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Guidelines for Analysis and
Description of Soil and Regolith
Thin Sections
Second Edition
Georges Stoops
Emeritus Professor, Department of Geology, Faculty of Sciences,
Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
“Handbook for Soil Thin Section Description” by Bullock, P., Fedoroff, N.,
Jongerius, A., Stoops, G., Tursina, T. and Babel, U.
Copublication by © American Society of Agronomy, Inc., Crop Science Society of America, Inc., and Soil
Science Society of America, Inc. and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by
any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted by
law. Advice on how to reuse material from this title is available at http://wiley.com/go/permissions.
The right of Georges Stoops to be identified as the editor of this work has been asserted in accordance
with law.
Editorial Correspondence:
American Society of Agronomy, Inc.
Crop Science Society of America, Inc.
Soil Science Society of America, Inc.
5585 Guilford Road, Madison, WI 53711-58011, USA
agronomy.org
crops.org
soils.org
Registered Offices:
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products,
visit us at www.wiley.com.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print-on-demand. Some content that
appears in standard print versions of this book may not be available in other formats.
doi:10.2136/guidelinesforanalysis2
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
4.3.2.1. Introduction 42
4.3.2.2. Basic Patterns 42
4.3.2.2.1. Basic Distribution Patterns 43
4.3.2.2.2. Basic Orientation Patterns 43
4.3.2.2.3. Orientation Patterns of Clay
Particles45
4.3.2.3. Referred Patterns 48
4.3.2.3.1. Referred Distribution
Pattern48
4.3.2.3.2. Referred Orientation
Patterns49
4.3.2.4. Related Distribution Patterns 49
4.3.2.4.1. General 49
4.3.2.4.2. The c/f related distribution
pattern52
4.3.3. Size 55
4.3.4. Sorting 57
4.3.5. Abundance 57
4.3.6. Shape 59
4.3.6.1. Introduction 59
4.3.6.2. Equidimensionality 61
4.3.6.3. Degree of Roundness and Sphericity 62
4.3.6.4. Surface Roughness and Smoothness 62
4.3.6.5. Boundary 63
4.3.7. Color 64
4.4. Variability within Partial Fabrics 65
4.5. Concepts Used 65
5. Voids, Aggregates and Microstructure 67
5.1. Introduction 67
5.2. Voids 68
5.2.1. Introduction 68
5.2.2. Types of Voids (Fig. 5.1) 69
5.2.3. Size of Poroids 72
5.2.4. Abundance of Voids 73
5.2.5. Roughness and Smoothness of Void Walls 73
5.2.6. Arrangement of Voids 73
5.2.7. Accommodation of Voids 73
5.2.8. Note 75
5.3. Aggregation 77
5.3.1. Introduction 77
5.3.2. Peds 77
5.3.3. Degree of Ped Separation and of Pedality 79
5.3.4. Size of Peds 80
5.3.5. Accommodation 82
5.3.6. Surface Roughness 82
5.3.7. Internal Fabric 82
5.3.8. Ped Arrangement Patterns 82
5.4. Types of Microstructures 83
5.4.1. Introduction 83
5.4.2. Main Types of Microstructure 83
6. Mineral and Organic Constituents 87
6.1. Introduction 87
6.2. Coarse Mineral Components 87
6.2.1. Introduction 87
6.2.1.1. Importance of its Description 87
6.2.1.2. Subdivision 88
6.2.1.3. Important Properties 88
6.2.1.3.1. Size 88
6.2.1.3.2. Shape 88
6.2.1.3.3. Abundance and Frequency 90
6.2.1.3.4. Alteration 90
6.2.2. Single Mineral Grains 90
6.2.3. Compound Mineral Grains and Rock Fragments 100
6.2.4. Inorganic Residues of Biological Origin 103
6.2.4.1. Introduction 103
6.2.4.2. Opaline Components 103
6.2.4.3. Calcium Oxalate Crystals 105
6.2.4.4. Calcium carbonate constituents
of biological origin 105
6.2.4.5. Bones and Other Skeletal
Tissues111
6.2.5. Anthropogenic Elements 113
6.3. Description of Fine Mineral Components 115
6.3.1. Importance of its Description 115
6.3.2. Nature 115
6.3.2.1. Color 116
6.3.2.2. Limpidity 117
Since its publication, fifteen years ago, the “Guidelines for Analysis and Description
of Soil and Regolith Thin Sections” are internationally considered as a standard
for micromorphological studies, as a follow-up of the famous “Handbook for
Thin Section Description”, developed by the International Working Group on Soil
Micromorphology of the International Society of Soil Science (Bullock et al., 1985).
As the first edition is out of print since a few years, and second-hand copies only
available at exaggerated prices, that students surely cannot afford, I took the initiative
to prepare a second, updated version.
Since the publication of the first edition, much progress was made in the
interpretation of micromorphological features, especially in the fields of archaeology
and paleopedology. However, new publications on methods, theoretical concepts and
terminology are very rare. The study of many papers applying the concepts of the
Guidelines, and especially by refereeing many manuscripts, learned me which concepts
and definitions were not clear or insufficiently explained. Also the discussion with
students during several intensive courses on micromorphology helped me to discover
what had to be remediated.
In this second edition, the text is updated, not only with new references, but also
with some older that were overlooked before. Some chapters are rearranged, part
of the appendixes integrated as tables in the corresponding chapters, other deleted.
A new appendix, containing the translation of 220 terms in 19 languages is added.
I want to extend my thanks for useful comments and suggesting to several
colleagues, especially Dr. D. Itkin (Ben-Gurion University of the Negev), Dr. Vera
Marcelino (Ghent University, Belgium) and Dr. Florias Mees (Africamuseum and
Ghent University, Belgium), and for the interesting comments of many referees,
especially of Dr. M. Gerasimova (Moscow Lomonosov University), Dr. R. Heck
(University of Guelph), Dr. F. Khormali (Gorgan University of Agriculture and
Natural Resources), Dr. P. Kühn (University of Tübingen), Dr. V. Marcelino (Ghent
University), Dr. H. Morrás (University of Buenos Aires), Dr. R. Poch (University
of Lleida), L. Trombino (University of Milano), E. Van Ranst (Ghent University),
xi
While preparing the texts and illustrations, the author has often recalled all the
individuals which have contributed in one way or another over many years to the final
production of this book through their works, discussions, support, or advise.
My thanks go in the first place to the members of the former “Working Group
on Soil Micromorphology”, who regularly assisted at the meetings, and soon became
dear friends. The long, sometimes seemingly endless discussions we had on concepts
and their formulation were an excellent school where I learned the value of clear,
unambiguously expressed ideas and where I became aware that cultural diversity,
as small as it might seem within Western Europe, can lead to completely different
approaches of scientific subjects, particularly when abstract ideas are involved.
Discussions by Dr. H.J. Altemüller and the late Dr. A. Jongerius contributed much
to the understanding of the micromorphological concepts needed, but every member
of the Working Group had input, not only in a scientific way, but also in a human
one. To say it with the words of the popular German singer Reinhard Mey: “Denn
eigentlich ging keiner fort: in einer Geste, einem Wort, in irgend einer Redensart lebt
Ihr in meiner Gegenwart” (Then in fact none [of my former friends] left. They all live
close to me, in a gesture, a word, an expression).
I also want to acknowledge the contributions of numerous students to which I have
taught micromorphology over the last 30 years, at the International Training Centre for
Post-Graduate Soil Scientists, University of Gent, or as a visiting professor in Europe
and overseas. Their remarks and questions helped me a lot to rephrase, reshape and
complete definitions, subdivisions and comments. Looking to the Handbook for Soil
Thin Section Description with the eyes of the student was very instructive, although, as
a co-author, not always a very satisfactory experience.
Many individuals have contributed to the final result of this book. Mentioning
every contribution would be impossible. Among those that sent in the past opinions
on the Handbook I want to acknowledge especially Dr. H. Morras (INTA, Argentina)
for his detailed and well-considered comments. Several colleagues improved the
manuscript of the “Key to the ISSS Handbook for Soil Thin Section Description”,
xiii
which forms an essential part of this manual, determining the way in which several
concepts were modified and interrelated. Amongst them I want to acknowledge
the contributions of Dr. J. Arocena (UBC, Canada) and Dr. A. Ringrose-Voase
(CSIRO, Australia). A great help to me were the comments of Dr. L. Drees (Texas
A&M University, USA) on the first manuscript of this book, both with respect to the
content and the redaction. Thanks go also to the members of the Editorial Committee
who reviewed the manuscript. I really appreciate their comments and corrections.
Following scientists were involved: Prof. A. Busacca (Washington State University),
Dr. L. Drees (Texas A&M University), Prof. Dr. P. Goldberg (Boston University),
Prof. Dr. R.W. Griffin (Prairie View A & M University, Texas), Dr. A. Jongmans
(Wageningen Agricultural University, The Netherlands), Prof. Dr. D.L. Lindbo (North
Carolina State University), Dr. W.D. Nettleton (USDA), Dr. F.E. Rhoton (USDA),
Prof. Dr. H. Stolt (University of Rhode Island), Prof. Dr. L.T. West (The University
of Georgia), Prof. Dr. L.P. Wilding (Texas A & M University) and Dr. M. Wilson
(USDA).
Special thanks go to Dr. F. Mees (University of Gent, Belgium) for his comments
on the first draft and his digitizing all the micrographs shown in the CD. Final
formatting of the CD was done by Matthew Vepraskas (Virgin Tech. University)
and Matthew Kirk (North Carolina State University). Thanks also to Mrs. Martine
Bogaert (University of Gent, Belgium) for making the drawings.
Many colleagues kindly and spontaneously helped me with providing advises,
information and illustrations. Not being able to thank everybody who gave some help,
I want to mention especially following persons: Dr. F. Runge (Paderborn, Germany)
and L. Vrijdaghs (Tervuren, Belgium) (phytoliths), Dr. J. Delvigne (Marseille, France)
(weathering).
Although the collection of thin sections of the Laboratory for Mineralogy,
Petrology and Micropedology of the Ghent University (Belgium) is very rich, some
specific examples were missing, or not sufficiently didactic. The author is indebted to
several friends and colleagues that send micrographs, especially Dr. J. van de Meer
(University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands) (Micrographs 4.22 and 7.28), Dr. B. Van
Vliet-Lanoë (University of Lille, France) (Micrographs 3.27 and 3.28), or gave the
opportunity to make micrographs of their thin sections: Dr. J. Aguilar (University
of Granada, Spain), Dr. C. Ampe and Dr. V. Marcelino (Ghent University, Belgium),
Dr. P Kühn (Greifswald, Germany), Dr. R. Poch (University of Lleida, Spain),
Dr. L. Trombino (University of Milano, Italy).
Thanks go also to Dr. C.V. Waine, publisher of the Handbook for Soil Thin Section
Description for the permission to reproduce several figures.
Last, but not least, many thanks go to Dr. M. J. Vepraskas (North Carolina State
University, USA), who urged me to write this book and who started and continued
the timeconsuming and sometimes difficult administrative publishing procedures,
including the editing. Without his help and continuous support this work would not
have been realized.
GEORGES STOOPS
xv
Because of the demand for a new edition and to have the opportunity to
amend several errors, contradictions and inconsistencies in the o riginal
text, I agreed to prepare a new revised text. The Guidelines for Analysis
and Description of Soil and Regolith Thin Sections (hereafter referred to
as the Guidelines) appeared in 2003. The text of this book was essentially
based on the Handbook (Bullock et al., 1985), and on the author’s own
series of lecture notes and his experience in research and teaching at the
International Training Centre for Post-Graduate Soil Scientists (Ghent
University, Belgium) and during several intensive courses on micropedol-
ogy in Europe and abroad. For some definitions and concepts, different ap-
proaches by other soil micromorphologists, which were discussed by Bullock
et al. (1985), were not repeated in the Guidelines. Decisions then made, were
adopted without arguments or references. In several places, however, defini-
tions and schemes were discussed in more detail, as experience has shown
that students are often puzzled why specific decisions were made.
Not all concepts of the Handbook were as user-friendly as intended
by its authors. Especially in those cases where the distinction between
features was partly based on common experience of the authors, some
concepts were left unclear (Stoops and Tursina, 1992). Stoops (1998)
suggested, therefore, the introduction of a key, which would probably
not enhance the scientific level of the system much but would surely con-
tribute to the use of unambiguous concepts and to a higher reproduc-
ibility of the descriptions, making it easier to store them in a database.
Almost 15 yr after its publication in 2003 the Guidelines was out of
print, and a second, updated edition was urgently needed, as the system of
concepts and terms became internationally the standard for micromorpho-
logical studies. In this second edition some concepts, giving rise to misun-
derstanding, are clarified and references to literature updated and extended.
Almost no new ideas on description or concepts and terms were published
in the last two decades. The concepts of the Guidelines were meanwhile also
explained in two manuals: Loaiza et al., (2015) and Simões de Castro and
Cooper (2019).
In the 1960s and the 1970s, micromorphology was often related
to soil classification and/or related genetic studies. Since that time, ap-
plication has gone beyond the bounds of traditional soil science as
other disciplines discovered the utility of micromorphology. Other fre-
quent users of micromorphology include: Quaternary geologists (e.g.,
Catt, 1989; Kemp, 1999; Cremaschi et al., 2018), sedimentologists
(e.g., Zimmerle, 1991; van der Meer and Menzies, 2011; Menzies and
van der Meer, 2018), weathering specialists (e.g., Nahon, 1991; Tardy,
1993; Delvigne, 1998), and especially archaeologists (e.g., Courty et
al., 1989; Macphail et al., 1990; Davidson et al., 1992; Goldberg and
Macphail, 2006; Macphail, 2008, 2014; Nicosia and Stoops, 2017;
Goldberg and Aldeias, 2018; Macphail and Goldberg, 2018).
The objective of this book is to provide a system of analysis and
description of soil and regolith materials as seen in thin sections. It is
not intended as a manual of micropedology; topics such as sampling,
thin section preparation, and interpretation of thin sections are there-
fore not discussed. Also, no attempt has been made to present proposals
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