 Comparators

 Need

 Characteristics

 Classification
› Mechanical
› Mechanical-Optical
› Electrical Pneumatic
 We came across linear measurement instruments, such as
verniers and micrometers, in which standards are in-built
and calibrated.
 Hence, these instruments enable us to directly measure a
linear dimension up to the given degree of accuracy.
 On the other hand, in certain devices the standards are
separated from the instrument.
 It compares the unknown length with the standard.
 Such measurement is known as comparison measurement
and the instrument, which provides such a comparison, is
called a comparator.
 A comparator works on relative measurement.
 It gives only dimensional differences in relation to a basic
dimension or master setting.
 Comparators are generally used for linear measurements, and the
various comparators currently available basically differ in their
methods of amplifying and recording the variations measured.
 Direct Measurement versus comparison measurement:
 In direct measurement, precision is dependent on the
least count of the scale and the means for reading it.
 In comparison measurement, it is dependent on the least
count of the standard and the means for comparing.
 A Comparator has to be set to a reference value (usually
zero setting) by employing a standard.
 Once it is set to this reference value, all subsequent
readings indicate the deviation from the standard.
 The deviation can be read or recorded by means of a
display or recording unit, respectively.
 Inspection
 Quality control
 Fast measurements
 Interested quantity is deviation from standard
 It should not only provide a high degree of accuracy and precision but also be
convenient for use.
 It should withstand the rough and tough operating environment on the shop
floor and also have good sensitivity to detect minute changes in the parameter
being measured.
 Following is the summary of major requirements of a Comparator:
› A comparator should have a high degree of accuracy and precision.
› A comparator is required to have high amplification. It should be able to
amplify changes in the input value, so that readings can be taken and
recorded accurately and with ease.
› A comparator should have good resolution, which is the least possible unit
of measurement that can be read on the display device of the comparator.
› There should be a provision incorporated to compensate for temperature
effects.
› A comparator should be versatile. It should have provisions to select
different ranges, attachments, and other flexible means, so that it can be
put to various uses.
 With respect to the principle used for amplifying and
recording measurements, comparators are classified as
follows:
1. Mechanical comparators
2. Mechanical–optical comparators
3. Electrical and electronic comparators
4. Pneumatic comparators
5. Other types such as projection comparators and
multi-check comparators
 Mechanical comparators have a long history and have
been used for many centuries.
 They provide simple and cost-effective solutions. The
skills for fabricating and using them can be learnt
relatively easily compared to other types of
comparators.
 The dial indicator or the dial gauge is one of the simplest and the
most widely used comparator.
 It is primarily used to compare workpieces against a master.
 The basic features of a dial gauge consist of a body with a circular
graduated dial, a contact point connected to a gear train, and an
indicating hand that directly indicates the linear displacement of
the contact point.
 The contact point is first set against the master, and the dial scale is
set to zero by rotating the bezel.
 Now, the master is removed and the workpiece is set below the
contact point; the difference in dimensions between the master and
the workpiece can be directly read on the dial scale.
 Dial gauges are used along with V-blocks in a metrology
laboratory to check the roundness of components.
 A dial gauge is also part of standard measuring devices such as
bore gauges, depth gauges, and vibrometers.
 The contact point in a dial indicator is of an
interchangeable type and provides versatility to the
instrument.
 It is available as a mounting and in a variety of hard, wear-
resistant materials.
 Heat-treated steel, boron carbide, sapphire, and diamond
are some of the preferred materials.
 The scale of the dial indicator, usually referred to as dial,
provides the required least count for measurement, which
normally varies from 0.01 to 0.05 mm.
 The scale has a limited range of linear measurements,
varying from 5 to 25 mm.
 In order to meet close least count, the dial has to be large
enough to improve readability.
The dials are of two types: continuous and balanced.
 A continuous dial has graduations starting from zero and extends
to the end of the recommended range.
 It can be either clockwise or anti-clockwise.
 The dial corresponds to the unilateral tolerance of dimensions.
 On the other hand, a balanced dial has graduations marked both
ways of zero.
 This dial corresponds to the use of bilateral tolerance.
 Metrological features of a dial indicator differ entirely
from measuring instruments such as slide callipers or
micrometers.
 It measures neither the actual dimension nor does it have
a reference point.
 It measures the amount of deviation with respect to a
standard.
 In other words, we measure not length, but change in
length.
Working Mechanism:
 The plunger carries a rack, which
meshes with a gear (marked gear A in
the figure).
 A rack guide prevents the rotation of the
plunger about its own axis.
 A small movement of the plunger causes
the rack to turn gear A.
 A larger gear, B, mounted on the same
spindle as gear A, rotates by the same
amount and transfers motion to gear C.
Attached to gear C is another gear, D,
which meshes with gear E.
 Gear F is mounted on the same spindle
as the indicator pointer.
 Thus, the overall magnification obtained
in the gear train A–B– C–D–E is given
by TD/TE × TB/TC, where TD, TE, TB,
and TC are the number of teeth on the
gears D, E, B, and C, respectively.
 The magnification is further
enhanced at the tip of the
pointer, depending on the
length of the pointer.

 A hair spring loads all the

gears in the train against the
direction of gauging
movement.

 This eliminates backlash that

would be caused by gear
wear.
Contact Points:
 Dial indicators are versatile instruments because their mountings
adapt them to many methods of support.
 Interchangeable contact points adapt them to varied measurement
situations.
 Contact points are available in various hard and wear-resisting
materials such as boron carbide, sapphire, and diamond.
 Contact points made of hardened steel are also often used.
Contact Points:
 The standard or spherical contact point is the most preferred one
because it presents point contact to the mating surface irrespective of
whether it is flat or cylindrical.
 However, care must be taken to pass them through the centre line of
the spindle.
 The highest reading will be the diameter. It becomes less reliable
when gauging spherical components because sphere-to-sphere
contact makes the highest point of contact difficult to find.
 Another limitation is that it can take only limited gauging pressure, as
high gauging pressure will leave an indent on the workpiece.
 A button-type contact point can be used if light contact pressure on
smaller components is required.
Contact Points:
 A tapered point is convenient for component surfaces that cannot
be accessed by either standard or flat contact points.
 The use of contact points on spherical surfaces presents some
problems.
 Only a flat point is suitable in such cases. It gives reliable readings
for cylindrical surfaces too.
 Paradoxically, flat contact points are not preferred for flat surfaces.
 The two halves of the thin metal strip, which carries the light pointer, are
twisted in opposite directions. Therefore, any pull on the strip will cause
the pointer to rotate.
 While one end of the strip is fixed to an adjustable cantilever link, the
other end is anchored to a bell crank lever
 The other end of the bell crank lever is fixed to a plunger.
 Any linear motion of the plunger will result in a movement of the bell
crank lever, which exerts either a push or a pull force on the metal strip
 Accordingly, the glass pointer will rotate either clockwise or
anticlockwise, depending on the direction of plunger movement.
 In the comparator, even a minute movement of the plunger will
cause a perceptible rotation of the glass pointer.
 A calibrated scale is employed with the pointer so that any axial
movement of the plunger can be recorded conveniently.
 We can easily see the relationship of the length and width of the
strip with the degree of amplification.
 The plunger is the sensing element that is in contact with the work part.
 It moves on a slit washer, which provides frictionless linear movement
and also arrests rotation of the plunger about its axis.
 A knife edge is screwed onto the plunger, which bears upon the face of
the moving member of a cross-strip hinge.
 This unit comprises a fixed member and a moving block, connected by
thin flexible strips at right angles to each other.
 Whenever the plunger moves up or down, the knife edge drives the
moving member of the cross-strip hinge assembly
 This deflects an arm, which divides into a ‘Y’ form.
 The extreme ends of this Y-arm are connected to a driving drum by
means of phosphor-bronze strips.
 The movement of the Y-arm rotates the driving drum and, in turn, the
pointer spindle.
 This causes the movement of the pointer over a calibrated scale.
 As the name of the comparator itself suggests, this has a
mechanical part and an optical part.
 Small displacements of a measuring plunger are initially
amplified by a lever mechanism pivoted about a point.
 The mechanical system causes a plane reflector to tilt
about its axis.
 This is followed by a simple optical system wherein a
pointed image is projected onto a screen to facilitate
direct reading on a scale.
 The plunger is spring loaded such that it is biased to exert a downward
force on the work part.
 This enables both positive and negative readings, depending on whether
the plunger is moving up or down.
 The scale is set to zero by inserting a reference gauge below the plunger.
Now, the reference gauge is taken out and the work part is introduced
below the plunger.
 This causes a small displacement of the plunger, which is amplified by
the mechanical levers.
 The amplified mechanical movement is further amplified by the optical system due to the
tilting of the plane reflector.
 Condensed beam of light passes through an index, which comprises a set of cross-wires.
 This image is projected by another lens onto the plane mirror.
 The mirror, in turn, reflects this image onto the inner surface of a ground glass screen,
which has a scale.
 The difference in reading can be directly read on this calibrated screen, which provides
the linear difference in millimetres or fractions of a millimetre.
 Optical magnifications provide a high degree of precision in measurements due to the
reduction of moving members and better wear-resistance qualities.
Zeiss Ultra-Optimeter
 The Zeiss ultra-optimeter is another mechanical optical
comparator that can provide higher magnification than the simple
mechanical optical comparators.
 This magnification is made possible by the use of two mirrors,
which create double reflection of light.
 Electrical and electronic comparators are in widespread use because of
their instantaneous response and convenience in amplifying the input.
 Electrical comparators generally depend on a Wheatstone bridge circuit
for measurement.
 A direct current (DC) circuit comprising four resistors, two on each arm,
is balanced when the ratios of the resistances in the two arms are equal.
 Displacement of a plunger, results in an armature connected to one of the
arms of the bridge circuit to cause an imbalance in the circuit.
 This imbalance is registered as an output by a galvanometer which is
calibrated to read in units of linear movement of the plunger.
 The plunger is the sensing element, the movement of which
displaces an armature inside a pair of coils.
 Movement of the armature causes change in inductance in the
two coils, resulting in a net change in inductance.
 This change causes an imbalance in the bridge circuit,
resulting in an output.
 The output display device, whether analog or digital, is
calibrated to show the readings in units of length, that is,
linear displacement.
Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
 LVDT is one of the most popular electromechanical devices
used to convert small mechanical displacements (of the order of
a few millimetres or fractions of a millimetre) into amplified
electrical signals.
 LVDT provides an alternating current (AC) voltage output
proportional to the relative displacement of a transformer core
with respect to a pair of electrical windings.
 It provides a high degree of amplification and is very popular
because of its ease of use.
 Moreover, it is a non-contact-type device, where there is no
physical contact between the plunger and the sensing element.
 As a consequence, friction is avoided, resulting in better
accuracy and long life for the comparator. It can be
conveniently packaged in a small cartridge.
 LVDT:
 Advantages:
1. It directly converts mechanical displacement into a
proportional electrical voltage. This is unlike an electrical strain
gauge, which requires the assistance of some form of elastic
member.
2. It cannot be overloaded mechanically. This is because the core
is completely separated from the remainder of the device.
3. It is highly sensitive and provides good magnification.
4. It is relatively insensitive to temperature changes.
5. It is reusable and economical to use.
 “The only disadvantage of an LVDT is that it is not suited for
dynamic measurement.”
 “Its core has appreciable mass compared, for example, to strain
gauges.”
 “The resulting inertial effects may lead to wrong measurements.”
 Pneumatic comparators use air as a means of
measurement.
 The basic principle involved is that changes in a calibrated
flow respond to changes in the part feature.
 This is achieved using several methods and is referred to
as pneumatic gauging, air gauging, or pneumatic
metrology.
 It is possible to gauge length, diameter, squareness,
parallelism, taper, concentricity, etc., using simple set-up.
 For instance, if one is inspecting the bore of an engine
cylinder, it is also possible to assess its size, taper, camber,
and straightness in the same setting.
 Functional and Metrological Features:
 Pneumatic metrology is quite popular because of several
advantages: absence of metal-to metal contact, higher
amplification, and low cost.
 Absence of metal-to-metal contact between the gauge and the
component being inspected greatly increases the accuracy of
measurement.
 The gauge also has greater longevity because of a total absence
of wearable parts.
 Pneumatic comparators are best suited for inspecting multiple
dimensions of a part in a single setting ranging from 0.5 to 1000
mm.
 It is also amenable for on-line inspection of parts on board a
machine tool or equipment.
 Based on the type of air gauge circuit, pneumatic gauges can be
classified as free flow gauges and back pressure gauges.
Free-Flow Air Gauge:
 This uses a simple pneumatic circuit.
 Compressed air with a pressure in the range 1.5–2 bar is passed through a
tapered glass column that contains a small metal float.
 The air then passes through a rubber or plastic hose and exits to the atmosphere
through the orifice in the gauging head.
 Since the gauging head is inserted inside the work part that is being inspected,
there is a small clearance between the gauging head and the work part.
 This restricts the flow of air, thereby changing the position of the float inside the
tapered glass column.
Free-Flow Air Gauge:
 Compressed air from the factory line is filtered and reduced to required pressure.
 A shut-off valve is provided to ensure shut-off of air supply when not in use.
 Air bleed & zero adjustment screws provided to facilitate calibration of gauge.
 The gauge head is mounted onto a handle, which provides a convenient way of
handling the gauge head during inspection.
 The amount of clearance between the gauge head and the work part determines
the rate of air flow in the glass column, which in turn regulates the position of
the float.
 Free-Flow Air Gauge:

 Effect of air-gaps
Back Pressure Gauge:
 This system uses a two-orifice arrangement
 While the orifice O1 is called the control orifice, the orifice O2 is referred to as
the measuring orifice
 The measuring head gets compressed air supply at a constant pressure P, which
is called the source pressure.
 It passes through the control orifice into an intermediate chamber.
 Air exits the measuring head through the measuring orifice.
 While the size of the control orifice remains constant, the effective size of the
measuring orifice varies because of the gap d between the measuring orifice and
the work surface.
 Depending on the gap d, the back pressure Pb changes, thereby providing a
means for measuring dimension d.
 Constructional Details
 Compressed air is filtered and passed through a pressure regulator.
 The regulator reduces the pressure to about 2 bar.
 The air at this reduced pressure passes through the control orifice and
escapes to the atmosphere through the orifice of the measuring head.
 Depending on the clearance between the measuring head and the
work part surface, back pressure is created in the circuit, which has a
direct relationship with the effective area of the measuring orifice.
 Various transducers are available to display the linear gap
between the measuring head and the work part.
 The back pressure is let into a bourdon tube, which undergoes
deflection depending on the magnitude of air pressure.
 This deflection of the bourdon tube is amplified by a lever
and gear arrangement, and indicated on a dial.