 21.70%
score, of the
and 21.70% evaluated
of the
evaluated studies obtained
studies obtained a 100 percent QA score. a 100 percent QA score.

Figure 6. Publications quality assessment scores.

Figure 6. Publications’ quality assessment scores.
4.4. Result of Individual Bias
4.4. Result of IndividualFigures
Bias 7 and 8 show considerable variation in the reporting of software and the tools
Figures 7 andresearchers
8 showchose for the research on
considerable transformerin
variation condition monitoring using
the reporting the IoT. No- and the
of software
tably, 20% of the research papers did not specify IoT cloud platforms, and 12.5% did not
tools researchers chose forpreferred
specify their the research on transformer
microcontrollers. condition
This is troublesome monitoring
since it restricts the capacityusing the
IoT. Notably, 20%toofevaluate
the research
the proof ofpapers
concept and did not specify
functionality of theirIoT cloud
proposed IoT platforms, and 12.5%
systems for trans-
former condition monitoring. The absence of disclosure might raise the possibility of
did not specify their preferred microcontrollers. This is troublesome since it restricts the
presentation bias, rendering it harder to assess the validity of information offered by these
capacity to evaluate the proof
research papers.ofStudies
concept and functionality of their proposed
[3,5,18,19,21,25,43,44,90,105,108–110,115,116] did notIoT systems for
specify
their preferred microcontrollers.
transformer condition monitoring. The absence of disclosure might raise the possibility of Studies
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 42
presentation bias, rendering it harder to assess the validity of information offered by these
research papers. Studies [3,5,18,19,21,25,43,44,90,105,108–110,115,116] did not specify their
preferred microcontrollers. Studies [5,18,21,22,25,29,30,40,42,44,48,52,53,59,64,86,89,90,105,
[5,18,21,22,25,29,30,40,42,44,48,52,53,59,64,86,89,90,105,106,108–110,116]
106,108–110,116] did not specify their preferred IoT clouds for real-timedid data not specify
monitoring
their
and preferred IoT clouds for real-time data monitoring and visualization.
visualization.

Figure
Figure 7. 7. Researchdistribution
Research distributionby
byIoT
IoT cloud
cloud platforms.
platforms.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 9690 22 of 39

Figure 7. Research distribution by IoT cloud platforms.

Figure 8. Research distribution by hardware development platform.

Figure 8. Research distribution by hardware development platform.

4.5.Result
4.5. Result of
of Syntheses
Syntheses
This review formulated eight
This review formulated eightresearch
researchquestions
questionsthat were
that established
were to assess
established andand
to assess
synthesize collected data. The formulated research questions gave insight into
synthesize collected data. The formulated research questions gave insight into the aspects the
mostly investigated by the researchers, with fault diagnosis, energy management, health
index, lifecycle management, and energy management emerging as key components of the
examination by most researchers. The research questions also examined the publication
sources and discovered that conferences were preferred over journals, most likely due
to the importance of immediately sharing research findings in this rapidly developing
sector. The regional distribution of research was also assessed, revealing that interest in
transformer condition monitoring via IoT technology is broad, with India leading the way,
followed by China and Pakistan. This study also looked at IoT clouds, microcontrollers,
communication channels, and software tools used in this area of research. The Arduino IDE
was the most popular software because it allows for easily programming Arduino boards
and third-party microcontrollers. Wi-Fi was one of the most common communication
protocols, while the most preferred IoT clouds and microcontrollers were Things Speak
and Arduino Uno, respectively. Data synthesis findings and results are further discussed in
detail under Research Questions.

4.6. Reporting Biases

Figure 9 shows that quantitative analyses dominated investigation into transformer
condition monitoring using IoT technology. The quantitative approach dominated mainly
because these studies focused on experiments to test the hypothesis. Data outcomes can be
demonstrated in numbers, graphs, and tables with fewer words needed to explain them.
Quantitative research papers accounted for 117 of the 120 papers reviewed. This approach
demonstrates the importance of quantifiable data in evaluating crucial performance mea-
sures of IoT-based transformer condition monitoring. These key performance measures
include performance validation, affordability, sustainability, efficiency and profit growth.
These measures are all crucial in assessing the adopting of transformer condition moni-
toring through the IoT. Weighing the benefits and drawbacks of implementing IoT-based
transformer condition monitoring, transformer operators, utility owners, and those making
decisions may depend on unbiased, accurate insights generated by quantitative methodolo-
 Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 9690 23 of 39

gies that utilize statistical examination of data that are numerical. Three studies [13,14,87]
used a mixed methods research methodology due to them being surveys and reviews
where statistical data were analyzed and expressed in depth, using words for explanation.
Mixed methods studies verify quantifiable results with contextual observations to offer a
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEWfull understanding of how Internet of Things technology will revolutionize the 24 condition
of 42
monitoring of transformers.

Figure
Figure 9. Type
9. Type of research
of research studies.
studies.
4.7. Certainty Evidence
4.7. Certainty Evidence
The overwhelming desire for IoT-based transformer condition monitoring amongst
The overwhelming desire for IoT-based transformer condition monitoring amongst
researchers, academics, and utility owners arises from the IoT’s low power consumption,
researchers, academics, and utility owners arises from the IoT s low power consumption,
scalability, dynamic, flexibility, and affordability. IoT-based services provide operators
scalability, dynamic, flexibility, and affordability. IoT-based services provide operators
and utility owners with real-time data of a transformer’s conditions, which is crucial to
andmake
utility owners with
data-driven real-time
decisions data catastrophic
before of a transformer s conditions,
failures. There are which is crucial
various to
developers
make data-driven decisions before catastrophic failures. There are various
of IoT cloud platforms that are open source and offer free trials for a limited number ofdevelopers of
IoTservices
cloud platforms that The
and features. are open source and
components offer
for IoT free trials
prototype for a limitedare
development number of ser-
affordable, thus
vices and features. The components for IoT prototype development are
minimizing the requirement for large initial financial commitments. Being adaptable affordable, thus is
minimizing
critical forthe
IoTrequirement
technology withfor large initial
evolving financial commitments.
requirements around parameters Being to
adaptable is
be monitored
critical for IoT
in order technology
to ensure withtransformer
effective evolving requirements around parameters
condition monitoring. to bethe
Furthermore, moni-
use of
tored in order to ensure effective transformer condition monitoring. Furthermore,
IoT cloud platforms reduces the hassle of servicing and upgrades, allowing transformer the use
of IoT cloud platforms
operators and utilityreduces
owners the hassle of servicing
to concentrate and upgrades,
on operations allowing transformer
and on maintaining the continuity
operators
of supply to consumers whilst profiting from modern technology. The certaintythe
and utility owners to concentrate on operations and on maintaining conti-
of evidence
nuity of supply to consumers whilst profiting
is discussed in detail under research questions. from modern technology. The certainty of
evidence is discussed in detail under research questions.
4.8. Transformer Condition Monitoring
4.8. Transformer Conditionof
In the discipline Monitoring
electrical engineering, transformer condition monitoring is the
procedure of gathering
In the discipline and analyzing
of electrical information
engineering, regardingcondition
transformer numerousmonitoring
transformerisaspects
the
to identify
procedure their condition
of gathering and anticipate
and analyzing their potential
information regardingfor numerous
failure. This is accomplished
transformer as-
by to
pects monitoring the trends
identify their andand
condition alterations in the
anticipate critical
their parameters
potential of transformers
for failure. This is accom- from
their by
plished normal conditions
monitoring [17]. Transformers
the trends arein
and alterations important assets
the critical in both electrical
parameters transmis-
of transformers
sion
from andnormal
their distribution networks.
conditions [17]. Their breakdowns
Transformers can result assets
are important in blackouts,
in bothendangering
electrical
transmission and distribution networks. Their breakdowns can result in blackouts, endan-
gering people s lives and posing a risk to the environment. Furthermore, transformers are
expensive equipment in a power system network. Effective condition monitoring facili-
tates the identification of transformers that are approaching failure and can enable data-
driven, proactive maintenance strategies [23]. These transformers can be replaced under
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 9690 24 of 39

people’s lives and posing a risk to the environment. Furthermore, transformers are ex-
pensive equipment in a power system network. Effective condition monitoring facilitates
the identification of transformers that are approaching failure and can enable data-driven,
proactive maintenance strategies [23]. These transformers can be replaced under con-
trolled circumstances to avoid catastrophic failures. The traditional condition monitoring
techniques are manually performed, which presents a risk of inaccuracies due to human
errors. This section presents critical parameters of transformers that can be monitored
using IoT technology.

4.8.1. Voltage and Current

Voltage and current are critical parameters of any electrical transformer; monitoring
and analyzing the trends and behavior of these parameters can reveal a great deal of
information about the transformer during operation. The relationship between these
two parameters is inversely proportional to each other for both primary and secondary
circuits [28]. Whenever the primary voltage steps up the current, the primary side of the
transformer should step down, and the same relationship applies to secondary voltage
and current as well [33]. Voltage and current parameters are critical and can be utilized
to monitor the loading of transformers, thus minimizing overloading and power theft.
These parameters can also be utilized to calculate power and efficiency and to perform
diagnostic tests such as the transformer voltage ratio test, no-load losses, and load losses,
etc. Monitoring these parameters using the IoT with transformers in service can determine
developing issues with interturn insulation failure. There are various IoT sensors available
in the market that can be utilized to gather real-time data of these two critical parameters
of the transformer, with the ACS712 IoT current sensor and the ZMCT103C current module
being widely used sensors in IoT-based condition monitoring systems. The Zmpt101B
voltage sensor is the most preferred sensor for transformer condition monitoring due to this
sensor being rated at a maximum of 250Vac. Various voltage sensors are rated at a maximum
of 25 V, hence the preference for the Zmpt101B voltage sensor by most researchers.

4.8.2. Temperature Oil and Winding

Temperatures for both oil and windings are fundamental aspects of transformer
monitoring. Temperature influences all other accessories that make up the transformer.
Excessively high temperatures might represent a fault, which might ultimately damage
multiple parts of the transformer if left unaddressed. Temperatures should be monitored
in several areas, namely ambient, windings, top oil, bottom oil, tap changer, etc. Ref. [56]
mentioned that winding insulation is extremely sensitive to both moisture and tempera-
ture. Monitoring the winding hot spot is critical since it has an immediate effect on the
transformer’s deteriorating rate. Refs. [17,22] stated that for approximately every 6-degree
rise in winding temperature beyond the specified maximum range of 110 degrees, the
transformer decaying rate nearly doubles. The reviewed studies revealed the importance
of gathering real-time temperature data of transformers to ensure the reliable and efficient
operation of these devices in the power system. There are various IoT temperature sensors
available in the market, with the DHT11 sensor and LM335Z sensor predominately used
for dry-type transformers, small single-phase transformers, and instrument transformers.
A waterproof DS18B20 temperature sensor is also available and is predominantly used for
IoT studies involving oil-impregnated transformers.

4.8.3. Transformer Oil Level

Transformer oil is used mainly for insulating and cooling in transformers. Transformer
oil should possess a high quality of dielectric strength, thermal conductivity, and chemical
resilience. It must maintain these attributes while operating at higher temperatures for a
lengthy period. Depreciation in transformer oil may result in overheating of the transformer,
resulting in electrical faults and catastrophic failures. Monitoring the oil level is an essential
part of transformer condition monitoring to monitor the level of transformer oil inside the
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 9690 25 of 39

transformer [4]. Sustaining a sufficient transformer oil level is critical in order to prevent
instances of the transformer oil level dropping below what is required or being excessively
low. This level drop may result in insufficient insulation durability [2]. Electrical discharges
take place, leading to insulation failure and transformer explosion. The oil level drop may
also result in unsatisfactory localized heat transfer for the transformer, leading to localized
overheating and complete insulation failure as time passes [1]. Numerous reviewed studies
conducted research on this aspect using IoT-compatible sensors to gather real-time data of
the transformer oil. The HC-SR04 ultrasonic distance sensor and JSN-SR04T/AJ-SR04M
Waterproof Ultrasonic Module are widely used by most researchers.

4.8.4. Partial Discharges

Partial discharge (PD) is a leading cause of transformer deterioration and failure. PD
happens when electrical stress surpasses the transformer’s insulation resilience, resulting in
tiny sparks or arcs that damage the insulation and impair the transformer’s reliability [33].
Partial discharges are commonly defined as minor electrical sparks that are generated in
the windings of the transformer [20]. This phenomenon takes place when there are small
air gaps in or within the insulation. When the sparking happens, the transformer windings
begin to degrade. The wider the void in insulation, the larger the probable discharge,
which could potentially contribute to equipment breakdown. Partial discharge analysis
and monitoring is a strong predictor of possible transformer failure. If kept undiagnosed,
it may ultimately result to a total breakdown of the electrical insulation, which serves as
one of the leading causes of transformer unplanned outages. Partial discharge analysis and
monitoring is a strong predictor of possible transformer failure. If kept undiagnosed, it
may ultimately result in total breakdown of the electrical insulation, which serves as one of
the leading causes of unplanned outages in transformers.
Utilizing online monitoring systems such as the IoT to gather real-time data and
detect partial discharges can help prevent transformer failures. The following condition
monitoring techniques for partial discharges was proposed by [20]. Dissolve gas analysis
(DGA) is one technique that can be utilized to monitor the concentration of dissolved gasses
in the transformer oil. A DGA can reveal significant levels of thermal gasses in transformer
oil such as methane, ethane, and ethylene as an indication of transformer oil overheating.
These gasses are produced because of transformer oil thermal degradation. DGA forms
part of the predictive maintenance strategy that can be utilized to monitor incipient faults
and take reasonable action before transformer failure occurs [20]. There are IoT sensors
available in the market that can facilitate real-time data gathering of the concentration
of these gasses. Gas sensors such as the HKD MQ7 gas sensor module monitors carbon
monoxide (CO), and the MQ-4 Methane gas sensor, etc., are readily available in the markets.
IR sensors such as the IR Infrared obstacle avoidance sensor module are available in the
market to monitor hot spots due to partial discharges in the transformer. To ascertain
responses to the eight main research questions formulated in Section 1, this current SLR
examines a total of 120 research works about IoT technology in transformer condition
monitoring that were conducted from 2014 to 2024.
RQ1: What are the primary research objectives and goals addressed in the col-
lected literature on IoT technology for electrical transformer condition monitoring and
fault diagnosis?
The results of the literature study conducted for this paper provide a comprehensive
overview of research articles relevant to the application of Internet of Things technology in
electrical transformer condition monitoring, as shown in Figure 10. Fault diagnosis is the
most notable of the highlighted research fields in terms of primary focus. The application of
advanced modeling and monitoring techniques for the diagnosis and identification of prob-
lems in transformers has been the subject of 45.8% publications in total. Moreover, 24.2%
of the studies examined the development and use of health indices to assess the overall
well-being of transformers using an IoT infrastructure. Transformer lifecycle management
is another important component. To optimize transformer lifespan, 22.5% of researchers
 Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 9690 26 of 39

used Internet of Things technology to study this topic. The analysis also highlights 1.7% of
vibration monitoring research and 4.2% of studies that optimize transformer energy usage.
There was no partial discharge identification or thermal performance analysis in any of the
literature that was gathered. Together, these findings demonstrate the breadth of research
conducted on the use of the Internet of Things to enhance the efficiency, dependability, and
performance of electrical transformers. The relatively small amount of research articles in
areas such as vibration analysis, energy consumption optimization, and partial discharge
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 28 of 42
analysis in the context of IoT technology for electrical transformer condition monitoring
points to a few noteworthy conclusions.

Figure
Figure10.
10.Research
Researchdistribution
distributionbybythe
thetransformer
transformeraspect
aspectinvestigated.
investigated.

RQ2: Which
In the research
first place, publication
it highlights sources
a stark havegap
research beenin predominantly utilized in the
these areas, demonstrating that
literature to study IoT applications in transformer monitoring?
insufficient attention has been paid to them in the context of Internet of Things transformer
The analysis
applications. of the published
Secondly, it is possiblesources
that thein complexity
Figure 11 shows how widely
and unique the literature
challenges associated
on IoT these
with technology
subjectsforhave
electrical transformer
discouraged more status monitoring
research. is distributed.
Additionally, Conferences
these fields may be
make up the niche
considered bulk oforthe landscape
specialist, with 55%
meaning that publications,
fewer scholars while journal articles
are working on themonly thanac-on
count for 45%
subjects publications.
like fault diagnosis This distribution
or lifecycle suggests that
management, conference
which proceedings
are subjects that are are the
studied
preferred means of Lastly,
more extensively. disseminating research
it is important to findings
remember among the academic
that research community
in these domains may re-
searching
still be inthis subject.
its early Conference
stages. However, publications are very
if IoT technology forcommon for amonitoring
transformer variety of reasons.
develops
First of all,
further, weconferences
may anticipateare aseeing
well-liked substitute
an increase in theforamount
disseminating cutting-edge
of research producedstudies
in these
inareas.
fieldsThe
thatdearth of research
are always publications
evolving, such as IoT in these areas ought
technology, sincetothey
be seen as a provide
usually request fora
increased
forum investigation
for scholars and innovation
to promptly share their inside
mostthe sector.
recent findings and discoveries. Second,
Figuremight
conferences 10 clearly
allow demonstrates
researchers to that the majority
discuss of the references
their findings without theconducted
rigorousstudies
peer
on fault diagnosis using IoT technology. Only [21,81] investigated
review process due to their laxer publication standards. The lower representation the impact of vibrations
of jour-
in the
nals may transformer.
be explained When
by the a fault condition
rigorous arises within
peer-review the transformer,
procedures the vibrations
that they usually follow.
from the windings
Individual preferences, duepublishing
to fault currents
schedules, are and
a clear
theindication of thecan
target audience abnormal condition
all influence the
arising within
decision between theconferences
transformer. andThis area needs to be explored more. Figure 8 additionally
journals.
illustrates that 55 publications conducted an investigation on transformer fault diagnosis
using the Internet of Things. This aspect is crucial in ensuring longer service life of
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 9690 27 of 39

transformers. A total of 29 publications conducted investigations on health indices to

calculate transformer health indices and estimate the remaining life of transformers. A
total of 27 reviewed papers focused on the lifecycle management of transformers. This is
an asset management technique usually consisting of three steps; firstly, it involves risk
evaluation for transformer assets. Secondly, it assesses the condition of each transformer,
and, thirdly, involves alternative actions in the lifecycle, such as retiring, refurbishing,
replacing, and discarding transformers [52]. Energy management aspects were the focus
of five reviewed papers, utilizing IoT technology to monitor energy consumption and
power theft. References [88,116] did not specify the aspects they investigated in their
publications. References [21,81] were the only two papers looking into the vibration
analysis of transformers using IoT technology.
RQ2: Which research publication sources have been predominantly utilized in the
literature to study IoT applications in transformer monitoring?
The analysis of the published sources in Figure 11 shows how widely the literature
on IoT technology for electrical transformer status monitoring is distributed. Conferences
make up the bulk of the landscape with 55% publications, while journal articles only
account for 45% publications. This distribution suggests that conference proceedings are
the preferred means of disseminating research findings among the academic community
researching this subject. Conference publications are very common for a variety of reasons.
First of all, conferences are a well-liked substitute for disseminating cutting-edge studies
in fields that are always evolving, such as IoT technology, since they usually provide a
forum for scholars to promptly share their most recent findings and discoveries. Second,
conferences might allow researchers to discuss their findings without the rigorous peer
review process due to their laxer publication standards. The lower representation of
journals may be explained by the rigorous peer-review procedures that they usually follow.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Individual preferences, publishing schedules, and the target audience can all29influence
of 42 the
decision between conferences and journals.

Figure 11. Research distribution by research type.

Figure 11. Research distribution by research type.
RQ 3: From which countries or regions do most of the articles on IoT technology for
transformers originate?
The regional distribution of research contributions in the field of Internet of Things
technology for electrical transformer status monitoring is depicted in Figure 12. Of these,
India accounts for 55% publications of total contributions, suggesting a substantial con-
centration there. India has undertaken significant research efforts and has actively con-
tributed to the growth of this technology, as evidenced by its dominance. Even though
 Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 9690 28 of 39

RQ 3: From which countries or regions do most of the articles on IoT technology for
transformers originate?
The regional distribution of research contributions in the field of Internet of Things
technology for electrical transformer status monitoring is depicted in Figure 12. Of these,
India accounts for 55% publications of total contributions, suggesting a substantial concen-
tration there. India has undertaken significant research efforts and has actively contributed
to the growth of this technology, as evidenced by its dominance. Even though India leads
by a large margin, other countries make substantial contributions as well, albeit on a smaller
scale. China provides 8.3%, and Pakistan provides 3.3%, indicating a strong interest in
this field. This worldwide distribution illustrates how ubiquitous the opportunities and
problems associated with transformer condition monitoring are, as well as the possible
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW advantages of IoT technology. A more thorough and strong understanding30 of of
this
42 crucial
sector can be achieved by cooperative efforts between nations with differing degrees of
technological growth, which will ultimately help the power industry globally.

Figure 12. Research

Figure distribution
12. Research by country.
distribution by country.

RQ 4: WhatRQ 4: specific software

What specific and tools
software havehave
and tools been frequently
been frequentlymentioned
mentionedand andem-
employed
ployed inin the
the articles
articlesrelated
relatedtotoIoT
IoTtechnology
technologyin intransformer
transformercondition
conditionmonitoring?
monitoring?
The examination
The examinationof the tools
of theused
toolsinused
the research on IoT on
in the research technology for electrical
IoT technology for electrical
transformer status status
transformer monitoring reveals
monitoring a wide
reveals rangerange
a wide of IoTof platforms
IoT platforms andand
software solu-
software solutions.
tions. Among
Amongthe thesolutions
solutionsthat
thatareareused
usedmostmostcommonly
commonlyisisthe theArduino
ArduinoIDE IDEsoftware.
software. This
This program
program is well renowned
is well renowned for its
forcapacity to settoupset
its capacity third-party microcontrollers
up third-party and and
microcontrollers
Arduino Arduino
boards.boards. Researchers
Researchers seem to
seem to prefer prefer it of
it because because of its adaptability
its adaptability and ease ofandus-ease of
age. Wi-Fi was the primary communication channel. Wi-Fi is preferred due to it beingit being
usage. Wi-Fi was the primary communication channel. Wi-Fi is preferred due to
suitablesuitable
for Local forArea
LocalNetworks
Area Networks
and due and dueideal
to its to itsapplication
ideal application
benefitsbenefits
for the for the current
current
infrastructure
infrastructure for close-quarters
for close-quarters communication.
communication. The findings
The findings of the proposed
of the proposed study also
study also
indicateindicate
that thethat the researchers’
researchers top choice topfor choice
an IoT for an IoT
cloud wascloud was ThingSpeak,
ThingSpeak, most likelymost
be- likely
cause itbecause it is an open-source
is an open-source programprogram
that lets that
userslets users aggregate,
aggregate, visualize,
visualize, and analyze
and analyze real- real-
time
time data data streams
streams on the Finally,
on the cloud. cloud. Finally, the Arduino
the Arduino Uno boardUno wasboardthewas the microcontroller
microcontroller
of choice for most researchers, mainly because the Arduino
of choice for most researchers, mainly because the Arduino Uno boards are user-friendly Uno boards are user-friendly
and easy to program, which makes them one of the most preferred choices for beginners.
Arduino Uno boards are also affordable compared to other Arduino boards. The research
distribution by communication channel is presented in Figure 13.
 Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 9690 29 of 39

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW and easy to program, which makes them one of the most preferred choices
31 for beginners.
of 42
Arduino Uno boards are also affordable compared to other Arduino boards. The research
distribution by communication channel is presented in Figure 13.

Figure 13.Figure
Research
13. distribution by communication
Research distribution channel. channel.
by communication

RQ 5: How RQ has
5: How has the research
the research landscape landscape on IoT technology
on IoT technology for electrical
for electrical transformer transformer
monitoring
monitoring evolved
evolved over over
time, andtime,
whatand whatemerge
trends trendsfrom
emergethefrom the collected
collected literature?literature?
The compilation
The compilation of published
of published studies in studies
Figurein14 Figure 14 demonstrates
demonstrates the substantial
the substantial evo- evolu-
tion of the field of study on IoT technology for electrical transformer
lution of the field of study on IoT technology for electrical transformer monitoring monitoring throughout
throughout the years. The information, which spans the years 2014 through 2024, indicates both the
the years. The information, which spans the years 2014 through 2024, indicates that
that bothnumber
the numberof studies beingbeing
of studies conducted on thisonsubject
conducted and the
this subject andinterest in it areinrising.
the interest it are The fact
that
rising. The only
fact one
that onlystudy
onewas
studyreleased in 2014 in
was released indicates that, prior
2014 indicates to prior
that, 2018, to
there had
2018, not yet been
there
much research conducted on the application of IoT technology
had not yet been much research conducted on the application of IoT technology for trans- for transformer monitoring.
It took until the publication of 12.5% of new papers in 2019
former monitoring. It took until the publication of 12.5% of new papers in 2019 and 10% and 10% of publications in
2020 for the research landscape to begin to gain traction. This
of publications in 2020 for the research landscape to begin to gain traction. This noted risenoted rise suggests that
suggests more people
that more are becoming
people awareaware
are becoming of the of
potential benefits
the potential of IoT technology
benefits for transformer
of IoT technology
monitoring. The largest shift occurred in 2022 when there was
for transformer monitoring. The largest shift occurred in 2022 when there was a notewor- a noteworthy increase of
25.8%
thy increase of of studies
25.8% published.
of studies This spike
published. This can
spike becan
attributed to the to
be attributed increasing availability of
the increasing
availability of implementation tools and data, as well as the expanding awareness of applications.
implementation tools and data, as well as the expanding awareness of IoT IoT
There seems to be a lot of interest among researchers and practitioners in the idea of using
applications. There seems to be a lot of interest among researchers and practitioners in the
the IoT to enhance transformer status monitoring.
idea of using the IoT to enhance transformer status monitoring.
The trend in growing interest and research activity in IoT technology for transformer
monitoring is evident from these data. It suggests that researchers, industry professionals,
and other interested parties are beginning to understand how the IoT might fundamentally
change how electrical transformers are serviced, maintained, and optimized. As technology
advances, this trend is probably going to continue, leading to more inventive uses and
solutions in the years to come.
RQ 6: What emerging opportunities and technological advancements are highlighted
in the collected literature that may shape the future of transformer monitoring using
the IoT?
Appl.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14,x9690
2024,14, FOR PEER REVIEW 32 of 42 30 of 39

Figure 14. Research

Figure evolution
14. Research over a over
evolution decade.
a decade.

TheThe
trend in growing
collected interest focuses
literature and research
on aactivity
number in of
IoTrecent
technology for transformer
innovations and technological
monitoring
advances is evident
that may from these
have andata. It suggests
impact that researchers,
on transformer industryvia
monitoring professionals,
the IoT in the future.
and other interested
Among them areparties are beginning to understand how the IoT might fundamen-
the following:
tally change how electrical transformers are serviced, maintained, and optimized. As tech-
• advances,
nology Several studies discuss
this trend the usegoing
is probably of advanced sensors
to continue, and
leading to data
morecollection tools to capture
inventive uses
data in real time from
and solutions in the years to come. transformers [65]. Improved monitoring and diagnostics may
RQresult
6: What from the more
emerging completeand
opportunities and accurate data
technological collectionare
advancements provided by new sensor
highlighted
technologies,
in the collected such
literature thatasmay
optical
shapesensors.
the future of transformer monitoring using the
•
IoT? Studies show that machine learning, AI, and deep learning algorithms are being used
Themore
collected
and literature
more for focuses on a number of
defect identification recent
and datainnovations and technological
analysis [22–37,39–42]. Improvements
advances that may have an impact on transformer monitoring
in fault prediction and classification made possible by these via the IoT developments
in the future. enhance
Among transformer
them are the following:
monitoring.
• • Several
A few studies
worksdiscuss the use
address theofapplication
advanced sensors and computing
of edge data collection
fortools
datato processing
cap- and
tureanalysis
data in real time from transformers [65]. Improved monitoring and diagnostics
[34]. In situations where cloud connectivity may be limited, edge computing
may result
can fromlatency
reduce the moreandcomplete
enhanceand accuratemonitoring
real-time data collection provided by new
capabilities.
sensor technologies, such as optical sensors.
• Cloud-based solutions are mentioned in some research. The scalability, storage, and
• Studies show that machine learning, AI, and deep learning algorithms are being used
data-processing capabilities of cloud computing can facilitate large-scale IoT deploy-
more and more for defect identification and data analysis [22–37,39–42]. Improve-
ments
ments andprediction
in fault data analytics.
and classification made possible by these developments en-
• hance
Internet of Things technology is crucial for managing the whole transformer lifetime,
transformer monitoring.
• from
A few worksdesign andthe
address manufacture
application ofto operation
edge computing and
formaintenance,
data processingaccording
and anal- to the lit-
erature [36]. By using a comprehensive approach, transformer performance
ysis [34]. In situations where cloud connectivity may be limited, edge computing can can be
optimized,
reduce andenhance
latency and their lifespan
real-timecan be increased.
monitoring capabilities.
• Maintaining the cybersecurity of IoT systems is essential given the growing connectiv-
ity and data sharing [28]. A few articles address the use of cybersecurity to safeguard
infrastructure and data related to IoT technology.
• Several studies focus on improving energy efficiency through IoT technology [117].
Optimizing transformer operation and reducing energy losses are key objectives,
contributing to sustainability efforts.
RQ 7: Which transformer types does the collected literature investigate?
 ture [36]. By using a comprehensive approach, transformer performance can be opti-
mized, and their lifespan can be increased.
• Maintaining the cybersecurity of IoT systems is essential given the growing connec-
tivity and data sharing [28]. A few articles address the use of cybersecurity to safe-
guard infrastructure and data related to IoT technology.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 9690 • Several studies focus on improving energy efficiency through IoT technology [117].
31 of 39
Optimizing transformer operation and reducing energy losses are key objectives,
contributing to sustainability efforts.

RQ 7: Which
The transformer types does the
gathered literature collectedaliterature
explores range of investigate?
transformer types, representing a variety
The gathered literature explores a range of transformer types, representing a variety
of uses and research interests in the topic of electrical transformer monitoring. Figure 15
of uses and research interests in the topic of electrical transformer monitoring. Figure 15
illustrates
illustrates that 49
that 49 percent percent
of studies of studies
concern concern
the “Power the “Power
Transformer”, Transformer”,
the most often the most often
studiedstudied transformer
transformer type in the type in the
literature. literature.
This This
implies that powerimplies that power
transformers, which transformers, which are
are essential partsparts
essential of electrical power systems,
of electrical power are the subject
systems, are of
thea significant
subject ofamount of
a significant amount of research,
research, with40.8
with 40.8 percent
percent of of
publications focusing
publications on distribution
focusing transformers.transformers.
on distribution The sig- The significance
nificance of guaranteeing dependable energy distribution is in line with the research in-
of guaranteeing dependable energy distribution is in line with the research interest in
terest in transformer monitoring, as these devices are essential to power distribution net-
works. transformer monitoring, as these devices are essential to power distribution networks.

Figure 15. Research distribution by transformer type.

Figure 15. Research distribution by transformer type.

Table 11 tabulates different types of transformers that were mostly preferred by re-
searchers to conduct condition monitoring, using an IoT-based system. Table 6 shows
that power transformers and distribution transformers were the two transformer types
being investigated by a high number of studies. The table also shows that there is a little
focus on dry-type transformers and instrument transformers from the researchers. Stud-
ies [53,64,73,83,86,87,94,97,114,117] did not specify the transformer types being investigated
in their papers. These references provided generic terms such as “electrical transformer”
and “transformers”.

Table 11. Investigated transformer types using the IoT.

Transformer Type Paper ID

[2,3,5,7,10,14,19,25,26,32,33,37–39,43,45,46,50,52,54,66,68,72,74–76,78,80–82,84,85,91,92,98,101–
Distribution Transformer
113,118]
[1,4,6,8,9,11–13,15–18,20–31,34–36,40–42,44,47–49,51,55–63,65–67,69–
Power Transformer
71,79,88,89,93,95,96,99,100,115,116].
Dry-Type Transformer [77]
Instrument Transformer [90]
Not Specified [53,64,73,83,86,87,94,97,114,117]
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 9690 32 of 39

Transformers are essential electrical equipment in electrical power systems and other
fields. The transformer is commonly utilized for different electrical applications to resolve
electrical issues [42]. There are various ways to classify transformers. Transformers can
be classified based on a number of phases. Transformers can either be classified into
single-phase transformers or three-phase transformers. Transformers can also be classi-
fied according to their usage, namely step-up transformers and step-down transformers.
Based on their application, they can be classified into distribution transformers, power
transformers, isolation transformers, etc. Transformers can be classified based on winding
configurations; there are two winding transformers and an autotransformer. Lastly, trans-
formers can be classified based on core design. There are three types of transformers based
on their core design, namely shell type, core type, and berry type, with shell and core types
being commonly used [71]. The different types of transformers are briefly discussed below.
Power transformers are the most employed in high-voltage transmission systems.
These transformers have voltage ratings of up to 400 kV. Most of the power transform-
ers are rated 200 MVA and above [51,55]. They are utilized in generating power sta-
tions and transmission substations that require big transformers with higher ratings. The
power transformer is constructed for optimum performance and is bigger compared to
distribution transformers.
Distribution transformers are designed to lower voltage for delivery to customers
or for business use. This transformer offers adequate voltage control and can run 24 h a
day at 50 percent load efficiency. A distribution transformer, sometimes referred to as a
demand transformer, converts a low- or medium-voltage supply to the voltage required for
domestic appliances and machinery in factories [7].
The dry-type transformer is one that does not use insulating oil and instead uses
insulating paper and natural cooling method for its windings. The windings and core are
contained in a closed tank that is previously pressurized using air. They are safe to use
without insulating oil [77]. Two types of dry-type transformers that are common are Cast
Resin and Vacuum Pressure-Filled transformers.
Instrument transformers are intended to transmit either secondary voltage or current
to instruments. The power system reticulation uses high voltages and currents, which can
be detrimental to instruments, such as metering instruments, and protective relays [90].
Instrument transformers are then used to reduce high voltages and currents to safe levels
in order for these devices to carry out their functions.
RQ 8: What are the common challenges and limitations documented in the collected
literature regarding the implementation of Internet of Things technology in transformer
condition assessment?
The most economical way to put timely condition monitoring into practice is to use
open technologies, such as the Internet of Things, for power transformer real-time mon-
itoring. With a sleep mode on the microcontroller, Internet of Things devices consume
less power. This literature review discovered that transformer parameters may be mon-
itored using Internet of Things sensors. While this literature review found that Internet
of Things-based transformer status monitoring systems have shown encouraging results,
there are still a number of areas that could use improvement. The concentration should be
on enhancing sensor accuracy and the calibration procedure to further minimize measure-
ment errors, especially for voltage and current measurements. It was discovered that the
publications conducted research on IoT systems rated at 230VAC. This is a constraint, as
this type of IoT system cannot be implemented for large transformers. The reviewed IoT
monitoring system for transformers should utilize instrument transformers (i.e., current
and potential transformers) for transformers rated above 230VAC on the secondary side.
This intervention will minimize voltage and current variations sensed by the respective
sensors and prevent damage to the components used. These instrument transformers will
be connected to the monitored transformer. The IoT sensors can then be connected to the
instrument transformers’ secondary side, which will reduce the variation in voltage and
current that each sensor detects. As discussed above, Wi-Fi communication protocol was
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 9690 33 of 39

the most preferred protocol. However, Wi-Fi communication protocol is more suitable for
Local Area Networks (LANs), which cover short distance ranges. Connection stability also
becomes a challenge if there is a lack of proper infrastructure, which hinders seamless data
transmission. Most of the publications focused on the monitoring of a single transformer
using IoT. The scalability of the system to monitor several transformers in a substation,
guaranteeing dependable communication and data aggregation from numerous transform-
ers, should be investigated and studied further. The use of more advanced communication
protocols, like GSM, LoRaWAN, Sigfox, etc., should be considered for seamless and long-
range data exchange between physical transformers and IoT-based transformer condition
monitoring in order to achieve optimal performance. These protocols improve the security,
dependability, and long-distance transfer of data. Extended testing and validation carried
out in various operational scenarios will yield more thorough insights into the functionality
and areas that require the development of the system. Innovative IoT gadgets have become
vital in the modern digital world. Security and data privacy precautions need to be effective
and reliable in order to prevent significant breaches. Storage gaps and security fractures
leave the vast amount of data being transferred through the IoT vulnerable to unautho-
rized access. Therefore, it is critical to ensure that standards exist to safeguard and handle
them. If a manufacturer chooses an incorrect IoT platform and fails to comprehend their
data obligations, data may be shared, traded in, or dispersed without authorization. IoT
standardization would enable established means of data transmission, preventing critical
data from falling into unauthorized people’s hands. IoT standardization can promote
a smooth integration process by providing norms for communication and data sharing
across IoT-connected devices [80]. IoT standardization reduces the likelihood of connection
and compatibility concerns, allowing gadgets to connect quickly and effortlessly while
maintaining uniform performance, security, and dependability [80].

5. Conclusions
A thorough summary of the state of the research on Internet of Things (IoT) tech-
nology in the context of electrical transformer condition monitoring has been given by
this systematic literature review (SLR). This study examined 120 research publications
published between 2014 and 2024 using a strict process that included establishing inclusion
and exclusion criteria, locating academic works from numerous reliable repositories, and
performing quality assessments. Firstly, this review addressed important research concerns
and clarified a number of important facets of this emerging topic. It began by outlining the
main aims and objectives of this research, encompassing a wide range of topics, with fault
diagnosis, lifecycle management, and health indices emerging as major aspects of the in-
vestigation. Secondly, it looked at the publication sources and found that conferences were
preferred above journals, most likely due to the urgency of quickly disseminating research
results in this quickly developing field. Thirdly, it looked into the regional distribution of
research, showing that interest in transformer condition monitoring using IoT technology is
widespread, with India leading the way, followed by China and Pakistan. This study also
examined the IoT clouds, microcontrollers, communication channels, and software tools
used in this field of research. The most popular software was Arduino IDE because it makes
programming Arduino boards and third-party microcontrollers simple. One of the most
popular communication protocols was Wi-Fi, while the IoT clouds and microcontrollers
that were most preferred were Things Speak and Arduino Uno, respectively. Additional re-
search is required to fulfill worldwide requirements, especially regarding privacy, security,
technology, and connectivity. ZigBee communication protocol was found to be suitable
for local IoT connections, while Sigfox or Lora communication protocols are more suitable
for worldwide communication. IoT technology implementation must be able to integrate
various communication protocols while balancing resource requirements and features.
Scalability, standardization, dynamicity, and compatibility are some of the difficulties that
may impede IoT growth. IoT standardization can help to smooth the integration process by
establishing guidelines for communication and data sharing across IoT-connected devices.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 9690 34 of 39

IoT standardization eliminates connectivity and compatibility issues, allowing devices to

connect fast and easily while ensuring consistent performance, security, and dependability.

Author Contributions: M.R.M. and B.A.T. conceptualized and carried out the systematic review, and
they investigated, wrote, and prepared the article. K.A.O. was responsible for reviewing the article.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding. And the APC was funded by K.O.A.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank Gert van der Westhuizen and the AAMP team
at the University of Johannesburg for their technical support.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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