Production Technology-I

(MEPC-18)
B. Tech (ME) 4th Semester
Unit: 4
Metrology
Prof. Hari Singh
Mech. Engg. Dept.
NIT Kurukshetra
LINEAR AND ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS
With measurement, using a scale, it is not possible to read scale divisions finer than 0.25 mm. Error
is also introduced due to parallax during reading of the scale.
In order to overcome these problems, a number of instruments are available which can measure
linear dimensions up to a high degree of accuracy. These instruments can be classified into two
groups—Direct Reading Instruments and Comparators.
Direct reading instruments yield the absolute dimensions of the component being checked whereas
a comparator just compares the dimensions of the component against some known standard. The
comparator will thus give information about the deviation of the size from the known standard.
Direct Reading Instruments: Some of the common direct reading instruments for linear measurement
are Micrometer, Vernier Caliper, Vernier Height Gauge, Slip Gauge, etc.
Measurement of Angles: Commonly used instruments include Bevel Protractor, Sine Bar, Spirit Level,
Auto-Collimator, etc.
Bevel Protractors are often used for measurement of angle of tapers, bushings, etc. An ordinary bevel
protractor can read up to 2.5 min; the more sophisticated one like optical bevel protractor can read up
to 2 min.
SINE BAR
Measurement of angles using bevel protractors is direct whereas sine bars make indirect
measurement. Sine bars are frequently used for setting off angles from a horizontal plate. The
accuracy attainable with this instrument is quite high and errors in angular measurement are
less than 2 seconds of angle up to 45 deg.
A simple sine bar consists of an accurately lapped steel bar with ends recessed to receive two
parallel rollers of exactly identical dimensions. The axes of these rollers are parallel to within
0.15 mm. The centre distance between the rollers is fixed and this distance decides the size of
the sine bar. Sine bars are available with centre distance of either 5 or 10 inches. Metric
standards sine bars are also available in sizes namely 100 and 250 mm.
A sine bar has to be used in conjunction with a surface plate and slip gauges.
Setting up of Sine Bar: Alternative methods for
setting up of sine bar for any particular job can be
employed.
The set up to be used will depend upon the nature
of work. The Figure shows as a set up whereby
taper plug gauge angle  could be measured. The
plug gauge ABCD is placed on a surface plate with
the sine bar over it as shown. Surface plate
AUTO COLLIMATOR
Setting up an auto collimator: Auto collimator
works on the same principle as a comparator. It
compares the angle to be measured against a
known standard. During linear measurements
the standard is set with the help of slip gauges.
During angular measurement with auto
collimator the datum is set with the help of
angle blocks. These blocks are rectangular in
shape with three square faces accurately ground
and lapped. The fourth face of the block is
ground at a known angle.
Suppose it is required to check the angle  of the taper plug gauge (Figure). Firstly, with the help
of angle blocks the standard value of the angle  is set. The auto collimator axis is now set
square to the angle  over the angle blocks. The auto collimator eye-piece is next operated so
that the target wire and its reflected image may coincide. Next the plug gauge is brought under
the auto collimator.
Next the plug gauge is brought under the auto
collimator. If there is a difference between the
plug gauge angle and the angle set by the block
the target wire image will no longer coincide with
the target wire. The amount of eye-piece
movement required to bring the target wire and
its image back to the point of coincidence will
give the difference between the datum angle set
by the angle blocks and the plug gauge angle.
Auto collimator have a number of applications in
precision measurement. They can be used for
alignment checking, flatness and straightness
checking etc.
 COMPARATORS
Comparators are employed to find out how much the dimensions of a given
component differ from that of a known datum.
Classification: According to the type of magnifying device they employ
1) Mechanical comparator: Figure shows schematic diagram of a mechanical
comparator. The measuring stylus ‘S’ bears against a beam B supported over
the two knife edges K1 & K2 as shown. Due to the movement of the
measuring stylus, the beam is tilted resulting into deflection of the pointer ‘P’
over the graduated scale ‘G’. The amplification attainable in this case will be
determined by the ratio L/a. The contact pressure during the measurement
is provided by a spring C. The force exerted by the spring should be between
300-400 gm. The order of magnification possible with this type of instrument
is limited to 1000.
2) Electrical comparator: Advantages over the mechanical type
i. Little or no moving parts and hence can retain their accuracy over long periods
ii. Sensitivity of these comparators can be adjusted at will to suit the type of measurement being
done
iii. A higher magnification is possible
Disadvantages:
i. Not self contained and needs stabilized power supply for its operation
ii. Accuracy of working is likely to be affected by the temperature and humidity
Working principle: An electrical comparator consists of four basic units:
(i) Measuring probe
(ii) Amplifier and indicating unit
(iii) Power unit
(iv) Base and stand unit
A schematic diagram of the measuring probe is shown in figure. It comprises of a stylus S having
hardened spherical end. An iron armature A held by a leaf spring at one end and resting against
the stylus (S) at the other end is placed in between two coils C and C’. The coils C and C’ form
two arms of an A.C. Wheatstone bridge. The air gap between the armature A and the coils C and
C’ could be varied to change the sensitivity of measurement.
When the armature A is centrally located between the coils C and C’, the inductance of both the
coils is equal and the bridge is balanced. This condition would correspond to the situation when
the comparator is set against the datum. When a component is placed under stylus for the
purpose of measurement, because of the difference between the datum size and the
component size, the stylus S and hence the armature A would either be lifted upwards or
lowered down. This would upset the balance of the Wheatstone bridge, resulting into the flow of
unbalanced current which would indicate whether the component is larger or smaller than the
datum. A suitable calibration of the unbalanced current would also indicate the difference
between the component size and the datum size.
The amount of unbalanced current is usually too small to measure and hence the current is
suitably amplified before being displayed on the measuring dial.
Electrical comparators are available to read up to 0.0001 mm with magnification ranging
between 1125-18,000.
3) Pneumatic comparator: Advantages
i. Cheap
ii. Independent of the contact pressure and simple to operate
iii. Free from mechanical hysteresis and wear
Disadvantages:
i. Their accuracy may also be influenced by the surface roughness of the component being checked
ii. Sensitive to temperature and humidity changes

Working principle: The principle of working of a pneumatic comparator

can best be understood by referring to figure. Air at constant pressure of
about 1.5 kg/cm2 is supplied to the control jet C. Measured amount of air
flows from the control jet C to the gauging jet G. The component whose
size is to measured is shown as P. The amount of air escaping within a
given time through the annular gap between the work piece P and the
gauging jet G will depend upon the gap h. The amount of gap h will affect
the pressure recorded by the manometer M’. If the gap h is large, the
pressure recorded by the manometer would be small. On the other hand,
if the gap h is small the manometer M’ will register higher-pressure
values. The manometer reading is, therefore, a measure of the gap h.
 In order to use this instrument as a comparator the gap h is initially set with the help of a known
reference usually a slip gauge. The component whose dimension is to checked is next placed
under the gauging jet G. The component would usually be slightly larger or smaller than the
reference and hence there will be a variation in the air gap h which would result into a change in
the manometer reading. The manometer in such gauges is calibrated directly to read linear
dimensions.
Applications: This form of gauging can be applied to internal and external diameter
measurements, thickness measurements, etc. It can also be applied to check the concentricity
of annular parts, depth of bind holes, etc.
The magnification possible with this type of comparator is as high as 10,000.
4) Optical comparator: Optical comparators have a high degree of precision and suffer less wear
during usage than the mechanical type. Magnification is obtained with the help of light beams.
Accuracy of measurement of this type of instrument is usually limited to 0.001 mm.
Disadvantage: Optical comparators have their own built in illumination device which tends to heat
the instrument. The accuracy of measurement is liable to suffer due to this.
Working principle: The optical system of a typical
comparator is shown in figure. It consists of an eyepiece E,
a reticule R on which scales are engraved on the side
facing the prism P. objective lens O, a tilting mirror M and
spindle S. A light source, usually a low powered electric
bulb is used to illuminate the scale on the reticule R.
When viewed through the eye piece, the eye observes the
images of the scale reflected by the tilting mirror M. A
fixed reference line is provided in the focal plane of the
eye-piece and the reflected image of the scale is
superimposed against the reference mark.
The component is inserted under the plunger of the comparator (spindle S) for measurement
purpose which has been preset against known datum. The movement of the plunger will cause
the mirror M to rotate about its tilting axis. The position of the scale image, against the reference
mark, reflected by the tilting mirror M will change now. This change can be read directly through
the eye piece E which would give the difference between the standard and the actual dimension.
SURFACE FINISH AND ITS MEASUREMENT
Different machining operations generate surfaces of different characteristics. Surfaces
generated by turning, milling, shaping, planning, grinding and superfinishing show marked
variations when compared with each other. The variation is judged by degree of smoothness. A
surface generated by super-finishing is the smoothest one while that by planing is the roughest
one. This kind of judgement is based on visual inspection and it fails to differentiate between
surfaces produced by same machining operation but under different cutting conditions.
 Effect of surface quality on functional properties: The quality of surface finish of running and sliding
parts has a great deal to do with how long these items would last. It has a marked influence on the
following functional properties of machined parts.
1) Wear resistance: Projecting areas of the surface are worn off first
2) Fatigue strength: The valleys between ridges of a machined surface may become the focus for the
concentration of internal stresses. Crack may start and such cracks lead to destruction.
3) Strength and Interference Fits: When a part is press fitted into another, the actual interference
obtained in the fitting a part with a roughness would differ from that obtained with a smooth part.
4) Corrosion Resistance: The resistance of machined surface against corrosive action of liquids and
gases, water, air, acids in lubricants etc. It is greatly influenced by the quality of finish. The deep
valleys of a rough surface have a capacity to contain more corrosive substances which cause
corrosion in the depth of the metal. A highly finished surface has practically no valleys and hence
the metal is less susceptible to corrosion.
 FACTORS AFFECTING SURFACE FINISH
Quality of machined surface depends on many factors. Six main factors have been listed below:
1. Material of the workpiece
2. Type of machining operation
3. Rigidity of machine-work- tool system
4. Type, form, material and the geometry of cutting tool
5. Cutting parameters
6. Type of cutting fluid
Evaluation of surface finish: Many methods have been developed to express the surface finish
numerically. These numerical values are obtained with respect to a datum. Some of the well
known methods:
Peak to Valley Height Method: This method is largely used in Germany and Russia. It measures
the maximum depth of the surface irregularities over a give sample length and the largest value
of the depth is accepted as measure of surface roughness. Thus the instrument reads the value
directly. Drawback → It may read the same Hmax for two largely different textures. The
international symbol for this value is Ra which means the average roughness height.

Same Hmax
SYSTEM OF DATUM
E-System: This system prescribes that average deviation from the envelope curve is the
measure of roughness. This curve is obtained by rolling a circle of radius r (25 mm) across the
surface. It touches the peaks of the surfaces and is parallel to the locus followed by the centre
as it rolls over the surface.

In this case the datum is obtained by rolling a sphere of radius ‘r’ (25 mm, recommended by ISI)
across the surface, the locus of the centre of sphere moves vertically by a distance ‘r’ so as to
rest on the peaks of the surface profile.
Take a suitable sample of length L in the general direction of the surface profile. Identify the hills
of the surface profile and draw arcs of radius r passing through these hills only (known as
envelope curve). Shift the envelope curve downwards such that areas enclosed by the surface
profile above and below the line are equal.
 SURFACE FINISH ASSESSMENT
This measurement may either be carried out qualitatively or quantitatively.
Qualitative assessment: The quality of surface is compared with standard surfaces i.e. gauging,
and the following ways may be adopted.
1) Visual inspection: The standard surface and the specimen surface are seen simultaneously.
But this sometimes might lead to misleading results due to polishing effect.
2) Nail test: The quality of a standard surface is compared by feeling with the quality of surface
finish of a specimen with the help of finger nails. Experts or the people having a vast
experience can give reasonably accurate results.
Quantitative assessment: The quality of surface must be expressed in numerical values. The
type of instrument needed for such an assessment must possess a STYLUS moving over the
surface under investigation. Signals produced by the movement of stylus on the surface must be
amplified for display or recording. There are many measuring instruments available in the
market.
1) Profile records: The detailed study of surface profiles can be made through inspection of profile
records. Modern instruments for producing profile records are capable of including the data from a
large amount of surface in a reasonable space. Such instruments which produce profile records are
called Profile Graphs. They operate on the following principle: The diamond stylus ‘1’ pivoted
together with mirror ‘2’, passes over the machined surface. A beam of light from a lamp passing
through the precision slit and lens, falls on the mirror. Upon oscillation of stylus imposing over the
surface being tested, the direction of the light being reflected from mirror ‘2’ is changed. This beam
is directed through a system of mirrors to the revolving drum with the light sensitised paper. A
record of the light beam, reflected by the mirror remains on the paper. After developing, the light
sensitised paper will show a graph of the micro profile of the inspected surface, magnified from
400 to 2000 times in the vertical direction and 10 to 50 times in the horizontal direction.
Fig: Working principle of
SYSTEM OF LIMITS AND FITS
Concept of Interchangeability: In the present times production system, it is a well-accepted fact that
there is no necessity of making the components to the dimensions indicated on the drawings
produced by a designer. It has been realised that perfect components are difficult to produce and any
attempt towards perfection will amount to extra cost of the product. The functional aspect of the
component can be achieved even without going for its exact dimension. This means a predetermined
variation in the basic dimension of a product will bring down the unit cost.
When the assembly of two mating parts is considered, this kind of permitted variation assumes a
very important significance. Consider a situation where a large number of pairs of mating parts (say
a shaft and a bearing) are being manufactured, each with a predetermined variation in diameter. If
any shaft and bearing picked up randomly from their respective lots, are assembled to give a desired
interchangeable production, this forms the main basis of the present day mass-production system in
the industries and is known as ‘principle of interchangeability’. Interchangeable production means
the production of parts to such a degree of that will ensure an assembly which will meet the accuracy
functional requirements.
BASIC TERMINOLOGY
TYPES OF FITS
On the basis of positive, zero or negative value of the clearance, there have been developed
three major kinds of fits – clearance fit, transition fit and interference fit.
A. Clearance fit:
i. Loose fit: This kind of fit is employed between those mating parts where no precision is required
such as agricultural and farm machinery, hand-trolleys for transporting materials, certain types of
transmission units of textile machinery, plumer block bearings and loose pulleys.
ii. Free fit: This fit provides less allowance and is used in bearings of oil engines, automobile parts,
electric motors and generator where there is considerably large relative motion between parts.
iii. Medium fit: It offers minimum allowance between the mating parts and hence, offers great
precision in their movement. It is used on machine tool slides, jig bushes, piston and slide valve.
B. Transition fit:
i. Snug fit: This fit refers to zero allowance between the mating parts and requires a very careful
hand assembly. It is also known as 'push’ fit. The moving parts will show least vibrations.
ii. Wringing fit: When there is a very slight negative allowance it is termed as wringing fit. This
assembly requires the application of tapping force and gives a tight assembly. Examples are
fixing keyways, dowels, and pins.
C. Interference fit:
i. Tight fit: The negative allowance is higher than the ‘wringing fit'. A light pressure is needed
to disassemble the units. It is employed in those cases where the parts are to be maintained
in position during running conditions such as pulley on a key and shaft, rocker arm etc.
ii. Medium force fit: The negative allowance is quite appreciable and therefore this assembly is
used when high pressure is to be applied. This fit offers a permanent type of assembly.
iii. Heavy force and shrink fit: It has a maximum negative allowance. A heavy force is necessary
for the assembly. The fitting of frame or rim can be done firstly by heating the frame or rim
and then putting it in its mating part, and finally cooling it in assembled position. The
shrinking of the frame or ring provides this fit.
SYSTEM OF FITS
Two very common systems of fits have been developed on the hole-basis and shaft-basis. These
are called as ‘Basic Hole System' and 'Basic Shaft System’. In the case of the Basic Hole System,
the size of the hole is kept constant and the shaft size is varied to obtain various classes of fits.
Similarly in the Basic Shaft System, the size of the shaft is kept constant and the hole is varied
to obtain the various fits. The hole system is preferred over the shaft system for reasons of
economy.
 DESIGN OF LIMIT GAUGES
Components that are to be assembled to make a product have their mating dimensions
manufactured to a determined accuracy. This accuracy greatly reflects itself in the cost of the
product. To stress on a greater accuracy than necessary for the product makes the project
uneconomical. Therefore, all mating dimensions are provided with limits i.e. high limit and low
limit of the dimensions. The difference between the high limit and low limit of the dimension is
called the ‘Dimensional Tolerance’.
In shops engaged mass production where interchangeability is also to be maintained at as low a
cost as possible, the dimensional tolerances within the high and low limits are controlled by the
gauges of three types
1. Limit Gauges
2. Indicating Gauges
3. Combination Gauges
A gauge is this, a device for determining the relative size or shape of a component.
 Advantages of suitable gauging system can be distinguished on three factors
1. Semiskilled operators can control the dimensions within limits with the help of limit gauges
2. The time to inspect on shop floor is largely minimised
3. Interchangeability is secured at a very low cost and components can be assembled without
difficulty
Only disadvantage with gauging system is that the gauges indicate nothing about the trend of
size when the size is increasing or decreasing till the gauges start rejecting.
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