Geometric Form Measurements Roundness Straightness Cylindricity Flatness, Etc

Unit II MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
UNIT II MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Instruments to measure geometric shape, straightness and flatness measurement,

optical flat, interferometer, optical projectors Comparators Mechanical ,
pneumatic, electro-pneumatic and electrical LVDT (Linear Variable Differential
Transformer), autocollimator
Dimensional Metrology
Geometric form measurements

Roundness
Straightness
Cylindricity
Flatness, etc
Dimensional Metrology Needs
Geometric relationships
Parallel, perpendicular, etc.
Concentric, runout, etc.
Controlled surface texture
Angular Specifications Flatness Specification
Straightness Specification
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Page 1

COMPARATORS
Comparators are one form of linear measurement device which is quick and more
convenient for checking large number of identical dimensions. Comparators normally
will not show the actual dimensions of the work piece. They will be shown only the
deviation in size. i.e. During the measurement a comparator is able to give the deviation
of the dimension from the set dimension. This cannot be used as an absolute measuring
device but can only compare two dimensions. Comparators are designed in several
types to meet various conditions. Comparators of every type incorporate some kind of
magnifying device. The magnifying device magnifies how much dimension deviates,
plus or minus, from the standard size.
The comparators are classified according to the principles used for obtaining
magnification. The common types are:
1) Mechanical comparators
2) Electrical comparators
3) Optical comparators
4) Pneumatic comparators
MECHANICAL COMPARATORS
Mechanical comparator employs mechanical means for magnifying small deviations.

The method of magnifying small movement of the indicator in all mechanical
comparators are effected by means of levers, gear trains or a combination of these
elements. Mechanical comparators are available having magnifications from 300 to
5000 to 1. These are mostly used for inspection of small parts machined to close limits.
It is self controlled and no power or any other form of energy is required. It

employs mechanical means for magnifying the small movement of the measuring
stylus. The movement is due to the difference between the standard and the actual
dimension being checked

The method for magnifying the small stylus movement in all the mechanical
comparators is by means of levers, gear trains or combination of these. They are
available of different make and each has it's own characteristic. The various types of
mechanical comparators are dial indicator, rack and pinion, sigma comparator,
Johansson mikrokator.
1. Dial indicator
A dial indicator or dial gauge is used as a mechanical comparator. The essential

parts of the instrument are like a small clock with a plunger projecting at the bottom as
shown in fig. Very slight upward movement on the plunger moves it upward and the
movement is indicated by the dial pointer. The dial is graduated into 100 divisions. A
full revolution of the pointer about this scale corresponds to 1mm travel of the plunger.
Thus, a turn of the pointer b one scale division represents a plunger travel of 0.01mm.
Experimental setup
The whole setup consists of
worktable, dial indicator and vertical post.
The dial indicator is fitted to vertical post by
on adjusting screw as shown in fig. The
vertical post is fitted on the work table; the
top surface of the worktable is finely
finished. The dial gauge can be adjusted
vertically and locked in position by a screw.

Procedure
Let us assume that the required height of the component is 32.5mm. Initially
this height is built up with slip gauges. The slip gauge blocks are placed under the stem
of the dial gauge. The pointer in the dial gauge is adjusted to zero. The slip gauges are
removed.
Now the component to be checked is introduced under the stem of the dial
gauge. If there is any deviation in the height of the component, it will be indicated
by the pointer.
Mechanism
The stem has rack teeth. A set of gears engage with the rack. The pointer is
connected to a small pinion. The small pinion is independently hinged. I.e. it is not
connected to the stern. The vertical movement of the stem is transmitted to the pointer
through a set of gears. A spring gives a constant downward pressure to the stem.
Read type mechanical comparator
In this type of comparator, the linear movement of the plunger is specified by means of
read mechanism. The mechanism of this type is illustrated in fig. A spring-loaded
pointer is pivoted. Initially, the comparator is set with the help of a known dimension
eg. Set of slip gauges as
shown in fig. Then the indicator

reading is adjusted to zero. When
the part to be measured is kept
under the pointer, then the
comparator displays the deviation
of this dimension either in or
side of the set dimension.

Advantages
It is usually robust, compact and easy to handle.
There is no external supply such as electricity, air required.
It has very simple mechanism and is cheaper when compared to other types.
It is suitable for ordinary workshop and also easily portable.
Disadvantages
Accuracy of the comparator mainly depends on the accuracy of the rack and pinion
arrangement. Any slackness will reduce accuracy.
It has more moving parts and hence friction is more and accuracy is less.
The range of the instrument is limited since pointer is moving over a fixed scale.

Johansson Mikrokator :
This comparator was developed by C.F. Johansson.
Principle:
It works on the principle of a Button spring, spinning on a loop of string like in the
case of Childrens toys.
Construction:
The method of mechanical magnification is shown in Figure. It employs a twisted

metal strip. Any pull on the strip causes the centre of the strip to rotate. A very light
pointer made of glass tube is attached to the centre of the twisted metal strip. The
measuring plunger is on the slit washer and transmits its motion through the bell crank
lever to the twisted metal strip. The other end of the twisted metal strip is fastened to
the cantilever strip. The overhanging length of the cantilever strip can be varied to
adjust the magnification of the instrument. The longer the length of the cantilever, the
more it will deflect under the pull of the twisted metal strip and less rotation of the
pointer is obtained.

When the plunger moves by a small distance in upward direction the bell crank
lever turns to the right hand side. This exerts a force on the twisted strip and it causes a change
in its length by making it further twist or untwist. Hence the pointer at the centre rotates by
some amount. Magnification up to 5000X can be obtained by this comparator
Advantages of Mechanical Comparator:

They do not require any external source of energy.
These are cheaper and portable.
These are of robust construction and compact design.
The simple linear scales are easy to read.
These are unaffected by variations due to external source of energy such air, electricity etc.
Disadvantages:
Range is limited as the pointer moves over a fixed scale.
Pointer scale system used can cause parallax error.
There are number of moving parts which create problems due to friction, and ultimately the
accuracy is less.The instrument may become sensitive to vibration due to high inertia.
c) Mechanical - Optical Comparator:
Principle:
In mechanical optical comparator, small variation in the plunger movement is magnified:

first by mechanical system and then by optical system.
Construction:
The movement of the plunger is magnified by the mechanical system using a pivoted lever. From
the Figure the mechanical magnification = x2 / x1. High optical magnification is possible with a
small movement of the mirror. The important factor is that the mirror used is of front reflection
type only.

The back reflection type mirror will give two reflected images as shown in Figure, hence the
exact reflected image cannot be identified.

Advantages:
These Comparators are almost weightless and have less number of moving parts, due to
this there is less wear and hence lessfriction.70
Higher range even at high magnification is possible as the scale moves past the index.
The scale can be made to move past a datum line and without having any parallax
errors.
They are used to magnify parts of very small size and of complex configuration such as
intricate grooves, radii or steps.
Disadvantages:
The accuracy of measurement is limited to 0.001 mm
They have their own built in illuminating device which tends to heat the instrument.
Electrical supply is required.
Eyepiece type instrument may cause strain on the operator.
Projection type instruments occupy large space and they are expensive.
When the scale is projected on a screen, then it is essential to take the instrument to a
dark room in order to take the readings easily.

Sigma Comparator:
The plunger is attached to a bar which is supported between the bending plates at the
top and bottom portion as shown in Figure
The bar is restricted to move in the vertical direction. A knife edge is fixed to the bar.
The knife edge is attached to the sapphire plate which is attached to the moving block.
The knife edge extorts a force on the moving block through sapphire plate. Moving
block is attached to the fixed block with the help of crossed strips as shown in Figure
(b). When the force is applied on the moving block, it will give an angular deflection. A
Y-arm which is attached to the moving block transmits the rotary motion to the driving
drum of radius r. This deflects the pointer and then the reading is noted.
If l = Distance from hinge pivot to the knife edge
L = Length of y-arm

R = Driving drum radius Then the total magnification = (L/l) *(D/R)
D Length of the pointer

ELECTRICAL COMPARATOR:
An electrical comparator consists of the following three major part such as
1) Transducer
2) Display device as meter
3) Amplifier

Transducer
An iron armature is provided in between two coils held by a lea spring at one end.
The other end is supported against a plunger. The two coils act as two arms of an A.C.
wheat stone bridge circuit.
Amplifier
The amplifier is nothing but a device which amplifies the give input signal
frequency into magnified output
Display device or meter
The amplified input signal is displayed on some terminal stage instruments.

Here, the terminal instrument is a meter.
Working principle
If the armature is centrally located between the coils, the inductance of both coils
will be equal but in opposite direction with the sign change. Due to this, the bridge circuit
of A.C. wheat stone bridge is balanced. Therefore, the meter will read zero value. But
practically, it is not possible. In real cases, the armature may be lifted up or lowered
down by the plunger during the measurement. This would upset the balance of the wheat
stone bridge circuit. Due to this effect, the change in current or potential will be induced
correspondingly. On that time, the meter will indicate some value as displacement. This
indicated value may be either for larger or smaller components. As this induced current is
too small, it should be suitably amplified before being displayed in the meter.

Checking of accuracy
To check the accuracy of a given specimen or work, first a standard specimen is placed
under the plunger. After this, the resistance of wheat stone bridge is adjusted so that the
scale reading shows zero. Then the specimen is removed. Now, the work is introduced
under the plunger. If height variation of work presents, it will move the plunger up or
down. The corresponding movement of the plunger is first amplified by the amplifier
then it is transmitted to the meter to show the variations. The least count of this electrical
comparator is 0.001mm (one micron).
ELECTRONIC COMPARATOR
In electronic comparator, transducer induction or the principle of application of

frequency modulation or radio oscillation is followed.
Construction details
In the electronic comparator, the following components are set as follows:
i. Transducer
ii. Oscillator

iii. Amplifier
iv. Demodulator
v. Meter
(i) Transducer
It converts the movement of the plunger into an electrical signal. It is

connected with oscillator.
(ii) Oscillator
The oscillator which receives electrical signal from the transducer and raises the
amplitude of frequency wave by adding carrier frequency called as modulation.
(iii) Amplifier
An amplifier is connected in between oscillator and demodulator. The signal

coming out of the oscillator is amplified into a required level.
(iv) Demodulator
Demodulator is nothing but a device which cuts off external carrier wave
frequency. i.e. It converts the modulated wave into original wave as electrical signal.
(v) Meter

This is nothing but a display device from which the output can be obtained as a
linear measurement.
Principle of operation
The work to be measured is placed under the plunger of the electronic

comparator. Both work and comparator are made to rest on the surface plate. The linear
movement of the plunger is converted into electrical signal by a suitable transducer. Then
it sent to an oscillator to modulate the electrical signal by adding carrier frequency of
wave. After that the amplified signal is sent to demodulator in which the carrier waves
are cut off. Finally, the demodulated signal is passed to the meter to convert the probe tip
movement into linear measurement as an output signal. A separate electrical supply of
D.C. is already given to actuate the meter.
Advantages of Electrical and Electronic comparator
1) It has less number of moving parts.
2) Magnification obtained is very high.
Two or more magnifications are provided in the same instrument to use various ranges.
3) The pointer is made very light so that it is more sensitive to vibration.
4) The instrument is very compact.
Disadvantages of Electrical and Electronic comparator
1) External agency is required to meter for actuation.
2) Variation of voltage or frequency may affect the accuracy of output.
3) Due to heating coils, the accuracy decreases.

4) It is more expensive than mechanical comparator.

SINE BAR
Sine bars are always used along with slip gauges as a device for the measurement
of angles very precisely. They are used to
1) Measure angles very accurately.
2) Locate the work piece to a given angle with very high precision.
Generally, sine bars are made from high carbon, high chromium, and corrosion
resistant steel. These materials are highly hardened, ground and stabilized. In sine bars,
two cylinders of equal diameter are attached at lie ends with its axes are mutually parallel
to each other. They are also at equal distance from the upper surface of the sine bar
mostly the distance between the axes of two cylinders is 100mm, 200mm or
300mm. The working surfaces of the rollers are finished to 0.2m R value. The
cylindrical holes are provided to reduce the weight of the sine bar.
Working principle of sine bar

The working of sine bar is based on trigonometry principle. To measure the

angle of a given specimen, one roller of the sine bar is placed on the surface plate and
another one roller is placed over the surface of slip gauges. Now, h be the height of the
slip gauges and L be the distance between roller centers, then the angle is calculated as
2.10.2 Use of Sine Bar
Locating any work to a given angle

1) Before checking the unknown angle of the specimen, first the angle (0) of given
specimen is found approximately by bevel protractor.
2) Then the sine bar is set at angle of 0 and
clamped on the angle plate.

3) Now, the work is placed on the sine bar and
the dial indicator set at one end of the work is
moved across the work piece and deviation is
noted.
4) Slip gauges are adjusted so that the dial

indicator reads zero throughout the work surface.
Limitations of sine bars
1) Sine bars are fairly reliable for angles than 15.
2) It is physically difficult to hold in position.
3) Slight errors in sine bar cause larger angular errors.
4) A difference of deformation occurs at the point of roller contact with the

surface plate and to the gauge blocks.
5) The size of parts to be inspected by sine bar is limited.
Sources of error in sine bars
The different sources of errors are listed below:

1) Error in distance between roller centers.
2) Error in slip gauge combination.
3) Error in checking of parallelism.
4) Error in parallelism of roller axes with each other.
5) Error in flatness of the upper surface of sine bar.
BEVEL PROTRACTORS
Bevel protractors are nothing but angular measuring instruments.
Types of bevel protractors:
The different types of bevel protractors used are:
1) Vernier bevel protractor
2) Universal protractor
3) Optical protractor
VERNIER BEVEL PROTRACTOR:
Working principle

A vernier bevel protractor is attached

with acute angle attachment. The body is
designed its back is flat and no projections
beyond its back. The base plate is attached to
the main body and an adjustable blade is
attached to the circular plate containing Vernier scale. The main scale is graduated in
degrees from 0 to 90 in both the directions. The adjustable can be made to rotate freely
about the center of the main scale and it can be locked at any position. For measuring
acute angle, a special attachment is provided. The base plate is made fiat for measuring
angles and can be moved throughout its length. The ends of the blade are beveled at
angles of 45 and 60. The main scale is graduated as one main scale division is 1 and
Vernier is graduated into 12 divisions on each side of zero. Therefore the least count is
calculated as
Thus, the bevel protractor can be used to measure to an accuracy of 5 minutes.
Applications of bevel protractor
The bevel protractor can be used in the following applications.

1. For checking a V block:
AUTO- COLLIMATOR
Auto-collimator is an optical instrument used for the measurement of small

angular differences, changes or deflection, plane surface inspection etc. For small angular
measurements, autocollimator provides a very sensitive and accurate approach. An auto-
collimator is essentially an infinity telescope and a collimator combined into one
instrument.

Basic principle
If a light source is placed in

the flows of a collimating lens, it is projected as a parallel beam of light. If this beam is
made to strike a plane reflector, kept normal to the optical axis, it is reflected back along
its own path and is brought to the same focus. The reflector is tilted through a small angle
0. Then the parallel beam is deflected twice the angle and is brought to focus in the
same plane as the light source.
The distance of focus from the object is given
WORKING OF AUTO-COLLIMATOR:
There are three main parts in auto-collimator.
1. Micrometer microscope.
2. Lighting unit and
3. Collimating lens.
Figure shows a line diagram of a modern auto-collimator. A target graticule is

positioned perpendicular to the optical axis. When the target graticule is illuminated by a

lamp, rays of light diverging from the intersection point reach the objective lens via beam
splitter. From objective, the light rays are projected as a parallel rays to the reflector.
A flat reflector placed in front of the objective and exactly normal to the
optical axis reflects the parallel rays of light back along their original paths. They are then
brought to the target graticule and exactly coincide with its intersection. A portion of the
returned light passes through the beam splitter and is visible through the eyepiece. If the
reflector is tilted through a small angle, the reflected beam will be changed its path at
twice the angle. It can also be brought to target graticule but linearly displaced from the
actual target by the amount 2 x f. linear displacement of the graticule image in the plane

tilted angle of eyepiece is directly proportional to the reflector. This can be measured by
optical micrometer. The photoelectric auto- collimator is particularly suitable for
calibrating polygons, for checking angular indexing and for checking small linear
displacements.

APPLICATIONS OF AUTO-COLLIMATOR
Auto-collimators are used for
1) Measuring the difference in height of length standards.
2) Checking the flatness and straightness of surfaces.
3) Checking square ness of two surfaces.
4) Precise angular indexing in conjunction with polygons.
5) Checking alignment or parallelism.
6) Comparative measurement using master angles.
7) Measurement of small linear dimensions.
8) For machine tool adjustment testing.
ANGLE DEKKOR
This is also a type of auto-collimator. There is an illuminated scale in the focal

plane of the collimating lens. This illuminated scale is projected as a parallel beam by the
collimating lens which after striking a reflector below the instrument is refocused by the
lens in the filed of view of the eyepiece. In the field of view of microscope, there is
another datum scale fixed across the center of screen. The reflected image of the
illuminated scale is received at right angle to the fixed scale as shown in fig. Thus the
changes in angular position of the reflector in two planes are indicated by changes in the
point of intersection of the two scales. One division on the scale is calibrated to read 1
minute.


Uses of Angle Dekkor
(i) Measuring angle of a component
Angle dekkor is capable of measuring small variations in angular setting i.e.

determining angular tilt. Angle dekkor is used in combination with angle gauge. First the
angle gauge combination is set up to the nearest known angle of the component. Now the
angle dekkor is set to zero reading on the illuminated scale. The angle gauge build up is
then removed and replaced by the component under test. Usually a straight edge being
used to ensure that there is no change in lateral positions. The new position of the
reflected scale with respect to the fixed scale gives the angular tilt of the component from
the set angle.
(ii) Checking the slope angle of a V-block
Figure shows the set up for checking the

sloping angle of V block. Initially, a polished
reflector or slip gauge is attached in close
contact with the work surface. By using angle
gauge zero reading is obtained in the angle
dekkor. Then the angle may be calculated by
comparing the reading obtained from the

angle dekkor and angle gauge.
(iii) To measure the angle of cone or Taper gauge

Initially, the angle dekkor is set for the nominal angle of cone by using angle
gauge or sine bar. The cone is then placed in position with its base resting on the surface
plate. A slip gauge or reflector is attached on the cone since no reflection can be
obtained from the curved surface. Any deviation from the set angle will be noted by the
angle dekkor in the eyepiece and indicated by the shifting of the image of illuminated
scale.
INTERFEROMETRY APPLIED TO FLATNESS TESTING
A manufacturing problem frequently encountered in precision engineering is the production of

flat surfaces of relatively small area. Such surfaces are normally produced by grinding followed
by successive lapping operations until a high degree of flatness combined with a high surface
finish is achieved. Virtually the only satisfactory, and certainly the only convenient, method of
testing the flatness of such surfaces is by the use of light interference, using an optical flat as a
reference plane.
An optical flat is a disc of stress-free glass, or quartz. One or both faces of the disc are ground,
lapped and polished to a degree of flatness not normally countered on an engineering surface. For
engineering purposes, the optical flat may be considered as a reference of flatness, and used as
such for comparing engineering surfaces. Optical flats vary in size from 25 mm diameter to about
300 mm diameter, the thickness being about 50 mm for the largest. In all cases, they are
relatively rigid and stress-free discs which, used and stored correctly, will retain their flatness and
therefore effectiveness almost indefinitely.
If an optical flat is laid (not wrung) on to a nominally flat reflecting surface, it will not form
an intimate contact, but will lie at some angle , as in Fig. 2.6, in which is greatly exaggerated.
A wedge-shaped air cushion may be formed between the surfaces.
Fig. Formation of interference fringes on a flat surface viewed under an optical flat in a
parallel beam of monochromatic light.
If this arrangement is now placed in the path of a parallel beam of monochromatic light, we
can consider S as the source of one wave of the incident beam. Ignoring any refractive effects
due to the light passing through media, glass, and air, of differing densities, it is seen that the
wave from S is partially reflected at a and partially transmitted across the air gap, to be
reflected at b, a point on the work surface. The two reflected components are collected and
recombined by the eye, having travelled paths whose lengths differ by an amount abc.
If abc = /2 where = wavelength of source, then the conditions for complete interference
have been satisfied, i.e. the ray from S has been split into two components, and recombined; also,
the path lengths of the components differ by an odd number (one) of half wavelengths.
If the surface is flat, then at right-angles to the plane of the paper it will be parallel to the
optical flat, and these conditions will be satisfied in a straight line across the surface. Thus a
straight dark line, or interference fringe, will be seen.
Further along the surface and due to angle , the ray leaving S will similarly split into two
components whose path lengths differ by an amount def.
If def=3 /2, the next odd number of half wavelengths, interference will again occur and a
similar fringe will be seen.

At an intermediate point, the path difference will be an even number of half wavelengths, the
two components will be in phase, and a light band will be seen at this point.
Thus, a surface will be crossed by a pattern of alternate light and dark bands, which will
be straight, for the case of a flat surface, as in Fig. 2.7. A deviation from straightness would be a
measure of the error in flatness of the surface in a plane parallel to the apex of the angle .
Referring again to Fig. 2.6, it is seen that if is small (which it must be),
a b = b c= /4 de=ef= 3 /4
The change in separation between the optical flat and the surface is the difference between ab
and de (or bc and ef).
de-ab = 3 /4 - /4 = /2
Thus the change in separation between the surface and the optical flat is equal to one half
wavelength between similar points on similar adjacent fringes.
Note that if is increased the fringes are brought closer together, and if is reduced, i.e. the
surfaces become more nearly parallel, the fringe spacing increases. The possible practical
variation in is very small, since if the surfaces are too closely together ('wrung' together), no air
gap exists, and no fringes are observable, and if is too large the fringes are so closely spaced as
to be indistinguishable, and an observable pattern is not maintained.
In practice, it is unlikely that contact between the optical flat and the work surface will occur
at one point only as in Fig. 2.6. It is probable that contact would be made at a number of points,

or along one or a number of lines. Fig. 2.8 shows the pattern which would be observed if the
work surface were spherically convex. Contact is made at the central high point, resulting in a
fringe pattern of concentric circles. If now each adjacent fringe represents a change in elevation
of the work surface relative to the optical flat of /2, then
2 x n=Total change in elevation from point of contact to the outermost fringe. where =
wavelength of light used.
and n =number of adjacent fringes observed.
It is clear that the pattern observed when the surface is spherically convex will also be
observed when the surface is spherically concave. To distinguish between these two conditions
if, when the surface is spherically convex, one edge of the optical flat is lightly pressed, it will
rock on a new high spot and the centre of the fringe pattern will move as shown in Fig. 2.9, and
the outer fringes move closer together.
Also, when the surface is spherically concave, the flat rests on a line passing around the
surface, and if the edge of the optical flat is lightly pressed, the edge line does not move as the
pressure is varied. Alternatively, light pressure at the centre of the optical flat will cause it to
deflect slightly and become more nearly parallel with the concave surface, thus reducing the
number of fringes observed.
Commonly, optical flats are used in normal daylight, the spectrum of which has a wavelength
of approximately 05 m. Thus, each fringe interval corresponds to a change in elevation of the
surface of 025 m.

Suppose an optical flat to be laid on to a surface, and the resulting fringe pattern is that shown
in Fig. 2.10.
Having first determined the point or line

of contact of the optical flat, which is assumed
to be at AA, it must be remembered that the
contour of each fringe lies on points of equal
height (in a negative direction) relative to the
surface of the optical flat. Thus, the fringe
pattern in fact, represents a contour map of the
surface under test, the spacing of the fringes
representing height intervals relative to the
optical flat of /2.
In Fig. 2.10, point C is the same distance

from the optical flat as point B, but /2 farther
(or nearer) than point D. Therefore the edge at C
is /2 higher (or lower) than D.
If the fringes curve towards the line of contact at A, the surface is convex, the opposite case
also applying.
Practice in the use of optical flats is essential to a true understanding of the patterns
produced, and at this point it may be appropriate to indicate the points to be observed in their
use.
Handle optical flats carefully, and the minimum amount.

Ensure that the work surface and the optical flat are perfectly clean, by careful wiping with a
cloth of the
'Selvyt' type or with chamois leather.

Never `wring' an optical flat to a work surface. It should be laid on, so that the flat is not
distorted by tending to adapt itself to the contour of the work surface, thus pro - ducing a false
fringe pattern.
Never `wring' two optical flats together. Separation may be difficult and cause damage.
INTERFEROMETERS
Although optical flats can be used in either daylight, or, better, in a diffused source of near-
monochromatic light, e.g. a light box consisting of a sodium discharge lamp behind a yellow
filter, they suffer the following disadvantages for very precise work :
It is difficult to control the `lay' of the optical flat and thus orientate the fringes to the best
advantage.
The fringe pattern is not viewed from directly above and the resulting obliquity can cause
distortion and errors in viewing.
These problems are overcome by using optical instruments known as inter ferometers, two of
which will be discussed, one for measuring flatness and the other for determining the length
of slip and block gauges by direct reference to the wavelength of light.
The N.P.L. Flatness Interferometer
This instrument, shown in diagrammatic form in Fig. 2.11, was designed by the National
Physical Laboratory and is manufactured commercially by Coventry Gauge and Tool Co.
Ltd., and Hilger and Watts Ltd.
It consists essentially of a mercury-vapour lamp whose radiations are passed through a green
filter, thus removing all other colours, and leaving a green monochromatic light whose

wavelength is very close to 05 m. This light is focused on to a pinhole, giving an intense

point source of monochromatic light, which is in the focal plane of a collimating lens, and is
thus projected as a parallel beam of light. This beam is directed on to the gauge to be tested
via an optical flat so that interference fringes are formed across the face of the gauge, the
fringes being viewed from directly above by means of a thick glass plate semi-reflector set at
45 to the optical axis.
It should be noted that the optical flat is mounted on an adjustable tripod, independent of the
gauge base plate, so that its angle can be adjusted. Further, the gauge base plate is designed to
be rotated so that the fringes can be orientated to the best advantage.
An advantage of this instrument is that it can also be used for testing the parallelism between
gauge surfaces. Two methods are used:
For gauges below 25 mm in length.

For gauges greater than 25 mm in length.
When shorter gauges are used interference fringes are formed both on the gauge surface and
the base plate. As the gauge is wrung on to the base plate its underside is parallel with its base
plate. This means that if the gauge faces are parallel the fringes on the base plate should be
equally spaced, and parallel with the fringes on the gauge surface.

If the gauge being tested is more than 25 mm in length the fringe pattern on the base plate is
difficult to observe, but the base plate is rotary and its underside is lapped truly parallel with its
working surface. Therefore if a non-parallel gauge is viewed the angle it makes with the optical
flat will be as in Fig. 2.12 (a). If the table is turned through 180 the surface is now less parallel
with the optical flat, Fig. 2.12 (b), and a greater number of fringes is observed.
Consider a gauge which exhibits 10 fringes along its length in one position and 18 fringes in
the second position.
In Fig. 2.12 (a) the distance between the gauge and the optical flat has increased by a distance
1 , over the length of the gauge, and in the second position [Fig. 2.12 (b)], by a distance 2.
It has been shown that the distance between the gauge and the optical flat changes by /2
between adjacent interference fringes.
Therefore, 1=10 x /2 and 2, =18 x /2
The change in the angular relationship is 2 - 1
2 - 1=8 x /2
But due to the rotation through 180 there is a doubling effect. Therefore the error in
parallelism= (2 - 1) / 2 = (8 x /2) / 2 = 4 /2
If the wavelength used is 05 m, then (2 - 1) / 2 = (4 x 0.5) / 2 = 1.0 m

Thus the gauge has an error in parallelism of 10 micro-meters over its length


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Unit II MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

UNIT II MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Instruments to measure geometric shape, straightness and flatness measurement,

Geometric form measurements

Dimensional Metrology Needs

Angular Specifications Flatness Specification

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Page 1

Mechanical comparator employs mechanical means for magnifying small deviations.

It is self controlled and no power or any other form of energy is required. It

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Page 2

A dial indicator or dial gauge is used as a mechanical comparator. The essential

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Page 3

Read type mechanical comparator

shown in fig. Then the indicator

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Page 4

There is no external supply such as electricity, air required.

It is suitable for ordinary workshop and also easily portable.

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Page 5

This comparator was developed by C.F. Johansson.

The method of mechanical magnification is shown in Figure. It employs a twisted

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Page 6

Advantages of Mechanical Comparator:

c) Mechanical - Optical Comparator:

In mechanical optical comparator, small variation in the plunger movement is magnified:

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Page 7

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Page 8

The accuracy of measurement is limited to 0.001 mm

Electrical supply is required.

Eyepiece type instrument may cause strain on the operator.

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Page 9

If l = Distance from hinge pivot to the knife edge

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Page 10

R = Driving drum radius Then the total magnification = (L/l) *(D/R)

D Length of the pointer

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Page 11

An electrical comparator consists of the following three major part such as

2) Display device as meter

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Page 12

Display device or meter

The amplified input signal is displayed on some terminal stage instruments.

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Page 13

In electronic comparator, transducer induction or the principle of application of

In the electronic comparator, the following components are set as follows:

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Page 14

It converts the movement of the plunger into an electrical signal. It is

An amplifier is connected in between oscillator and demodulator. The signal

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Page 15

The work to be measured is placed under the plunger of the electronic

Advantages of Electrical and Electronic comparator

1) It has less number of moving parts.

2) Magnification obtained is very high.

3) The pointer is made very light so that it is more sensitive to vibration.

4) The instrument is very compact.

Disadvantages of Electrical and Electronic comparator

1) External agency is required to meter for actuation.

2) Variation of voltage or frequency may affect the accuracy of output.

3) Due to heating coils, the accuracy decreases.

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Page 16