Journal of Pedagogical Research

Volume 8, Issue 3, 2024

https://doi.org/10.33902/JPR.202426428

Conceptual Article
Artificial intelligence in mathematics education: The
good, the bad, and the ugly
Oluwaseyi A. G. Opesemowo1 and Mdutshekelwa Ndlovu2 1

1University of Johannesburg, South Africa (ORCID: 0000-0003-0242-7027)

2University of Johannesburg, South Africa (ORCID: 0000-0002-1187-0875)

Integrating Artificial Intelligence [AI] into mathematics education offers promising advancements and
potential pitfalls. Striking a balance between AI-driven developments and preserving core pedagogical
principles is critical in the teaching and learning environment. AI has emerged as a transformative force in
various fields, including education. In the realm of mathematics education, AI technologies offer a
spectrum of potential benefits (including personalize instruction, adaptive assessment, interactive learning
environments, and real-time feedback, among others) and challenges (such as lack of creativity and
problem-solving skills, inability to explain reasoning, bias in data and algorithms, absence of emotional
intelligence and data privacy and security concern etc). This conceptual study used autoethnography as
the methodology and qualitative content approach to analyze data. The study discussed historical
background of AI and considered ethical issues around AI. It was concluded that the journey to harness
the full potential of AI in mathematics education requires careful navigation of the good, the bad, and the
ugly aspects inherent in this technological evolution.

Keywords: Artificial intelligence; Big data; ChatGPT; Machine learning; Mathematics education

Article History: Submitted 5 February 2024; Revised 28 March 2024; Published online 18 June 2024

1. Introduction
Artificial intelligence [AI] is a multidisciplinary field that focuses on developing intelligent
machines that can perform tasks typically performed by humans (Mohamed et al., 2022). AI
involves studying, designing, and developing algorithms and systems that can make decisions
based on what they perceive and experience in their environment. Machine learning, natural
language processing, computer vision, robotics, expert systems, and other subfields are all part of
AI (de-Lima-Santos & Ceron, 2021; Deng & Liu, 2018). These subfields use various approaches and
strategies to allow machines to emulate or simulate human cognitive processes. An AI seeks to
create intelligent systems that can perform tasks autonomously and adapt to various environments
(Ayanwale et al., 2024; Opesemowo & Adekomaya, 2024; Weber & Schutte, 2019). Understanding
natural language, detecting, and interpreting visual and auditory information, making predictions,
solving problems, and even displaying creativity and social intelligence are all examples of
abilities.

Address of Corresponding Author

Oluwaseyi A. G. Opesemowo, PhD, Department of Science and Technology Education, Faculty of Education, University of
Johannesburg, P.O. Box 2006, South Africa.

oopesemowo@uj.ac.za

How to cite: Opesemowo, O. A. G. & Ndlovu, M. (2024). Artificial intelligence in mathematics education: The good, the bad, and the
ugly. Journal of Pedagogical Research, 8(3), 333-346. https://doi.org/10.33902/JPR.202426428
 O. A. G. Opesemowo & M. Ndloyu / Journal of Pedagogical Research, 8(3), 333-346 334

AI systems rely on data, algorithms, and computer power to learn from experience, spot
patterns, and make judgments (Miller & Brown, 2018). Machine learning is a critical component of
AI (Gaudet, 2022), and it involves creating algorithms that allow machines to learn from data and
improve their performance over time without being explicitly programmed. Deep learning is a
form of machine learning which employs neural networks with numerous layers to process and
evaluate complicated data. The origin of AI may be traced back to the mid-twentieth century when
pioneers such as Alan Turing, John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky, and others laid the groundwork for
the discipline. The Dartmouth Conference in 1956 was a turning point in AI history, as it was here
that the phrase AI was born (McCarthy et al., 2006).
According to Haenlein and Kaplan (2019), AI has undergone various progress and setbacks over
the years. The discipline went through an "AI winter" in the 1970s and 1980s, marked by low
interest and slow growth. However, the advent of big data necessitated the development of big
data analytics (algorithms and computer applications) for assisting with expedited decision-
making (Jin et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2022), improved computing power, and advances in machine
learning, AI has witnessed a rebirth in the twenty-first century (Sevnarayan, 2024; Williamson,
2017). AI applications have permeated various industries and disciplines, including education,
healthcare, banking, transportation, gaming, and customer service. Apple's Siri, Amazon's Alexa,
ChatGPT, and Google Assistant have become commonplace AI-powered digital assistants that
affect our decision-making and preferences.
AI can transform several industries, including education. In the field of mathematics education,
AI offers novel solutions that have the potential to alter how students learn, teachers teach, and
educational institutions operate. The influence of AI on mathematics education is significant in
personalized learning, from individualized learning experiences to sophisticated problem-solving
tools. One of the primary benefits of AI in mathematics education is individualized learning. AI-
powered platforms can assess individual students' strengths and weaknesses, learning styles, and
rates of cognitive growth (Jaiswal & Arun, 2021; Owan et al., 2023; Upadhyay & Khandelwal,
2019). This data-driven method enables educators to adjust learning materials and exercises to the
needs of individual students, thus maximizing engagement and optimizing understanding. In the
words of Liu et al. (2022), researchers investigating mathematics education and personalized
learning are more concerned with developing school pupils' complete subject abilities. The deep
integration of AI, big data technology, and education is projected to play a significant role in
education evaluation reform. The Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment
(Moodle) can be utilized to create the school mathematics curriculum in a targeted manner to
scientifically guide students in selecting concepts to improve and enhance their mathematical
competence.
2. Historical Background of Artificial Intelligence
AI has an intriguing past that dates back ages. The history of AI began in the mid-twentieth
century and has witnessed substantial improvement and discoveries over the years. This section
discusses the rundown of the history of AI.
2.1. Early Research (1950s-1960s)
During the early research period of AI in the 1950s and 1960s (in the last millennium), the field was
defined by lofty aims, game-changing concepts, and foundational achievements that lay the
platform for later progress of AI. It established the field's theoretical foundations and conceptual
framework. While early AI systems had limited capabilities and encountered problems, they laid
the groundwork for developing more advanced AI techniques in the following decades. The
emphasis on symbolic reasoning, logic, and problem-solving throughout the era prepared AI to
evolve into diverse subfields such as machine learning, natural language processing, and expert
systems. The 1950s and 1960s were a time of pioneering investigation, with researchers laying the
framework for future advances in AI. At the same time, the era was fraught with difficulties,
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which resulted in reduced financing. Haenlein and Kaplan (2019) admit that this was the AI
winter. The concepts and advancements during this period prepared the stage for the eventual
comeback of AI research and its revolutionary impact on numerous industries in the following
decades. However, during this period, the Dartmouth conference was organized to rekindle
interest.
The Dartmouth Conference, held in the summer of 1956, catalyzed the establishment of AI
(Barron, 2023; Haenlein & Kaplan, 2019) as a discipline. Those who participated would go on to
lead AI research for decades. Many of them projected that a machine as clever as a human would
exist within a generation, and they were paid millions of dollars to make this vision a reality
(Anyoha, 2017; Newquist, 1994). John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky, Nathaniel Rochester, and Claude
Shannon coined AI and laid the groundwork for the discipline at this meeting (McCarthy, 1998).
Symbolic techniques and logic-based reasoning dominated early AI research. Mathematical logic
(algorithmic thinking) was the dominant approach in the early years of AI research. The
researchers wanted to create machines that could solve problems using logical deduction and rule-
based systems. This strategy emphasized formal languages, algorithms, and mathematical
representations.
2.2. The AI Winter (1970s-1980s)
AI research encountered substantial setbacks in the 1970s and 1980s despite early enthusiasm.
There was a dearth of finance and high expectations; therefore, progress was slower than
projected. This period, coined the "AI winter" by McCarthy in 1955 (McCarthy et al., 2006), saw
reduced interest and slower growth in the discipline. The word initially surfaced in 1984 as the
subject of a public debate at the annual meeting of the Association for the Advancement of
Artificial Intelligence (AAAI, then known as the "American Association of Artificial Intelligence").
It is a chain reaction that began with pessimism in the AI community, followed by pessimism in
the press, significant budget cuts, and the cessation of serious research (Crevier, 1993). At the
summit, two prominent AI researchers (Roger Schank and Marvin Minsky) who had survived the
"winter" of the 1970s warned the business community that enthusiasm for AI had waned in the
1980s and that disappointment was unavoidable. Three years later, the billion-dollar AI sector
crumbled (Crevier, 1993). The AI winter was occasioned by the loss of faith in exaggerated claims
by developers, excessively high expectations from end users, and excessive media promotion.
Despite its reputational vicissitudes, AI has continued to develop new and profitable technologies.
In 2002, AI researcher Rodney Brooks bewailed the myth that AI had failed and argued that AI
was thriving.
Batty (2018) bemoaned that many observers still believed that the AI winter was the end of the
story and that nothing had come of the AI field since. Thousands of AI applications are now
deeply suppressed in every industry's infrastructure. Since the low point in the early 1990s,
enthusiasm and optimism for AI have revived. In 2012, research and corporate interest in AI
(particularly the sub-field of machine learning) led to a substantial increase in funding and
investment, resulting in the current (as of 2023) AI boom.
2.3. Expert Systems and Knowledge-Based AI (1980s-1990s)
Expert systems use human expertise and knowledge of the system environment to solve the
problem (Kusiak & Chen, 1988). During the 1980s and 1990s, the emphasis of AI research turned
toward expert systems and knowledge-based AI. Expert systems were prevalent throughout this
time, aiming to capture and utilize human expertise to tackle complex issues in specific fields.
Knowledge-based AI aims to represent and reason in an organized way systems to execute tasks
requiring expertise and decision-making abilities speedily. Here are some essential characteristics
of expert systems and knowledge-based AI in this era. They include developing expert systems
and AI programs that mimic the decision-making abilities of human experts in specific subjects.
They comprise two parts: a knowledge base containing facts and rules and an inference engine that
uses the knowledge/information to reason and make judgments. Expert system development
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included knowledge acquisition, in which human experts provided the essential information to
build the knowledge base. Also, the Expert systems were mainly rule-based, using "if-then" logic
to guide their reasoning. These rules encoded domain experts' experience, and the inference
engine used them to draw inferences and make recommendations. Integrating expert systems with
other AI approaches: Researchers (Gaines, 1987; Gevarter, 1984; Kusiak & Chen, 1988) try
integrating expert systems with different AI approaches, such as machine learning. Some systems
could enhance performance by integrating rule-based or logic-mathematical reasoning with
learning techniques.
Knowledge Engineering: During this period, knowledge engineering emerged as a critical
discipline. It entailed acquiring, representing, and organizing knowledge for expert systems.
Domain experts and knowledge engineers cooperated to effectively encode their expertise into the
system. Despite early triumphs, expert system creation and maintenance proved more complex
and costly than anticipated. Overinflated expectations surrounding AI in the 1980s resulted in a
period known as the "AI winter," in which interest and investment in AI research plummeted due
to unfulfilled promises and dashed expectations.
Change to other AI paradigms: By the end of the 1990s, the focus had switched to alternative AI
paradigms, such as neural networks (e.g., as in Python) and statistical techniques like Bayesian (or
probabilistic) networks. These approaches demonstrated improved capabilities in dealing with
uncertainty and learning from data, leading to the late 1990s and early 2000s revival of AI.
2.4. Machine Learning and Neural Networks Resurgence (1990s-2000s)
AI had a renaissance in the 1990s and 2000s (advent of the new millennium), owing primarily to
advancements made in machine learning (Kompa et al., 2022) and revived interest in neural
networks. This period saw a substantial shift in AI research as academics and practitioners
experimented with new techniques and procedures, resulting in successes in various disciplines. In
this period, there were some fundamental developments in the comeback of machine learning and
neural networks. These are:
Machine Learning and Statistical Approaches: Machine learning gained prominence during this
time, and researchers began investigating statistical approaches to AI problems. Bayesian
networks, support vector machines [SVM], decision trees, and ensemble approaches such as
random forests became prominent (Faisal et al., 2018; Teles et al., 2021; Trivedi et al., 2020). These
approaches opened new data analysis and prediction pathways, paving the way for data-driven AI
systems.
Big Data and Processing Power: The availability of large-scale datasets (e.g., education research
data, admission, and enrollment data) and greater processing power (e.g., computational) has
tremendously impacted the revival of machine learning and neural networks. Researchers can now
train more complicated models on massive volumes of data, resulting in better performance in
various AI activities. These AI activities can also be used in mathematics education such that
complex mathematics tasks can be taught using AI tools (such as Scikit learn, Tensorflow, Theano,
PyTorch, and Google ML) to enhance students' performance and make mathematics exciting and
enjoyable for students.
The Rise of Data-Driven AI: With the resurrection of machine learning, attention has switched
to data-driven AI systems (Akter et al., 2021; Wen et al., 2021). Instead of mainly depending on
handmade rules and expert knowledge, AI systems began learning patterns and regulations
directly from data, making them more adaptive and capable of dealing with complicated and
unstructured data. The expansion of machine learning and neural networks in the 1990s and 2000s
laid the groundwork for the AI revolution. The advances during this period established the
foundation for creating ever more advanced AI models, leading to their widespread adoption and
incorporation into different facets of our daily lives. This significant progress in AI would have
been a mirage without mathematics. Richard et al. (2022) alleged that AI, however, depends
heavily on mathematics (such as logic and set theory, calculus, probability and statistics, linear
 O. A. G. Opesemowo & M. Ndloyu / Journal of Pedagogical Research, 8(3), 333-346 337

algebra, and optimization, etc.) since it provides the formal language and tools for expressing and
understanding the concepts and algorithms that drive the AI technology.
2.5. Big Data and Deep Learning (2010s)
AI significantly progressed in the 2010s due to the development of Big Data and Deep Learning
(Ashta & Herrmann, 2021; Batra et al., 2018; Richard et al., 2022; Tsay & Patterson, 2018; Zhu,
2020). Both technologies - Big Data (e.g., forecasting customer behavior and product strategies in
marketing, descriptive statistics assisting in GPS navigation, traffic density, weather forecasts in
transportation, market data in business, etc.) and Deep Learning (e.g., Long short-term memory
network, Radial function networks, Multilayer Perceptrons, Self-organizing Maps, Convolutional
Neural Networks, etc.) were critical in altering industries, revolutionizing data analysis, and
developing robust AI systems. The availability of massive volumes of data and increased
processing power constituted a watershed moment in AI. Deep learning, a subset of machine
learning (Gaudet, 2022), has gained popularity due to its capacity to analyze vast amounts of data
and derive valuable insights. Deep neural networks have significantly advanced in various fields,
including image and speech recognition. With the rise of virtual (digital) assistants and
recommendation systems, AI applications began to permeate daily life.
Big Data refers to the massive amount of structured and unstructured data generated by
various sources, including social media, Internet of Things [IoT] devices, online transactions,
sensors, etc. (Azad et al., 2020; Kumari et al., 2019). The distinguishing qualities of Big Data are
typically defined as vast amounts of largely quantitative data, rapid data generation, and a variety
of data types, including text, photos, videos, and so on. During the 2010s, Big Data was critical to
the advancement of AI (Duan et al., 2019; Javaid et al., 2021). AI algorithms, particularly those in
machine learning (e.g., algebra, calculus, artificial neural networks, logistic regression, linear
regression) and deep learning, rely on massive volumes of data to discover patterns, make
predictions, and enhance performance. AI models could be trained on representative and
diversified samples with access to massive datasets, resulting in higher generalization and more
accurate predictions. In contrast, Deep learning is a component of machine learning that involves
training artificial neural networks with numerous layers to learn hierarchical data representations
automatically. These neural networks were developed based on the structure and function of the
human brain.
In the 2010s, there was a significant synergy between Big Data and Deep Learning, resulting in
the availability of vast volumes of data that assisted Deep Learning model training (Shah, 2016;
Tolk, 2015). Deep learning, in turn, provided a robust framework for evaluating and extracting
insights from Big Data. The convergence of these technologies resulted in substantial advances in
AI applications spanning from improved recommendation systems to autonomous vehicles and
cutting-edge medical diagnosis. The 2010s was a turning point in AI history, with Big Data and
Deep Learning sparking an upsurge in the field (Nguyen, 2023). These technologies provided the
groundwork for the AI revolution, which is still shaping our world today, with AI becoming
increasingly important.
AI has made significant strides and impacts in transforming various aspects of human life,
including industries and education. It offers great promise, but it also presents challenges and
potential drawbacks. This article explores the positive impact of AI in mathematics education,
examines the possible negative aspects, and discusses the ethical considerations associated with its
implementation.
3. Methodology
This study adopted an autoethnography research approach, allowing the researchers to capture
the intricacies of AI implementation in real-world educational contexts. Autoethnography is a
relatively new paradigm that offers reflective narratives to elucidate the researcher’s experiences
and analyze cultural beliefs, practices, and social experiences that influence our identities (Allen,
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2015). The data were gathered from secondary sources, specifically archival AI studies, and
analyzed using qualitative content analysis. The researchers found that autoethnography provided
a unique perspective on the challenges and successes of AI implementation in mathematics
education, highlighting the importance of considering the ethical use of AI technologies. The
qualitative content analysis of archival AI studies provided a thorough understanding of the
current AI landscape in education and the historical context of AI.
4. AI: The Good
AI can potentially enhance (The Good) mathematics learning experiences in several ways. These
include:
1. Personalized Instruction: AI algorithms can analyze student data and provide personalized
instruction based on individual needs, learning styles, and performance in mathematics. This
tailored approach allows students to progress at their own pace, fill knowledge gaps, and receive
targeted support, resulting in improved learning outcomes.
2. Adaptive Assessment: AI-powered assessment tools can offer adaptive testing, dynamically
adjusting the difficulty of questions based on students' responses. This approach provides accurate
assessments, identifies areas of weakness, and offers tailored feedback, allowing educators to
support student progress better (Davis, 2023). Adaptive assessment solutions powered by AI can
generate personalized mathematics questions and examinations for each student based on their
knowledge level and progress. These tests adjust the difficulty of questions in real time, ensuring
that students are suitably pushed and tested, resulting in more accurate assessments of their
mathematical abilities.
3. Interactive Learning Environments: AI technologies like virtual simulations and gamification
create engaging learning environments (Bennani et al., 2022; Kumar, 2022). These tools promote
active participation, problem-solving, and critical thinking skills, making mathematics more
accessible and exciting for students.
4. Grading Automation: AI can automate the grading of mathematics assignments and assessments,
saving teachers time and allowing them to focus on other areas of teaching practices (Owan et al.,
2023). Grading automation in mathematics education is a groundbreaking AI program that
automates the evaluation and feedback process for assignments and assessments. Grading
mathematics assignments has always been time-consuming for teachers, especially when dealing
with many students and complex mathematical problems. However, AI-powered grading systems
make this process more efficient and accurate, benefiting educators and pupils.
5. Real-Time Feedback: AI-based math applications (such as Photomath, Soratic, Mahtway, Maple
Calculator, and Microsoft Math Solver) can provide immediate feedback on students' math
problem solutions. This quick feedback assists students in identifying and correcting errors, so
reinforcing learning and developing problem-solving skills.
6. Augmented Reality Applications: Through augmented reality [AR] applications, AI can improve
mathematics instruction. AR can bring mathematical concepts to life by superimposing digital
information on the real-world environment, making abstract ideas more tangible and
understandable for learners without leaving the classroom (Bower, 2014). Students, for example,
can utilize augmented reality to visualize geometric forms in their surroundings or to explore 3D
models of mathematical concepts, developing deeper learning and spatial thinking. Examples of
AR applications include Google Expeditions, Quiver, and Anatomy 4D.
7. Teacher Professional Development: AI can help mathematics teachers with individualized
professional development. AI systems can offer customized training modules, workshops, and
resources to improve teachers' instructional skills and pedagogical approaches by analyzing their
performance and areas for growth.
8. Reinforcement Learning for Math Tutoring: Reinforcement learning algorithms powered by AI can
continuously optimize tutoring tactics for math instruction. AI algorithms adjust and refine their
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instructional approaches based on the effectiveness of previous exchanges when students interact
with the tutoring system.
9. Data Analytics for Teachers: Data analytics powered by AI can assist teachers in identifying
learning gaps, patterns, and trends in their classes. Teachers may track individual and group
performance, identify misconceptions, and tailor educational tactics to meet unique student
requirements.
10. Online Math Competitions: AI can power online math competitions and challenges, providing
participants with adaptable and demanding problem sets. These tournaments establish a
competitive yet enjoyable environment, motivating children to thrive in mathematics and
demonstrate problem-solving abilities.
11. ChatGPT: ChatGPT is an abbreviation for Chat Generative Pretrained Transformer, which
OpenAI developed in November 2022. Even though ChatGPT is still in the infancy stages of
development, it can replace the writing process, as electronic database search engines have
replaced card catalogues. On the other hand, some instructors consider ChatGPT to be a tool that
includes search engines, editing software, statistical software, and reference management systems
(Frith, 2023). It is a sophisticated chatbot that responds to questions using AI and natural language
processing. It also responds to requests to generate text or graphics by training models on data
from the internet, books, papers, and other sources (OpenAI, 2022). ChatGPT is a text-based AI
platform powered by AI that uses machine learning to automate repetitive operations and boost
client engagement. It employs natural language processing algorithms to comprehend human-like
text and generate accurate responses to basic inquiries. ChatGPT provides a wide range of benefits
(such as timesaving, content creation quality, human-like rejoinders with follow-up questions,
virtual assistance, learning exploration, search engine optimization, and generate mathematics
assessment questions, etc.) by integrating machine learning technology, which can significantly
boost users’ satisfaction.
5. AI: The Bad and The Ugly
While the benefits are significant, AI has challenges and limitations in mathematics education.
1. Lack of Creativity and Problem-solving Skills: Mathematics education is more than just answering
routine problems; it is also about cultivating creativity and problem-solving abilities. AI
algorithms are excellent at pattern detection and optimization but lack human-like creativity
(Benvenuti et al., 2023; Marrone et al., 2022) and the ability to think outside the box. As a result,
they may be less effective at encouraging pupils to try new problem-solving methods. In addition,
when confronted with real-life workplace situations in which critical and creative thinking is
needed, the lack of creativity in AI will invariably have detrimental effects on learners when
entirely dependent upon it.
2. Inability to Explain Reasoning: AI models, particularly complicated ones like deep neural
networks, frequently operate as "black boxes," providing solutions without reason. Explanations
are essential for students to understand the logic behind answers in a mathematics classroom
thoroughly. Developing AI models that provide transparent and interpretable explanations is
imperative to improve learning.
3. Overemphasis on Computational Skills: Since AI can automate calculations, overemphasizing
computational abilities and basic procedures may discourage learners from engaging their brains
when dealing with routine problem-solving tasks. While these abilities are necessary, a well-
rounded mathematics education should emphasize conceptual understanding, mathematical
reasoning, critical thinking, metacognition, and mathematical applications in real-world contexts
(e.g., horizontal and vertical mathematization, Freudenthal, 1991) and other areas where AI cannot
fully replace human instruction.
4. Bias in Data and Algorithms: AI models are trained on historical data, which may contain
accidental biases and deliberate (normative) prejudices against minority and vulnerable groups.
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These biases may colour the decision-making process of AI, resulting in inaccurate assessments of
student achievement or favouring certain teaching styles over others. To offer equitable learning
opportunities for all pupils, bias in AI for mathematics teaching must be addressed (Davis, 2023).
5. Lack of Emotional Intelligence: Mathematics education entails more than just delivering
knowledge; it also entails creating a welcoming learning atmosphere. Because AI lacks emotional
intelligence (Khanam et al., 2019; Kumar & Sharma, 2012;), it cannot provide the same level of
empathy, encouragement, and emotional support human teachers can.
6. Data Privacy and Security Concerns: AI-powered math education platforms collect and analyze
student data to deliver individualized learning experiences, creating data privacy and security
concerns (Huang et al., 2022; Lee & Ahmed, 2021).
7. Dependency on AI for Problem-solving: Overreliance on AI technologies for problem-solving may
stifle pupils' ability to think independently and solve problems critically (Marzuki et al., 2023).
Students may fail to solve non-routine problems or apply their knowledge in unusual or non-
standard settings if they increasingly rely on AI for solutions.
8. Lack of Real-time Interaction: Traditional classroom environments encourage direct interaction
between students and teachers, allowing teachers to assess students' comprehension and alter their
instruction accordingly. AI may lack the real-time reaction required for dynamic classroom
interactions, making it impossible to properly handle urgent inquiries or concerns (Almaiah et al.,
2022).
9. Oversimplification of Concepts: AI algorithms may provide quick answers and solutions without
fostering deep conceptual understanding. Students may become overly dependent on AI for
problem-solving without fully comprehending the underlying mathematical principles.
10. Inequitable Access: AI implementation may exacerbate existing disparities in access to
technology and resources, creating a digital divide between students with access to AI-powered
tools and those without (Božić, 2023; Estrellado & Miranda, 2023; Tan & Chen, 2023). Equitable
access to AI technologies is crucial for fair and inclusive mathematics education.
11. Loss of Critical Thinking Ability: Students may miss opportunities to acquire critical thinking and
problem-solving skills if they rely extensively on AI tools to solve mathematical problems and
deliver answers. They may develop a habit of following prescribed processes without fully
comprehending the underlying concepts. Critical thinking and problem-solving abilities are
essential components of mathematics instruction (Dolapcioglu & Doğanay, 2022; Insorio &
Librada, 2021; Leader & Middleton, 2004). They entail assessing problems from multiple
perspectives, considering numerous approaches, and using logical reasoning to arrive at analytic
solutions. Students who rely on AI programs to deliver quick mathematical solutions may miss out
on the opportunity to engage in this cognitive process. Consequently, their ability to
independently assess and solve complex problems may be compromised. Furthermore, critical
thinking, which encourages students to be innovative in problem-solving, frequently entails
investigating unusual techniques and connecting seemingly unrelated concepts. AI systems are
typically programmed to follow established algorithms, which may thwart learners from thinking
creatively and exploring alternate answers. Mathematics education is at risk of long-term problems
if critical thinking skills are not developed. Students who have not been taught to think critically
may struggle in higher-level mathematics courses or when confronted with real-world issues that
do not fit into established procedures (Alam, 2022).
12. Rigidity in Curriculum: AI-powered platforms frequently follow established learning paths that
are based on past data and algorithms. This rigidity can be troublesome when there are abrupt
changes in the curriculum, such as the introduction of new topics, changes in teaching methods, or
altering educational priorities. AI may not react quickly to these changes, resulting in a mismatch
between the platform's content and the changing academic scene.
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6. Ethical Considerations: Ensuring Transparency and Equity

AI in education raises ethical concerns regarding data privacy, security, and algorithmic biases.
Safeguarding student information, ensuring transparent data usage, and mitigating biases are
critical considerations when implementing AI systems. Ethical concerns about AI have also
emerged, with conversion centered on the racial bias (Marwala, 2023), privacy, accountability, and
the impact on jobs and society. Efforts are being made to ensure ethical AI development and
governance. AI continues to evolve as technology progresses, pushing the limits of what machines
can accomplish. The future of AI has enormous promise, with continuous research and
investigation in areas such as explainable AI, quantum computing, and social intelligence, as well
as efforts to develop computers with human-level intelligence across a wide range of tasks. AI is a
dynamic and fast-expanding field with the potential to transform industries, enhance efficiency,
and have a wide-ranging impact on our lives. However, As we embrace the potential of AI in
mathematics education, it is crucial to address ethical considerations and promote transparency
and equity:
1. Data Privacy and Security: The collection and analysis of student data require strict adherence to
privacy and security protocols. Educational institutions and AI developers must prioritize
protecting student information, ensuring that data is handled securely and used only for
educational purposes. Establishing strong measures and regulations to protect student's personal
information from illegal access must be upheld (Elliott & Soifer, 2022; Li & Zhang, 2017).
2. Algorithmic Bias and Fairness: AI algorithms are only as unbiased as the data on which they are
trained. Care must be taken to mitigate biases and ensure fairness in algorithmic decision-making.
Regular audits, diverse datasets, and ongoing monitoring are essential to minimize the risk of
perpetuating biases in AI systems (Mollick & Mollick, 2022).
3. Inclusive Access and Digital Divide: Addressing the digital divide is crucial to ensure equitable
access to AI-powered mathematics education. Efforts should be made to provide students from all
socioeconomic backgrounds access to AI technologies, thus reducing disparities and promoting
inclusivity.
4. Collaboration: To navigate the complexities of AI in mathematics education effectively,
collaboration among educators, researchers, policymakers, and AI developers is essential. This
collaboration can lead to the development of ethical guidelines, best practices, and evidence-based
strategies for integrating AI to maximize benefits while mitigating risks.
5. Public Engagement and Participation: Involving the public in discussions about AI deployment in
areas like mathematics education that impact society ensures ethical AI development and
responsible decision-making and builds trust and confidence in the public. We may cooperatively
work for technologies that benefit society, uphold ethical norms, and address the concerns and
ambitions of many populations by involving the public in conversations regarding AI deployment.
Public participation fosters a sense of ownership (Popescu, 2022) and responsibility in defining
future of AI.
7. Recommendations
Educators can integrate AI into mathematics education while mitigating risks effectively by
following practical strategies or recommendations.
To effectively integrate AI into mathematics education, educators should first priortieze
fostering computational thinking skills among students. This involves teaching them how to break
down problems into smaller, more manageable parts and use algorithms to solve them, aligning
with foundational principles of AI. Also, educators should continuously assess and monitor AI
technologies to ensure they align with pedagogical goals and are free from biases. Educators
should actively engage students in hands-on activities and projects that involve AI, allowing them
to explore and experiment with the technology. This can be done through coding exercises,
simulations, and real-world applications that demonstrate the practical use of AI in solving
 O. A. G. Opesemowo & M. Ndloyu / Journal of Pedagogical Research, 8(3), 333-346 342

mathematical problems. By providing students with opportunities to interact with AI tools and
algorithms, educators can help them better understand how AI works and its potential to enhance
their mathematical abilities. In addition, educators should promote a growth mindset among
students, encouraging them to improve AI as a tool to assist them in their learning journey rather
than viewing it as a replacement for their problem-solving skills. By instilling a positive attitude
towards AI, educators can create a supportive and inclusive learning environment where students
feel empowered to explore and utilize AI in their mathematical pursuits.
Subsequently, educators must equip themselves with the necessary knowledge and skills to
effectively integrate AI into mathematics education. This may involve professional development
opportunities, such as workshops, courses, or online resources, where educators can learn about
the latest advancements in AI technology and how to integrate them into their mathematics
teaching practices. Furthermore, by staying informed and up-to-date, educators can confidently
incorporate AI tools and methodologies into their mathematics curriculum. By doing so,
mathematics teachers can enhance student learning experiences and provide them with valuable
skills that are increasingly relevant in today’s digital world. While integrating AI into mathematics
education, students can develop critical thinking, problem-solving, and analytical skills essential
for success in the 21st-century workplace. As AI continues to advance and become more prevalent
in society, other stakeholders such as policymakers, parents, industry professional and
mathematics teachers must embrace this technology and prepare students for the future. Also, by
leveraging AI in mathematics education, teachers can create engaging and personalized learning
experiences that cater to each student's individual needs and abilities. Ultimately, integrating AI
into mathematics education has the capacity to revolutionize the way students learn and engage
with mathematical concepts, making learning more adaptive, interesting, interactive, and
impactful.
8. Limitations
The study focuses on the good, bad, and ugly aspects of AI in mathematics education; it is based
on a qualitative conceptual review and uses secondary data for its analysis. For example,
incorporating quantitative data analysis alongside qualitative methods could provide a more
robust understanding of the impact of AI in education. The study was limited to mathematics
education, but future research could explore the applications of AI in other subject areas as well.
The study is also restricted to the autoethnography research method, which might introduce
biases. It could be noteworthy for future studies to consider combining other forms of research
methodology for a comprehensive view.
9. Conclusion
By harnessing the good, addressing the challenges, and mitigating the potential drawbacks, we can
leverage AI effectively to enhance mathematics education and empower students with the
necessary skills for the future. AI has the potential to revolutionize mathematics education,
offering personalized learning experiences, adaptive assessments, and interactive environments.
However, it is crucial to approach AI integration thoughtfully, considering the potential
drawbacks and ethical considerations. By promoting transparency, ensuring equity, and fostering
collaboration, we can harness the benefits of AI while preserving the essential human elements
that contribute to effective mathematics education. Doing so can create a future where AI and
human educators work together to empower students with the mathematical skills, critical
thinking abilities, and ethical awareness necessary for success in an ever-evolving world.
Author contributions: All authors contributed all the processes of producing the paper, including
conceptualizing, writing and language editing.
Declaration of interest: The authors declare that no competing interests exist.
 O. A. G. Opesemowo & M. Ndloyu / Journal of Pedagogical Research, 8(3), 333-346 343

Ethical declaration: This study does not require ethic approval, because it only analyzes the data
from published literature.
Funding: No funding was obtained for this study.

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