Physics Part 2

CHAPTER EIGHT
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
8.1 INTRODUCTION
In Chapter 6, we studied the rotation of the bodies and then
realised that the motion of a body depends on how mass is
8.1 Introduction distributed within the body. We restricted ourselves to simpler
8.2 Stress and strain situations of rigid bodies. A rigid body generally means a
8.3 Hooke’s law hard solid object having a definite shape and size. But in
8.4 Stress-strain curve reality, bodies can be stretched, compressed and bent. Even
8.5 Elastic moduli the appreciably rigid steel bar can be deformed when a
8.6 Applications of elastic sufficiently large external force is applied on it. This means
behaviour of materials that solid bodies are not perfectly rigid.
A solid has definite shape and size. In order to change (or
Summary
deform) the shape or size of a body, a force is required. If
Points to ponder
you stretch a helical spring by gently pulling its ends, the
Exercises
length of the spring increases slightly. When you leave the
ends of the spring, it regains its original size and shape. The
property of a body, by virtue of which it tends to regain its
original size and shape when the applied force is removed, is
known as elasticity and the deformation caused is known
as elastic deformation. However, if you apply force to a lump
of putty or mud, they have no gross tendency to regain their
previous shape, and they get permanently deformed. Such
substances are called plastic and this property is called
plasticity. Putty and mud are close to ideal plastics.
The elastic behaviour of materials plays an important role
in engineering design. For example, while designing a
building, knowledge of elastic properties of materials like steel,
concrete etc. is essential. The same is true in the design of
bridges, automobiles, ropeways etc. One could also ask —
Can we design an aeroplane which is very light but
sufficiently strong? Can we design an artificial limb which
is lighter but stronger? Why does a railway track have a
particular shape like I? Why is glass brittle while brass is
not? Answers to such questions begin with the study of how
relatively simple kinds of loads or forces act to deform
different solids bodies. In this chapter, we shall study the
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168 PHYSICS
elastic behaviour and mechanical properties of

∆L
solids which would answer many such Longitudinal strain = (8.2)
questions. L
However, if two equal and opposite deforming
8.2 STRESS AND STRAIN
forces are applied parallel to the cross-sectional
When forces are applied on a body in such a area of the cylinder, as shown in Fig. 8.1(b),
manner that the body is still in static equilibrium, there is relative displacement between the
it is deformed to a small or large extent depending opposite faces of the cylinder. The restoring force
upon the nature of the material of the body and per unit area developed due to the applied
the magnitude of the deforming force. The tangential force is known as tangential or
deformation may not be noticeable visually in shearing stress.
many materials but it is there. When a body is As a result of applied tangential force, there
subjected to a deforming force, a restoring force is a relative displacement ∆x between opposite
is developed in the body. This restoring force is faces of the cylinder as shown in the Fig. 8.1(b).
equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to The strain so produced is known as shearing
the applied force. The restoring force per unit area strain and it is defined as the ratio of relative
is known as stress. If F is the force applied normal displacement of the faces ∆x to the length of the
to the cross–section and A is the area of cross cylinder L.
section of the body,
∆x
Magnitude of the stress = F/A (8.1) Shearing strain = = tan θ (8.3)
The SI unit of stress is N m–2 or pascal (Pa) L
and its dimensional formula is [ ML–1T–2 ]. where θ is the angular displacement of the
There are three ways in which a solid may
cylinder from the vertical (original position of the
change its dimensions when an external force
cylinder). Usually θ is very small, tan θ
acts on it. These are shown in Fig. 8.1. In
is nearly equal to angle θ , (if θ = 10°, for
Fig.8.1(a), a cylinder is stretched by two equal
example, there is only 1% difference between θ
forces applied normal to its cross-sectional area.
and tan θ).
The restoring force per unit area in this case is
It can also be visualised, when a book is
called tensile stress. If the cylinder is
pressed with the hand and pushed horizontally,
compressed under the action of applied forces,
as shown in Fig. 8.2 (c).
the restoring force per unit area is known as
Thus, shearing strain = tan θ ≈ θ (8.4)
compressive stress. Tensile or compressive
In Fig. 8.1 (d), a solid sphere placed in the fluid
stress can also be termed as longitudinal stress.
under high pressure is compressed uniformly on
In both the cases, there is a change in the
all sides. The force applied by the fluid acts in
length of the cylinder. The change in the length
perpendicular direction at each point of the
∆L to the original length L of the body (cylinder surface and the body is said to be under
in this case) is known as longitudinal strain. hydraulic compression. This leads to decrease
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 8.1 (a) A cylindrical body under tensile stress elongates by ∆L (b) Shearing stress on a cylinder deforming it by
an angle θ (c) A body subjected to shearing stress (d) A solid body under a stress normal to the surface at
every point (hydraulic stress). The volumetric strain is ∆V/V, but there is no change in shape.
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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS 169
in its volume without any change of its compression and shear stress may also be
geometrical shape. obtained. The stress-strain curves vary from
The body develops internal restoring forces material to material. These curves help us to
that are equal and opposite to the forces applied understand how a given material deforms with
by the fluid (the body restores its original shape increasing loads. From the graph, we can see
and size when taken out from the fluid). The that in the region between O to A, the curve is
internal restoring force per unit area in this case linear. In this region, Hooke’s law is obeyed.
is known as hydraulic stress and in magnitude The body regains its original dimensions when
is equal to the hydraulic pressure (applied force the applied force is removed. In this region, the
per unit area). solid behaves as an elastic body.
The strain produced by a hydraulic pressure
is called volume strain and is defined as the
ratio of change in volume (∆V) to the original
volume (V ).
∆V
Volume strain = (8.5)
V
Since the strain is a ratio of change in
dimension to the original dimension, it has no
units or dimensional formula.
8.3 HOOKE’S LAW

Stress and strain take different forms in the
situations depicted in the Fig. (8.1). For small
deformations the stress and strain are
proportional to each other. This is known as Fig. 8.2 A typical stress-strain curve for a metal.
Hooke’s law.
Thus, In the region from A to B, stress and strain
stress ∝ strain are not proportional. Nevertheless, the body still
stress = k × strain (8.6) returns to its original dimension when the load
where k is the proportionality constant and is is removed. The point B in the curve is known
known as modulus of elasticity. as yield point (also known as elastic limit) and
Hooke’s law is an empirical law and is found the corresponding stress is known as yield
to be valid for most materials. However, there strength (σy ) of the material.
are some materials which do not exhibit this If the load is increased further, the stress
linear relationship. developed exceeds the yield strength and strain
increases rapidly even for a small change in the
8.4 STRESS-STRAIN CURVE stress. The portion of the curve between B and
D shows this. When the load is removed, say at
The relation between the stress and the strain some point C between B and D, the body does
for a given material under tensile stress can be not regain its original dimension. In this case,
found experimentally. In a standard test of even when the stress is zero, the strain is not
tensile properties, a test cylinder or a wire is zero. The material is said to have a permanent
stretched by an applied force. The fractional set. The deformation is said to be plastic
change in length (the strain) and the applied deformation. The point D on the graph is the
force needed to cause the strain are recorded. ultimate tensile strength (σu ) of the material.
The applied force is gradually increased in steps Beyond this point, additional strain is produced
and the change in length is noted. A graph is even by a reduced applied force and fracture
plotted between the stress (which is equal in occurs at point E. If the ultimate strength and
magnitude to the applied force per unit area) and fracture points D and E are close, the material
the strain produced. A typical graph for a metal is said to be brittle. If they are far apart, the
is shown in Fig. 8.2. Analogous graphs for material is said to be ductile.
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170 PHYSICS
8.5 ELASTIC MODULI

The proportional region within the elastic limit
of the stress-strain curve (region OA in Fig. 8.2)
is of great importance for structural and
manufacturing engineering designs. The ratio
of stress and strain, called modulus of elasticity,
is found to be a characteristic of the material.
8.5.1 Young’s Modulus

Experimental observation show that for a given
material, the magnitude of the strain produced
is same whether the stress is tensile or
compressive. The ratio of tensile (or compressive)
stress (σ ) to the longitudinal strain (ε) is defined as
Fig. 8.3 Stress-strain curve for the elastic tissue of Young’s modulus and is denoted by the symbol Y.
Aorta, the large tube (vessel) carrying blood
from the heart. σ
Y= (8.7)
As stated earlier, the stress-strain behaviour ε
varies from material to material. For example, From Eqs. (8.1) and (8.2), we have
rubber can be pulled to several times its original
length and still returns to its original shape. Fig. Y = (F/A)/(∆L/L)
8.3 shows stress-strain curve for the elastic = (F × L) /(A × ∆L) (8.8)
tissue of aorta, present in the heart. Note that Since strain is a dimensionless quantity, the
although elastic region is very large, the material unit of Young’s modulus is the same as that of
does not obey Hooke’s law over most of the region. stress i.e., N m–2 or Pascal (Pa). Table 8.1 gives
Secondly, there is no well defined plastic region. the values of Young’s moduli and yield strengths
Substances like tissue of aorta, rubber etc. of some material.
which can be stretched to cause large strains From the data given in Table 8.1, it is noticed
are called elastomers. that for metals Young’s moduli are large.
Table 8.1 Young’s moduli and yield strenghs of some material
# Substance tested under compression
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Therefore, these materials require a large force Answer The copper and steel wires are under
to produce small change in length. To increase a tensile stress because they have the same
the length of a thin steel wire of 0.1 cm2 cross- tension (equal to the load W) and the same area
sectional area by 0.1%, a force of 2000 N is of cross-section A. From Eq. (8.7) we have stress
required. The force required to produce the same = strain × Young’s modulus. Therefore
strain in aluminium, brass and copper wires W/A = Yc × (∆Lc/Lc) = Ys × (∆Ls/Ls)
having the same cross-sectional area are 690 N, where the subscripts c and s refer to copper
900 N and 1100 N respectively. It means that and stainless steel respectively. Or,
steel is more elastic than copper, brass and ∆Lc/∆Ls = (Ys/Yc) × (Lc/Ls)
aluminium. It is for this reason that steel is Given Lc = 2.2 m, Ls = 1.6 m,
preferred in heavy-duty machines and in From Table 9.1 Yc = 1.1 × 1011 N.m–2, and
structural designs. Wood, bone, concrete and Ys = 2.0 × 1011 N.m–2.
glass have rather small Young’s moduli. ∆Lc/∆Ls = (2.0 × 10 /1.1 × 1011) × (2.2/1.6) = 2.5.
11
The total elongation is given to be

u Example 8.1 A structural steel rod has a ∆Lc + ∆Ls = 7.0 × 10-4 m
radius of 10 mm and a length of 1.0 m. A Solving the above equations,
100 kN force stretches it along its length. ∆Lc = 5.0 × 10-4 m, and ∆Ls = 2.0 × 10-4 m.
Calculate (a) stress, (b) elongation, and (c) Therefore
strain on the rod. Young’s modulus, of W = (A × Yc × ∆Lc)/Lc
structural steel is 2.0 × 1011 N m-2. = π (1.5 × 10-3)2 × [(5.0 × 10-4 × 1.1 × 1011)/2.2]
= 1.8 × 102 N ⊳
Answer We assume that the rod is held by a
clamp at one end, and the force F is applied at uExample 8.3 In a human pyramid in a
the other end, parallel to the length of the rod.
circus, the entire weight of the balanced
Then the stress on the rod is given by
group is supported by the legs of a performer
F F who is lying on his back (as shown in Fig.
Stress = =
A πr
2 8.4). The combined mass of all the persons
performing the act, and the tables, plaques
100 × 10 N
3
= etc. involved is 280 kg. The mass of the
( )
−2 2
3.14 × 10 m performer lying on his back at the bottom of
= 3.18 × 108 N m–2 the pyramid is 60 kg. Each thighbone (femur)
The elongation, of this performer has a length of 50 cm and
an effective radius of 2.0 cm. Determine the
( F/A ) L amount by which each thighbone gets
∆L =
Y compressed under the extra load.
(3.18 × 10 8
N m
–2
) (1m )
= 11 –2
2 × 10 N m
= 1.59 × 10–3 m
= 1.59 mm
The strain is given by
Strain = ∆L/L
= (1.59 × 10–3 m)/(1m)
= 1.59 × 10–3
= 0.16 % ⊳
u Example 8.2 A copper wire of length 2.2 m

and a steel wire of length 1.6 m, both of
diameter 3.0 mm, are connected end to end.
When stretched by a load, the net
elongation is found to be 0.70 mm. Obtain
the load applied. Fig. 8.4 Human pyramid in a circus.
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172 PHYSICS
Answer Total mass of all the performers, tables, Table 8.2 Shear moduli (G) of some common
materials
plaques etc. = 280 kg
Mass of the performer = 60 kg
Material G (109 Nm–2
Mass supported by the legs of the performer or GPa)
at the bottom of the pyramid
Aluminium 25
= 280 – 60 = 220 kg
Brass 36
Weight of this supported mass
Copper 42
= 220 kg wt. = 220 × 9.8 N = 2156 N. Glass 23
Weight supported by each thighbone of the Iron 70
performer = ½ (2156) N = 1078 N. Lead 5.6
From Table 9.1, the Young’s modulus for bone Nickel 77
is given by Steel 84
Y = 9.4 × 109 N m–2. Tungsten 150
Length of each thighbone L = 0.5 m Wood 10
the radius of thighbone = 2.0 cm
Thus the cross-sectional area of the thighbone u Example 8.4 A square lead slab of side 50
A = π × (2 × 10-2)2 m2 = 1.26 × 10-3 m2. cm and thickness 10 cm is subject to a
shearing force (on its narrow face) of 9.0 ×
Using Eq. (9.8), the compression in each
104 N. The lower edge is riveted to the floor.
thighbone (∆L) can be computed as How much will the upper edge be displaced?
∆L = [(F × L)/(Y × A)]
= [(1078 × 0.5)/(9.4 × 109 × 1.26 × 10-3)]
Answer The lead slab is fixed and the force is
= 4.55 × 10-5 m or 4.55 × 10-3 cm. applied parallel to the narrow face as shown in
This is a very small change! The fractional Fig. 8.6. The area of the face parallel to which
decrease in the thighbone is ∆L/L = 0.000091 or this force is applied is
0.0091%. ⊳ A = 50 cm × 10 cm
= 0.5 m × 0.1 m
8.5.2 Shear Modulus
= 0.05 m2
The ratio of shearing stress to the corresponding
Therefore, the stress applied is
shearing strain is called the shear modulus of = (9.4 × 104 N/0.05 m2)
the material and is represented by G. It is also = 1.80 × 106 N.m–2
called the modulus of rigidity.
G = shearing stress (σs)/shearing strain
G = (F/A)/(∆x/L)
= (F × L)/(A × ∆x) (8.10)
Similarly, from Eq. (9.4)
G = (F/A)/θ
= F/(A × θ) (8.11)
The shearing stress σs can also be expressed as
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σs = G × θ (8.12)
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SI unit of shear modulus is N m–2 or Pa. The
Fig. 8.5
shear moduli of a few common materials are
given in Table 9.2. It can be seen that shear We know that shearing strain = (∆x/L)= Stress /G.
modulus (or modulus of rigidity) is generally less Therefore the displacement ∆x = (Stress × L)/G
than Young’s modulus (from Table 9.1). For most = (1.8 × 106 N m–2 × 0.5m)/(5.6 × 109 N m–2)
materials G ≈ Y/3. = 1.6 × 10–4 m = 0.16 mm ⊳
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8.5.3 Bulk Modulus Table 8.3 Bulk moduli (B) of some common
Materials
In Section (8.3), we have seen that when a body
is submerged in a fluid, it undergoes a hydraulic Material B (109 N m–2 or GPa)
stress (equal in magnitude to the hydraulic Solids
pressure). This leads to the decrease in the
volume of the body thus producing a strain called Aluminium 72
volume strain [Eq. (8.5)]. The ratio of hydraulic Brass 61
stress to the corresponding hydraulic strain is
called bulk modulus. It is denoted by symbol B. Copper 140
B = – p/(∆V/V) (8.12) Glass 37
The negative sign indicates the fact that with
Iron 100
an increase in pressure, a decrease in volume
occurs. That is, if p is positive, ∆V is negative. Nickel 260
Thus for a system in equilibrium, the value of
Steel 160
bulk modulus B is always positive. SI unit of
bulk modulus is the same as that of pressure Liquids
i.e., N m–2 or Pa. The bulk moduli of a few common
Water 2.2
materials are given in Table 8.3.
The reciprocal of the bulk modulus is called Ethanol 0.9
compressibility and is denoted by k. It is defined
Carbon disulphide 1.56
as the fractional change in volume per unit
increase in pressure. Glycerine 4.76
k = (1/B) = – (1/∆p) × (∆V/V) (8.13) Mercury 25
It can be seen from the data given in Table
8.3 that the bulk moduli for solids are much Gases
larger than for liquids, which are again much Air (at STP) 1.0 × 10–4
larger than the bulk modulus for gases (air).
Table 8.4 Stress, strain and various elastic moduli
Type of Stress Strain Change in Elastic Name of State of

stress shape volume Modulus Modulus Matter
Tensile Two equal and Elongation or Yes No Y = (F×L)/ Young’s Solid

or opposite forces compression (A×∆L) modulus
compressive perpendicular to parallel to force
(σ = F/A) opposite faces direction (∆L/L)
(longitudinal strain)
Shearing Two equal and Pure shear, θ Yes No G = F/(A×θ) Shear Solid
(σs = F/A) opposite forces modulus
parallel to oppoiste or modulus
surfaces forces of rigidity
in each case such
that total force and
total torque on the
body vanishes
Hydraulic Forces perpendicular Volume change No Yes B = –p/(∆V/V) Bulk Solid, liquid
everywhere to the (compression or modulus and gas
surface, force per elongation)
unit area (pressure) (∆V/V)
same everywhere.
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174 PHYSICS
Thus, solids are the least compressible, whereas, 8.5.5 Elastic Potential Energy
gases are the most compressible. Gases are about in a Stretched Wire
a million times more compressible than solids! When a wire is put under a tensile stress, work
Gases have large compressibilities, which vary is done against the inter-atomic forces. This
with pressure and temperature. The work is stored in the wire in the form of elastic
incompressibility of the solids is primarily due potential energy. When a wire of original length
to the tight coupling between the neighbouring L and area of cross-section A is subjected to a
atoms. The molecules in liquids are also bound deforming force F along the length of the wire,
with their neighbours but not as strong as in let the length of the wire be elongated by l. Then
solids. Molecules in gases are very poorly from Eq. (8.8), we have F = YA × (l/L). Here Y is
coupled to their neighbours. the Young’s modulus of the material of the wire.
Table 8.4 shows the various types of stress, Now for a further elongation of infinitesimal
strain, elastic moduli, and the applicable state small length dl, work done dW is F × dl or YAldl/
of matter at a glance. L. Therefore, the amount of work done (W) in
increasing the length of the wire from L to L + l,
u Example 8.5 The average depth of Indian that is from l = 0 to l = l is
Ocean is about 3000 m. Calculate the YAl YA l 2
fractional compression, ∆V/V, of water at W= ∫0
l
dl = ×
L 2 L
the bottom of the ocean, given that the bulk 2
modulus of water is 2.2 × 109 N m–2. (Take 1 l 
g = 10 m s–2) W = × Y ×   × AL
2 L 
1
= × Young’s modulus × strain2 ×
Answer The pressure exerted by a 3000 m
column of water on the bottom layer 2
p = hρ g = 3000 m × 1000 kg m–3 × 10 m s–2 volume of the wire
= 3 × 107 kg m–1 s-2 1
= 3 × 107 N m–2 = × stress × strain × volume of the
2
Fractional compression ∆V/V, is wire
∆V/V = stress/B = (3 × 107 N m-2)/(2.2 × 109 N m–2) This work is stored in the wire in the form of
= 1.36 × 10-2 or 1.36 % ⊳ elastic potential energy (U). Therefore the elastic
potential energy per unit volume of the wire (u) is
1
8.5.4 POISSON’S RATIO u= ×σ ε (8.14)
2
The strain perpendicular to the applied force is
called lateral strain. Simon Poisson pointed out 8.6 APPLICATIONS OF ELASTIC
that within the elastic limit, lateral strain is BEHAVIOUR OF MATERIALS
directly proportional to the longitudinal strain. The elastic behaviour of materials plays an
The ratio of the lateral strain to the longitudinal important role in everyday life. All engineering
strain in a stretched wire is called Poisson’s designs require precise knowledge of the elastic
ratio. If the original diameter of the wire is d behaviour of materials. For example while
and the contraction of the diameter under stress designing a building, the structural design of
is ∆d, the lateral strain is ∆d/d. If the original the columns, beams and supports require
length of the wire is L and the elongation under knowledge of strength of materials used. Have
stress is ∆L, the longitudinal strain is ∆L/L. you ever thought why the beams used in
Poisson’s ratio is then (∆d/d)/(∆L/L) or (∆d/∆L) construction of bridges, as supports etc. have
× (L/d). Poisson’s ratio is a ratio of two strains; a cross-section of the type I? Why does a heap
it is a pure number and has no dimensions or of sand or a hill have a pyramidal shape?
units. Its value depends only on the nature of Answers to these questions can be obtained
material. For steels the value is between 0.28 and from the study of structural engineering which
0.30, and for aluminium alloys it is about 0.33. is based on concepts developed here.
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Cranes used for lifting and moving heavy loads This relation can be derived using what you
from one place to another have a thick metal have already learnt and a little calculus. From
rope to which the load is attached. The rope is Eq. (8.16), we see that to reduce the bending
pulled up using pulleys and motors. Suppose we for a given load, one should use a material with
want to make a crane, which has a lifting a large Young’s modulus Y. For a given material,
capacity of 10 tonnes or metric tons (1 metric increasing the depth d rather than the breadth
ton = 1000 kg). How thick should the steel rope b is more effective in reducing the bending, since
be? We obviously want that the load does not
δ is proportional to d -3 and only to b-1(of course
deform the rope permanently. Therefore, the
the length l of the span should be as small as
extension should not exceed the elastic limit.
From Table 8.1, we find that mild steel has a possible). But on increasing the depth, unless
yield strength (σy) of about 300 × 106 N m–2. Thus, the load is exactly at the right place (difficult to
the area of cross-section (A) of the rope should arrange in a bridge with moving traffic), the
at least be deep bar may bend as shown in Fig. 8.7(b). This
A ≥ W/σy = Mg/σy (8.15) is called buckling. To avoid this, a common
= (104 kg × 9.8 m s-2)/(300 × 106 N m-2) compromise is the cross-sectional shape shown
= 3.3 × 10-4 m2 in Fig. 8.7(c). This section provides a large load-
corresponding to a radius of about 1 cm for a bearing surface and enough depth to prevent
rope of circular cross-section. Generally a bending. This shape reduces the weight of the
large margin of safety (of about a factor of ten beam without sacrificing the strength and
in the load) is provided. Thus a thicker rope of hence reduces the cost.
radius about 3 cm is recommended. A single
wire of this radius would practically be a rigid
rod. So the ropes are always made of a number
of thin wires braided together, like in pigtails,
for ease in manufacture, flexibility and strength.
A bridge has to be designed such that it can
withstand the load of the flowing traffic, the force
of winds and its own weight. Similarly, in the
design of buildings the use of beams and columns
is very common. In both the cases, the
overcoming of the problem of bending of beam
under a load is of prime importance. The beam
should not bend too much or break. Let us
consider the case of a beam loaded at the centre
and supported near its ends as shown in
Fig. 8.6. A bar of length l, breadth b, and depth
d when loaded at the centre by a load W sags by (a) (b) (c)
an amount given by Fig. 8.7 Different cross-sectional shapes of a
beam. (a) Rectangular section of a bar;
δ = W l 3/(4bd 3Y) (8.16)
(b) A thin bar and how it can buckle;
(c) Commonly used section for a load
bearing bar.
The use of pillars or columns is also very
common in buildings and bridges. A pillar with
rounded ends as shown in Fig. 8.9(a) supports
less load than that with a distributed shape at
the ends [Fig. 8.9(b)]. The precise design of a
bridge or a building has to take into account
the conditions under which it will function, the
Fig. 8.6 A beam supported at the ends and loaded cost and long period, reliability of usable
at the centre. material, etc.
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176 PHYSICS
shearing stress to the rocks under which they

can flow. The stress due to all the material on
the top should be less than the critical shearing
stress at which the rocks flow.
At the bottom of a mountain of height h, the
force per unit area due to the weight of the
mountain is hρg where ρ is the density of the
material of the mountain and g is the acceleration
due to gravity. The material at the bottom
experiences this force in the vertical direction,
and the sides of the mountain are free. Therefore,
(a) (b)
this is not a case of pressure or bulk compression.
There is a shear component, approximately hρg
Fig. 8.8 Pillars or columns: (a) a pillar with rounded itself. Now the elastic limit for a typical rock is
ends, (b) Pillar with distributed ends. 30 × 107 N m-2 . Equating this to hρg, with
The answer to the question why the maximum ρ = 3 × 103 kg m-3 gives
height of a mountain on earth is ~10 km can hρg = 30 × 107 N m-2 .
also be provided by considering the elastic h = 30 × 107 N m-2/(3 × 103 kg m-3 × 10 m s-2)
properties of rocks. A mountain base is not under = 10 km
uniform compression and this provides some which is more than the height of Mt. Everest!
SUMMARY
1. Stress is the restoring force per unit area and strain is the fractional change in dimension.
In general there are three types of stresses (a) tensile stress — longitudinal stress
(associated with stretching) or compressive stress (associated with compression),
(b) shearing stress, and (c) hydraulic stress.
2. For small deformations, stress is directly proportional to the strain for many materials.
This is known as Hooke’s law. The constant of proportionality is called modulus of
elasticity. Three elastic moduli viz., Young’s modulus, shear modulus and bulk modulus
are used to describe the elastic behaviour of objects as they respond to deforming forces
that act on them.
A class of solids called elastomers does not obey Hooke’s law.
3. When an object is under tension or compression, the Hooke’s law takes the form
F/A = Y∆L/L
where ∆L/L is the tensile or compressive strain of the object, F is the magnitude of the
applied force causing the strain, A is the cross-sectional area over which F is applied
(perpendicular to A) and Y is the Young’s modulus for the object. The stress is F/A.
4. A pair of forces when applied parallel to the upper and lower faces, the solid deforms so
that the upper face moves sideways with respect to the lower. The horizontal displacement
∆L of the upper face is perpendicular to the vertical height L. This type of deformation is
called shear and the corresponding stress is the shearing stress. This type of stress is
possible only in solids.
In this kind of deformation the Hooke’s law takes the form
F/A = G × ∆L/L
where ∆L is the displacement of one end of object in the direction of the applied force F,
and G is the shear modulus.
5. When an object undergoes hydraulic compression due to a stress exerted by a surrounding
fluid, the Hooke’s law takes the form
p = B (∆V/V),
where p is the pressure (hydraulic stress) on the object due to the fluid, ∆V/V (the
volume strain) is the absolute fractional change in the object’s volume due to that
pressure and B is the bulk modulus of the object.
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POINTS TO PONDER
1. In the case of a wire, suspended from celing and stretched under the action of a weight (F)
suspended from its other end, the force exerted by the ceiling on it is equal and opposite to
the weight. However, the tension at any cross-section A of the wire is just F and not 2F.
Hence, tensile stress which is equal to the tension per unit area is equal to F/A.
2. Hooke’s law is valid only in the linear part of stress-strain curve.
3. The Young’s modulus and shear modulus are relevant only for solids since only solids
have lengths and shapes.
4. Bulk modulus is relevant for solids, liquid and gases. It refers to the change in volume
when every part of the body is under the uniform stress so that the shape of the body
remains unchanged.
5. Metals have larger values of Young’s modulus than alloys and elastomers. A material
with large value of Young’s modulus requires a large force to produce small changes in its
length.
6. In daily life, we feel that a material which stretches more is more elastic, but it a is
misnomer. In fact material which stretches to a lesser extent for a given load is considered
to be more elastic.
7. In general, a deforming force in one direction can produce strains in other directions
also. The proportionality between stress and strain in such situations cannot be described
by just one elastic constant. For example, for a wire under longitudinal strain, the
lateral dimensions (radius of cross section) will undergo a small change, which is described
by another elastic constant of the material (called Poisson ratio).
8. Stress is not a vector quantity since, unlike a force, the stress cannot be assigned a
specific direction. Force acting on the portion of a body on a specified side of a section
has a definite direction.
EXERCISES
8.1 A steel wire of length 4.7 m and cross-sectional area 3.0 × 10-5 m2 stretches by the same
amount as a copper wire of length 3.5 m and cross-sectional area of 4.0 × 10–5 m2 under
a given load. What is the ratio of the Young’s modulus of steel to that of copper?
8.2 Figure 8.9 shows the strain-stress curve for a given material. What are (a) Young’s
modulus and (b) approximate yield strength for this material?
Fig. 8.9
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178 PHYSICS
8.3 The stress-strain graphs for materials A and B are shown in Fig. 8.10.
Fig. 8.10
The graphs are drawn to the same scale.
(a) Which of the materials has the greater Young’s modulus?
(b) Which of the two is the stronger material?
8.4 Read the following two statements below carefully and state, with reasons, if it is true
or false.
(a) The Young’s modulus of rubber is greater than that of steel;
(b) The stretching of a coil is determined by its shear modulus.
8.5 Two wires of diameter 0.25 cm, one made of steel and the other made of brass are loaded
as shown in Fig. 8.11. The unloaded length of steel wire is 1.5 m and that of brass wire
is 1.0 m. Compute the elongations of the steel and the brass wires.
Fig. 8.11
8.6 The edge of an aluminium cube is 10 cm long. One face of the cube is firmly fixed to a
vertical wall. A mass of 100 kg is then attached to the opposite face of the cube. The
shear modulus of aluminium is 25 GPa. What is the vertical deflection of this face?
8.7 Four identical hollow cylindrical columns of mild steel support a big structure of mass
50,000 kg. The inner and outer radii of each column are 30 and 60 cm respectively.
Assuming the load distribution to be uniform, calculate the compressional strain of
each column.
8.8 A piece of copper having a rectangular cross-section of 15.2 mm × 19.1 mm is pulled in
tension with 44,500 N force, producing only elastic deformation. Calculate the resulting
strain?
8.9 A steel cable with a radius of 1.5 cm supports a chairlift at a ski area. If the maximum
stress is not to exceed 108 N m–2, what is the maximum load the cable can support ?
8.10 A rigid bar of mass 15 kg is supported symmetrically by three wires each 2.0 m long.
Those at each end are of copper and the middle one is of iron. Determine the ratios of
their diameters if each is to have the same tension.
8.11 A 14.5 kg mass, fastened to the end of a steel wire of unstretched length 1.0 m, is
whirled in a vertical circle with an angular velocity of 2 rev/s at the bottom of the circle.
The cross-sectional area of the wire is 0.065 cm2. Calculate the elongation of the wire
when the mass is at the lowest point of its path.
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8.12 Compute the bulk modulus of water from the following data: Initial volume = 100.0
litre, Pressure increase = 100.0 atm (1 atm = 1.013 × 105 Pa), Final volume = 100.5 litre.
Compare the bulk modulus of water with that of air (at constant temperature). Explain
in simple terms why the ratio is so large.
8.13 What is the density of water at a depth where pressure is 80.0 atm, given that its
density at the surface is 1.03 × 103 kg m–3?
8.14 Compute the fractional change in volume of a glass slab, when subjected to a hydraulic
pressure of 10 atm.
8.15 Determine the volume contraction of a solid copper cube, 10 cm on an edge, when
subjected to a hydraulic pressure of 7.0 × 106 Pa.
8.16 How much should the pressure on a litre of water be changed to compress it by 0.10%?
carry one quarter of the load.
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CHAPTER NINE
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
9.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we shall study some common physical
properties of liquids and gases. Liquids and gases can flow
9.1 Introduction and are therefore, called fluids. It is this property that
9.2 Pressure distinguishes liquids and gases from solids in a basic way.
9.3 Streamline flow Fluids are everywhere around us. Earth has an envelop of
9.4 Bernoulli’s principle air and two-thirds of its surface is covered with water. Water
9.5 Viscosity is not only necessary for our existence; every mammalian
9.6 Surface tension
body constitute mostly of water. All the processes occurring
in living beings including plants are mediated by fluids. Thus
Summary understanding the behaviour and properties of fluids is
Points to ponder important.
Exercises How are fluids different from solids? What is common in
Additional exercises liquids and gases? Unlike a solid, a fluid has no definite
Appendix shape of its own. Solids and liquids have a fixed volume,
whereas a gas fills the entire volume of its container. We
have learnt in the previous chapter that the volume of solids
can be changed by stress. The volume of solid, liquid or gas
depends on the stress or pressure acting on it. When we
talk about fixed volume of solid or liquid, we mean its volume
under atmospheric pressure. The difference between gases
and solids or liquids is that for solids or liquids the change
in volume due to change of external pressure is rather small.
In other words solids and liquids have much lower
compressibility as compared to gases.
Shear stress can change the shape of a solid keeping its
volume fixed. The key property of fluids is that they offer
very little resistance to shear stress; their shape changes by
application of very small shear stress. The shearing stress
of fluids is about million times smaller than that of solids.
9.2 PRESSURE
A sharp needle when pressed against our skin pierces it. Our
skin, however, remains intact when a blunt object with a
wider contact area (say the back of a spoon) is pressed against
it with the same force. If an elephant were to step on a man’s
chest, his ribs would crack. A circus performer across whose
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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 181
chest a large, light but strong wooden plank is In principle, the piston area can be made
placed first, is saved from this accident. Such arbitrarily small. The pressure is then defined
everyday experiences convince us that both the in a limiting sense as
force and its coverage area are important. Smaller lim ∆F
the area on which the force acts, greater is the P= (9.2)
impact. This impact is known as pressure.
∆A →0
∆A
Pressure is a scalar quantity. We remind the
When an object is submerged in a fluid at reader that it is the component of the force
rest, the fluid exerts a force on its surface. This normal to the area under consideration and not
force is always normal to the object’s surface. the (vector) force that appears in the numerator
This is so because if there were a component of in Eqs. (9.1) and (9.2). Its dimensions are
force parallel to the surface, the object will also [ML–1T–2]. The SI unit of pressure is N m–2. It has
exert a force on the fluid parallel to it; as a been named as pascal (Pa) in honour of the
consequence of Newton’s third law. This force French scientist Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) who
will cause the fluid to flow parallel to the surface. carried out pioneering studies on fluid pressure.
Since the fluid is at rest, this cannot happen. A common unit of pressure is the atmosphere
Hence, the force exerted by the fluid at rest has (atm), i.e. the pressure exerted by the
to be perpendicular to the surface in contact atmosphere at sea level (1 atm = 1.013 × 105 Pa).
with it. This is shown in Fig.9.1(a). Another quantity, that is indispensable in
The normal force exerted by the fluid at a point describing fluids, is the density ρ. For a fluid of
may be measured. An idealised form of one such mass m occupying volume V,
pressure-measuring device is shown in Fig. m
9.1(b). It consists of an evacuated chamber with ρ= (9.3)
V
a spring that is calibrated to measure the force –3
The dimensions of density are [ML ]. Its SI
acting on the piston. This device is placed at a unit is kg m–3. It is a positive scalar quantity. A
point inside the fluid. The inward force exerted liquid is largely incompressible and its density
by the fluid on the piston is balanced by the is therefore, nearly constant at all pressures.
outward spring force and is thereby measured. Gases, on the other hand exhibit a large
variation in densities with pressure.
The density of water at 4 o C (277 K) is
1.0 × 10 3 kg m–3. The relative density of a
substance is the ratio of its density to the
density of water at 4oC. It is a dimensionless
positive scalar quantity. For example the relative
density of aluminium is 2.7. Its density is
2.7 × 103 kg m–3. The densities of some common
fluids are displayed in Table 9.1.
Table 9.1 Densities of some common fluids
(a) (b) at STP*
Fig. 9.1 (a) The force exerted by the liquid in the
beaker on the submerged object or on the
walls is normal (perpendicular) to the
surface at all points.
(b) An idealised device for measuring
pressure.
If F is the magnitude of this normal force on the

piston of area A then the average pressure Pav
is defined as the normal force acting per unit
area.
F
Pav = (9.1)
A
* STP means standard temperature (00C) and 1 atm pressure.
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182 PHYSICS
⊳ this element of area corresponding to the normal

Example 9.1 The two thigh bones (femurs), forces Fa, Fb and Fc as shown in Fig. 9.2 on the
each of cross-sectional area10 cm2 support faces BEFC, ADFC and ADEB denoted by Aa, Ab
the upper part of a human body of mass 40 and Ac respectively. Then
kg. Estimate the average pressure Fb sinθ = Fc, Fb cosθ = Fa (by equilibrium)
sustained by the femurs. Ab sinθ = Ac, Ab cosθ = Aa (by geometry)
Thus,
Answer Total cross-sectional area of the
femurs is A = 2 × 10 cm2 = 20 × 10–4 m2. The Fb Fc F
= = a ; Pb = Pc = Pa (9.4)
force acting on them is F = 40 kg wt = 400 N Ab Ac Aa
(taking g = 10 m s–2). This force is acting Hence, pressure exerted is same in all
vertically down and hence, normally on the directions in a fluid at rest. It again reminds us
femurs. Thus, the average pressure is that like other types of stress, pressure is not a
F vector quantity. No direction can be assigned
Pav = = 2 × 105 N m −2 ⊳
A to it. The force against any area within (or
bounding) a fluid at rest and under pressure is
9.2.1 Pascal’s Law normal to the area, regardless of the orientation
of the area.
The French scientist Blaise Pascal observed that Now consider a fluid element in the form of a
the pressure in a fluid at rest is the same at all horizontal bar of uniform cross-section. The bar
points if they are at the same height. This fact is in equilibrium. The horizontal forces exerted
may be demonstrated in a simple way. at its two ends must be balanced or the
pressure at the two ends should be equal. This
proves that for a liquid in equilibrium the
pressure is same at all points in a horizontal
plane. Suppose the pressure were not equal in
different parts of the fluid, then there would be
a flow as the fluid will have some net force
acting on it. Hence in the absence of flow the
pressure in the fluid must be same everywhere
in a horizontal plane.
9.2.2 Variation of Pressure with Depth

Fig. 9.2 Proof of Pascal’s law. ABC-DEF is an Consider a fluid at rest in a container. In
element of the interior of a fluid at rest. Fig. 9.3 point 1 is at height h above a point 2.
This element is in the form of a right- The pressures at points 1 and 2 are P1 and P2
angled prism. The element is small so that
respectively. Consider a cylindrical element of
the effect of gravity can be ignored, but it
has been enlarged for the sake of clarity.
fluid having area of base A and height h. As the
fluid is at rest the resultant horizontal forces
Fig. 9.2 shows an element in the interior of a should be zero and the resultant vertical forces
fluid at rest. This element ABC-DEF is in the should balance the weight of the element. The
form of a right-angled prism. In principle, this forces acting in the vertical direction are due to
prismatic element is very small so that every the fluid pressure at the top (P 1A) acting
part of it can be considered at the same depth downward, at the bottom (P2A) acting upward.
from the liquid surface and therefore, the effect If mg is weight of the fluid in the cylinder we
of the gravity is the same at all these points. have
But for clarity we have enlarged this element. (P2 − P1) A = mg (9.5)
The forces on this element are those exerted by Now, if ρ is the mass density of the fluid, we
the rest of the fluid and they must be normal to have the mass of fluid to be m = ρV= ρhA so
the surfaces of the element as discussed above. that
Thus, the fluid exerts pressures Pa, Pb and Pc on P2 − P1= ρgh (9.6)
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Fig 9.4 Illustration of hydrostatic paradox. The

three vessels A, B and C contain different
amounts of liquids, all upto the same
height.
Example 9.2 What is the pressure on a

⊳
swimmer 10 m below the surface of a lake?
Fig.9.3 Fluid under gravity. The effect of gravity is Answer Here

illustrated through pressure on a vertical h = 10 m and ρ = 1000 kg m-3. Take g = 10 m s–2
cylindrical column. From Eq. (9.7)
P = Pa + ρgh
Pressure difference depends on the vertical = 1.01 × 105 Pa + 1000 kg m–3 × 10 m s–2 × 10 m
distance h between the points (1 and 2), mass = 2.01 × 105 Pa
density of the fluid ρ and acceleration due to ≈ 2 atm
This is a 100% increase in pressure from
gravity g. If the point 1 under discussion is
surface level. At a depth of 1 km, the increase
shifted to the top of the fluid (say, water), which
in pressure is 100 atm! Submarines are designed
is open to the atmosphere, P1 may be replaced
to withstand such enormous pressures. ⊳
by atmospheric pressure (Pa) and we replace P2
by P. Then Eq. (9.6) gives 9.2.3 Atmospheric Pressure and
P = Pa + ρgh (9.7) Gauge Pressure
Thus, the pressure P, at depth below the The pressure of the atmosphere at any point is
surface of a liquid open to the atmosphere is equal to the weight of a column of air of unit
greater than atmospheric pressure by an cross-sectional area extending from that point
amount ρgh. The excess of pressure, P − Pa, at to the top of the atmosphere. At sea level, it is
1.013 × 10 5 Pa (1 atm). Italian scientist
depth h is called a gauge pressure at that point.
Evangelista Torricelli (1608 –1647) devised for
The area of the cylinder is not appearing in
the first time a method for measuring
the expression of absolute pressure in Eq. (9.7).
atmospheric pressure. A long glass tube closed
Thus, the height of the fluid column is important at one end and filled with mercury is inverted
and not cross-sectional or base area or the shape into a trough of mercury as shown in Fig.9.5 (a).
of the container. The liquid pressure is the same This device is known as ‘mercury barometer’.
at all points at the same horizontal level (same The space above the mercury column in the tube
depth). The result is appreciated through the contains only mercury vapour whose pressure
example of hydrostatic paradox. Consider three P is so small that it may be neglected. Thus,
vessels A, B and C [Fig.9.4] of different shapes. the pressure at Point A=0. The pressure inside
They are connected at the bottom by a horizontal the coloumn at Point B must be the same as the
pipe. On filling with water, the level in the three pressure at Point C, which is atmospheric
vessels is the same, though they hold different pressure, Pa.
amounts of water. This is so because water at Pa = ρgh (9.8)
the bottom has the same pressure below each where ρ is the density of mercury and h is the
section of the vessel. height of the mercury column in the tube.
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184 PHYSICS
In the experiment it is found that the mercury

column in the barometer has a height of about
76 cm at sea level equivalent to one atmosphere
(1 atm). This can also be obtained using the
value of ρ in Eq. (9.8). A common way of stating
pressure is in terms of cm or mm of mercury
(Hg). A pressure equivalent of 1 mm is called a
torr (after Torricelli).
1 torr = 133 Pa.
The mm of Hg and torr are used in medicine
and physiology. In meteorology, a common unit
is the bar and millibar.
1 bar = 105 Pa
An open tube manometer is a useful (b) The open tube manometer
instrument for measuring pressure differences. Fig 9.5 Two pressure measuring devices.
It consists of a U-tube containing a suitable
Pressure is same at the same level on both
liquid i.e., a low density liquid (such as oil) for
sides of the U-tube containing a fluid. For
measuring small pressure differences and a
liquids, the density varies very little over wide
high density liquid (such as mercury) for large ranges in pressure and temperature and we can
pressure differences. One end of the tube is open treat it safely as a constant for our present
to the atmosphere and the other end is purposes. Gases on the other hand, exhibits
connected to the system whose pressure we want large variations of densities with changes in
to measure [see Fig. 9.5 (b)]. The pressure P at A pressure and temperature. Unlike gases, liquids
is equal to pressure at point B. What we are, therefore, largely treated as incompressible.
normally measure is the gauge pressure, which Example 9.3 The density of the
is P − Pa, given by Eq. (9.8) and is proportional to
⊳
atmosphere at sea level is 1.29 kg/m3.
manometer height h. Assume that it does not change with
altitude. Then how high would the
atmosphere extend?
Answer We use Eq. (9.7)

ρgh = 1.29 kg m–3 × 9.8 m s2 × h m = 1.01 × 105 Pa
∴ h = 7989 m ≈ 8 km
In reality the density of air decreases with
height. So does the value of g. The atmospheric
cover extends with decreasing pressure over
100 km. We should also note that the sea level
atmospheric pressure is not always 760 mm of
Hg. A drop in the Hg level by 10 mm or more is a
sign of an approaching storm. ⊳
⊳
Example 9.4 At a depth of 1000 m in an
ocean (a) what is the absolute pressure?
(b) What is the gauge pressure? (c) Find
the force acting on the window of area
20 cm × 20 cm of a submarine at this depth,
the interior of which is maintained at sea-
level atmospheric pressure. (The density of
sea water is 1.03 × 10 3 kg m -3 ,
g = 10 m s–2.)
Fig 9.5 (a) The mercury barometer.
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Answer Here h = 1000 m and ρ = 1.03 × 103 kg m-3. law. In these devices, fluids are used for
(a) From Eq. (9.6), absolute pressure transmitting pressure. In a hydraulic lift, as
P = Pa + ρgh shown in Fig. 9.6 (b), two pistons are separated
= 1.01 × 105 Pa by the space filled with a liquid. A piston of small
+ 1.03 × 103 kg m–3 × 10 m s–2 × 1000 m cross-section A1 is used to exert a force F1 directly
= 104.01 × 105 Pa F1
≈ 104 atm on the liquid. The pressure P = A is
1
(b) Gauge pressure is P − Pa = ρgh = Pg transmitted throughout the liquid to the larger
Pg = 1.03 × 103 kg m–3 × 10 ms2 × 1000 m cylinder attached with a larger piston of area A2,
= 103 × 105 Pa which results in an upward force of P × A2.
≈ 103 atm Therefore, the piston is capable of supporting a
(c) The pressure outside the submarine is large force (large weight of, say a car, or a truck,
P = Pa + ρgh and the pressure inside it is Pa.
F1 A2
Hence, the net pressure acting on the placed on the platform) F2 = PA2 =
window is gauge pressure, Pg = ρgh. Since A1 . By
the area of the window is A = 0.04 m2, the changing the force at A1, the platform can be
force acting on it is moved up or down. Thus, the applied force has
F = Pg A = 103 × 105 Pa × 0.04 m2 = 4.12 × 105 N A2
⊳ been increased by a factor of A and this factor
1
9.2.4 Hydraulic Machines is the mechanical advantage of the device. The

example below clarifies it.
Let us now consider what happens when we
change the pressure on a fluid contained in a
vessel. Consider a horizontal cylinder with a
piston and three vertical tubes at different points
[Fig. 9.6 (a)]. The pressure in the horizontal
cylinder is indicated by the height of liquid
column in the vertical tubes. It is necessarily
the same in all. If we push the piston, the fluid
level rises in all the tubes, again reaching the
same level in each one of them.
Fig 9.6 (b) Schematic diagram illustrating the principle

behind the hydraulic lift, a device used
to lift heavy loads.
Fig 9.6 (a) Whenever external pressure is applied Example 9.5 Two syringes of different
on any part of a fluid in a vessel, it is
⊳
cross-sections (without needles) filled with
equally transmitted in all directions. water are connected with a tightly fitted
rubber tube filled with water. Diameters of
This indicates that when the pressure on the the smaller piston and larger piston are
cylinder was increased, it was distributed 1.0 cm and 3.0 cm respectively. (a) Find
uniformly throughout. We can say whenever the force exerted on the larger piston when
external pressure is applied on any part of a a force of 10 N is applied to the smaller
fluid contained in a vessel, it is transmitted piston. (b) If the smaller piston is pushed
undiminished and equally in all directions. in through 6.0 cm, how much does the
This is another form of the Pascal’s law and it larger piston move out?
has many applications in daily life.
A number of devices, such as hydraulic lift Answer (a) Since pressure is transmitted
and hydraulic brakes, are based on the Pascal’s undiminished throughout the fluid,
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186 PHYSICS
( ) important advantage of the system is that the

2
A2 π 3 /2 × 10–2 m
F2 = F1 = × 10 N pressure set up by pressing pedal is transmitted
( )
2
A1 π 1/2 × 10–2 m equally to all cylinders attached to the four
= 90 N wheels so that the braking effort is equal on
(b) Water is considered to be per fectly all wheels.
incompressible. Volume covered by the
movement of smaller piston inwards is equal to 9.3 STREAMLINE FLOW
volume moved outwards due to the larger piston. So far we have studied fluids at rest. The study
L1 A1 = L2 A2 of the fluids in motion is known as fluid
dynamics. When a water tap is turned on slowly,
the water flow is smooth initially, but loses its
smoothness when the speed of the outflow is
increased. In studying the motion of fluids, we
j 0.67 × 10-2 m = 0.67 cm focus our attention on what is happening to
Note, atmospheric pressure is common to both various fluid particles at a particular point in
pistons and has been ignored. ⊳ space at a particular time. The flow of the fluid
⊳ is said to be steady if at any given point, the
Example 9.6 In a car lift compressed air velocity of each passing fluid particle remains
exerts a force F1 on a small piston having constant in time. This does not mean that the
a radius of 5.0 cm. This pressure is velocity at different points in space is same. The
transmitted to a second piston of radius velocity of a particular particle may change as it
15 cm (Fig 9.7). If the mass of the car to be moves from one point to another. That is, at some
lifted is 1350 kg, calculate F1. What is the other point the particle may have a different
pressure necessary to accomplish this velocity, but every other particle which passes
task? (g = 9.8 ms-2). the second point behaves exactly as the previous
particle that has just passed that point. Each
Answer Since pressure is transmitted particle follows a smooth path, and the paths of
undiminished throughout the fluid, the particles do not cross each other.
= 1470 N
≈ 1.5 × 103 N
The air pressure that will produce this
force is
This is almost double the atmospheric

pressure. ⊳ Fig. 9.7 The meaning of streamlines. (a) A typical
Hydraulic brakes in automobiles also work on trajectory of a fluid particle.
the same principle. When we apply a little force (b) A region of streamline flow.
on the pedal with our foot the master piston
moves inside the master cylinder, and the The path taken by a fluid particle under a
pressure caused is transmitted through the steady flow is a streamline. It is defined as a
brake oil to act on a piston of larger area. A large curve whose tangent at any point is in the
force acts on the piston and is pushed down direction of the fluid velocity at that point.
expanding the brake shoes against brake lining. Consider the path of a particle as shown in
In this way, a small force on the pedal produces Fig.9.7 (a), the curve describes how a fluid
a large retarding force on the wheel. An particle moves with time. The curve PQ is like a
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permanent map of fluid flow, indicating how the but their directions are parallel. Figure 9.8 (b)
fluid streams. No two streamlines can cross, for gives a sketch of turbulent flow.
if they do, an oncoming fluid particle can go
either one way or the other and the flow would
not be steady. Hence, in steady flow, the map of
flow is stationary in time. How do we draw closely
spaced streamlines ? If we intend to show
streamline of every flowing particle, we would
end up with a continuum of lines. Consider planes
perpendicular to the direction of fluid flow e.g.,
at three points P, R and Q in Fig.9.7 (b). The plane Fig. 9.8 (a) Some streamlines for fluid flow.
pieces are so chosen that their boundaries be (b) A jet of air striking a flat plate placed
determined by the same set of streamlines. This perpendicular to it. This is an example
means that number of fluid particles crossing of turbulent flow.
the surfaces as indicated at P, R and Q is the
same. If area of cross-sections at these points 9.4 BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
are AP,AR and AQ and speeds of fluid particles
are vP, vR and vQ, then mass of fluid ∆mP crossing Fluid flow is a complex phenomenon. But we
at AP in a small interval of time ∆t is ρPAPvP ∆t. can obtain some useful properties for steady
Similarly mass of fluid ∆mR flowing or crossing or streamline flows using the conservation
at AR in a small interval of time ∆t is ρRARvR ∆t of energy.
and mass of fluid ∆mQ is ρQAQvQ ∆t crossing at Consider a fluid moving in a pipe of varying
AQ. The mass of liquid flowing out equals the cross-sectional area. Let the pipe be at varying
mass flowing in, holds in all cases. Therefore, heights as shown in Fig. 9.9. We now suppose
ρPAPvP∆t = ρRARvR∆t = ρQAQvQ∆t (9.9) that an incompressible fluid is flowing through
For flow of incompressible fluids the pipe in a steady flow. Its velocity must
ρP = ρR = ρQ change as a consequence of equation of
Equation (9.9) reduces to continuity. A force is required to produce this
APvP = ARvR = AQvQ (9.10) acceleration, which is caused by the fluid
which is called the equation of continuity and surrounding it, the pressure must be different
it is a statement of conservation of mass in flow in different regions. Bernoulli’s equation is a
of incompressible fluids. In general general expression that relates the pressure
Av = constant (9.11) difference between two points in a pipe to both
Av gives the volume flux or flow rate and velocity changes (kinetic energy change) and
remains constant throughout the pipe of flow. elevation (height) changes (potential energy
Thus, at narrower portions where the change). The Swiss Physicist Daniel Bernoulli
streamlines are closely spaced, velocity developed this relationship in 1738.
increases and its vice versa. From (Fig 9.7b) it Consider the flow at two regions 1 (i.e., BC)
is clear that AR > AQ or vR < vQ, the fluid is and 2 (i.e., DE). Consider the fluid initially lying
accelerated while passing from R to Q. This is between B and D. In an infinitesimal time
associated with a change in pressure in fluid interval ∆t, this fluid would have moved. Suppose
flow in horizontal pipes. v1 is the speed at B and v2 at D, then fluid initially
Steady flow is achieved at low flow speeds. at B has moved a distance v1∆t to C (v1∆t is small
Beyond a limiting value, called critical speed, enough to assume constant cross-section along
this flow loses steadiness and becomes BC). In the same interval ∆t the fluid initially at
turbulent. One sees this when a fast flowing D moves to E, a distance equal to v2∆t. Pressures
stream encounters rocks, small foamy P1 and P2 act as shown on the plane faces of
whirlpool-like regions called ‘white water areas A1 and A2 binding the two regions. The
rapids are formed. work done on the fluid at left end (BC) is W1 =
Figure 9.8 displays streamlines for some P1A1(v1∆t) = P1∆V. Since the same volume ∆V
typical flows. For example, Fig. 9.8(a) describes passes through both the regions (from the
a laminar flow where the velocities at different equation of continuity) the work done by the fluid
points in the fluid may have different magnitudes at the other end (DE) is W2 = P2A2(v2∆t) = P2∆V or,
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188 PHYSICS
the work done on the fluid is –P2∆V. So the total In words, the Bernoulli’s relation may be
work done on the fluid is stated as follows: As we move along a streamline
W1 – W2 = (P1− P2) ∆V the sum of the pressure (P), the kinetic energy
Part of this work goes into changing the kinetic
energy of the fluid, and part goes into changing  ρv 2 
per unit volume  2  and the potential energy
the gravitational potential energy. If the density  
of the fluid is ρ and ∆m = ρA1v1∆t = ρ∆V is the per unit volume (ρgh) remains a constant.
mass passing through the pipe in time ∆t, then Note that in applying the energy conservation
change in gravitational potential energy is principle, there is an assumption that no energy
∆U = ρg∆V (h2 − h1) is lost due to friction. But in fact, when fluids
The change in its kinetic energy is flow, some energy does get lost due to internal
1 friction. This arises due to the fact that in a fluid
∆K = ρ ∆V (v22 − v12) flow, the different layers of the fluid flow with
2
different velocities. These layers exert frictional
We can employ the work – energy theorem forces on each other resulting in a loss of energy.
(Chapter 6) to this volume of the fluid and This property of the fluid is called viscosity and
this yields is discussed in more detail in a later section. The
1 lost kinetic energy of the fluid gets converted into
(P1− P2) ∆V = ρ ∆V (v22 − v12) + ρg∆V (h2 − h1) heat energy. Thus, Bernoulli’s equation ideally
2
applies to fluids with zero viscosity or non-
We now divide each term by ∆V to obtain viscous fluids. Another restriction on application
of Bernoulli theorem is that the fluids must be
1 incompressible, as the elastic energy of the fluid
(P1− P2) = ρ (v22 − v12) + ρg (h2 − h1) is also not taken into consideration. In practice,
2
We can rearrange the above terms to obtain it has a large number of useful applications and
can help explain a wide variety of phenomena
1 1 for low viscosity incompressible fluids.
P1 + ρv12 + ρgh1 = P2+ ρv22 + ρgh2
2 2 Bernoulli’s equation also does not hold for non-
(9.12) steady or turbulent flows, because in that
This is Bernoulli’s equation. Since 1 and 2 situation velocity and pressure are constantly
refer to any two locations along the pipeline, we fluctuating in time.
may write the expression in general as When a fluid is at rest i.e., its velocity is zero
1 everywhere, Bernoulli’s equation becomes
P+ ρv2 + ρgh = constant (9.13) P1 + ρgh1 = P2 + ρgh2
2
(P1− P2) = ρg (h2 − h1)
which is same as Eq. (9.6).
9.4.1 Speed of Efflux: Torricelli’s Law

The word efflux means fluid outflow. Torricelli
discovered that the speed of efflux from an open
tank is given by a formula identical to that of a
freely falling body. Consider a tank containing
a liquid of density ρ with a small hole in its side
at a height y1 from the bottom (see Fig. 9.10).
The air above the liquid, whose surface is at
height y2, is at pressure P. From the equation of
continuity [Eq. (9.10)] we have
Fig. 9.9 The flow of an ideal fluid in a pipe of varying v1 A1 = v2 A2
cross section. The fluid in a section of length
v1∆t moves to the section of length v2∆t in A1
v2 = v
time ∆t. A2 1
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from its parabolic trajectory as it moves through

air. This deviation can be partly explained on
the basis of Bernoulli’s principle.
(i) Ball moving without spin: Fig. 9.11(a)
shows the streamlines around a
non-spinning ball moving relative to a
fluid. From the symmetry of streamlines
it is clear that the velocity of fluid (air)
above and below the ball at corresponding
points is the same resulting in zero
pressure difference. The air therefore,
exerts no upward or downward force on
the ball.
Fig. 9.10 Torricelli’s law. The speed of efflux, v1,
from the side of the container is given by
(ii) Ball moving with spin: A ball which is
the application of Bernoulli’s equation. spinning drags air along with it. If the
If the container is open at the top to the surface is rough more air will be dragged.
atmosphere then v1 = 2 g h . Fig 9.11(b) shows the streamlines of air
for a ball which is moving and spinning
at the same time. The ball is moving
If the cross-sectional area of the tank A2 is forward and relative to it the air is moving
much larger than that of the hole (A2 >>A1), then
backwards. Therefore, the velocity of air
we may take the fluid to be approximately at rest
above the ball relative to the ball is larger
at the top, i.e., v2 = 0. Now, applying the Bernoulli
equation at points 1 and 2 and noting that at and below it is smaller (see Section 9.3).
the hole P1 = Pa, the atmospheric pressure, we The stream lines, thus, get crowded above
have from Eq. (9.12) and rarified below.
This difference in the velocities of air results
1
Pa + ρ v12 + ρ g y1 = P + ρ g y2 in the pressure difference between the lower and
2
upper faces and there is a net upward force on
Taking y2 – y1 = h we have
the ball. This dynamic lift due to spining is called
2 ( P − Pa ) Magnus effect.
v1 = 2 g h + (9.14)
ρ Aerofoil or lift on aircraft wing: Figure 9.11
When P >>Pa and 2 g h may be ignored, the (c) shows an aerofoil, which is a solid piece
speed of efflux is determined by the container shaped to provide an upward dynamic lift
pressure. Such a situation occurs in rocket when it moves horizontally through air. The
propulsion. On the other hand, if the tank is cross-section of the wings of an aeroplane
open to the atmosphere, then P = Pa and looks somewhat like the aerofoil shown in Fig.
v1 = 2g h (9.15) 9.11 (c) with streamlines around it. When the
This is also the speed of a freely falling body. aerofoil moves against the wind, the
Equation (9.15) represents Torricelli’s law. orientation of the wing relative to flow direction
causes the streamlines to crowd together
9.4.2 Dynamic Lift above the wing more than those below it. The
Dynamic lift is the force that acts on a body, flow speed on top is higher than that below it.
such as airplane wing, a hydrofoil or a spinning There is an upward force resulting in a
ball, by virtue of its motion through a fluid. In dynamic lift of the wings and this balances
many games such as cricket, tennis, baseball, the weight of the plane. The following example
or golf, we notice that a spinning ball deviates illustrates this.
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190 PHYSICS
(a) (b) (c)
Fig 9.11 (a) Fluid streaming past a static sphere. (b) Streamlines for a fluid around a sphere spinning clockwise.
(c) Air flowing past an aerofoil.
vav = (v2 + v1)/2 = 960 km/h = 267 m s-1,

⊳
Example 9.7 A fully loaded Boeing aircraft
has a mass of 3.3 × 105 kg. Its total wing we have
area is 500 m2. It is in level flight with a ∆P
speed of 960 km/h. (a) Estimate the (v2 – v1 ) / v av = 2 ≈ 0.08
ρv av
pressure difference between the lower and
upper surfaces of the wings (b) Estimate The speed above the wing needs to be only 8
% higher than that below. ⊳
the fractional increase in the speed of the
air on the upper surface of the wing relative
to the lower surface. [The density of air is ρ 9.5 VISCOSITY
= 1.2 kg m-3] Most of the fluids are not ideal ones and offer some
resistance to motion. This resistance to fluid motion
is like an internal friction analogous to friction when
Answer (a) The weight of the Boeing aircraft is
a solid moves on a surface. It is called viscosity.
balanced by the upward force due to the
This force exists when there is relative motion
pressure difference
between layers of the liquid. Suppose we consider
∆P × A = 3.3 × 105 kg × 9.8 a fluid like oil enclosed between two glass plates
∆P = (3.3 × 105 kg × 9.8 m s–2) / 500 m2 as shown in Fig. 9.12 (a). The bottom plate is fixed
while the top plate is moved with a constant
= 6.5 ×103 Nm-2
velocity v relative to the fixed plate. If oil is
(b) We ignore the small height difference replaced by honey, a greater force is required to
between the top and bottom sides in Eq. (9.12). move the plate with the same velocity. Hence
The pressure difference between them is we say that honey is more viscous than oil. The
then fluid in contact with a surface has the same
ρ 2
∆P =
2
(
v 2 – v12 ) velocity as that of the surfaces. Hence, the layer
of the liquid in contact with top surface moves
where v 2 is the speed of air over the upper with a velocity v and the layer of the liquid in
surface and v1 is the speed under the bottom contact with the fixed surface is stationary. The
surface. velocities of layers increase uniformly from
bottom (zero velocity) to the top layer (velocity
2 ∆P
(v2 – v1 ) = v). For any layer of liquid, its upper layer pulls
ρ (v 2 + v1 ) it forward while lower layer pulls it backward.
Taking the average speed This results in force between the layers. This
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type of flow is known as laminar. The layers of change of strain’ or ‘strain rate’ i.e. ∆x/(l ∆t) or
liquid slide over one another as the pages of a v/l instead of strain itself. The coefficient of
book do when it is placed flat on a table and a viscosity (pronounced ‘eta’) for a fluid is defined
horizontal force is applied to the top cover. When as the ratio of shearing stress to the strain rate.
a fluid is flowing in a pipe or a tube, then velocity
of the liquid layer along the axis of the tube is (9.16)
maximum and decreases gradually as we move The SI unit of viscosity is poiseiulle (Pl). Its
towards the walls where it becomes zero, other units are N s m-2 or Pa s. The dimensions
Fig. 9.12 (b). The velocity on a cylindrical surface of viscosity are [ML-1T-1]. Generally, thin liquids,
in a tube is constant. like water, alcohol, etc., are less viscous than
thick liquids, like coal tar, blood, glycerine, etc.
The coefficients of viscosity for some common
fluids are listed in Table 9.2. We point out two
facts about blood and water that you may find
interesting. As Table 9.2 indicates, blood is
‘thicker’ (more viscous) than water. Further, the
relative viscosity (η/ηwater) of blood remains
constant between 0 oC and 37 oC.
(a)
Fig. 9.13 Measurement of the coefficient of viscosity

of a liquid.
(b)
Fig 9.12 (a) A layer of liquid sandwiched between The viscosity of liquids decreases with
two parallel glass plates, in which the
temperature, while it increases in the case of gases.
lower plate is fixed and the upper one is
moving to the right with velocity v
(b) velocity distribution for viscous flow in ⊳
a pipe. Example 9.8 A metal block of area 0.10 m2 is
connected to a 0.010 kg mass via a string
On account of this motion, a portion of liquid, that passes over an ideal pulley (considered
which at some instant has the shape ABCD, massless and frictionless), as in Fig. 9.13.
take the shape of AEFD after short interval of A liquid with a film thickness of 0.30 mm
time (∆t). During this time interval the liquid has is placed between the block and the table.
undergone a shear strain of ∆x/l. Since, the When released the block moves to the right
strain in a flowing fluid increases with time with a constant speed of 0.085 m s-1. Find
continuously. Unlike a solid, here the stress is the coefficient of viscosity of the liquid.
found experimentally to depend on ‘rate of
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192 PHYSICS
Answer The metal block moves to the right This is known as Stokes’ law. We shall not
because of the tension in the string. The tension derive Stokes’ law.
T is equal in magnitude to the weight of the This law is an interesting example of retarding
suspended mass m. Thus, the shear force F is force, which is proportional to velocity. We can
study its consequences on an object falling
F = T = mg = 0.010 kg × 9.8 m s–2 = 9.8 × 10-2 N
through a viscous medium. We consider a
Shear stress on the fluid = F/A = N/m2 raindrop in air. It accelerates initially due to
gravity. As the velocity increases, the retarding
Strain rate = force also increases. Finally, when viscous force
plus buoyant force becomes equal to the force
due to gravity, the net force becomes zero and so
does the acceleration. The sphere (raindrop) then
descends with a constant velocity. Thus, in
= equilibrium, this terminal velocity vt is given by
6πηavt = (4π/3) a3 (ρ-σ)g
-3
= 3.46 ×10 Pa s
where ρ and σ are mass densities of sphere and
⊳
the fluid, respectively. We obtain
Table 9.2 The viscosities of some fluids
vt = 2a2 (ρ-σ)g / (9η) (9.18)
o
Fluid T( C) Viscosity (mPl)
So the terminal velocity vt depends on the
Water 20 1.0 square of the radius of the sphere and inversely
100 0.3 on the viscosity of the medium.
Blood 37 2.7 You may like to refer back to Example 6.2 in
Machine Oil 16 113 this context.
38 34
⊳
Glycerine 20 830 Example 9.9 The terminal velocity of a
Honey – 200 copper ball of radius 2.0 mm falling through
Air 0 0.017 a tank of oil at 20oC is 6.5 cm s-1. Compute
40 0.019 the viscosity of the oil at 20oC. Density of
oil is 1.5 ×103 kg m-3, density of copper is
8.9 × 103 kg m-3.
9.5.1 Stokes’ Law
When a body falls through a fluid it drags the
layer of the fluid in contact with it. A relative Answer We have vt = 6.5 × 10-2 ms-1, a = 2 × 10-3 m,
motion between the different layers of the fluid g = 9.8 ms-2, ρ = 8.9 × 103 kg m-3,
is set and, as a result, the body experiences a σ =1.5 ×103 kg m-3. From Eq. (9.18)
retarding force. Falling of a raindrop and
swinging of a pendulum bob are some common
examples of such motion. It is seen that the
viscous force is proportional to the velocity of
= 9.9 × 10-1 kg m–1 s–1 ⊳
the object and is opposite to the direction of
motion. The other quantities on which the force
F depends are viscosity η of the fluid and radius 9.6 SURFACE TENSION
a of the sphere. Sir George G. Stokes (1819–
You must have noticed that, oil and water do
1903), an English scientist enunciated clearly
not mix; water wets you and me but not ducks;
the viscous drag force F as
mercury does not wet glass but water sticks to
F = 6 π η av (9.17) it, oil rises up a cotton wick, inspite of gravity,
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Sap and water rise up to the top of the leaves of Let us consider a molecule near the surface
the tree, hair of a paint brush do not cling Fig. 9.14(b). Only lower half side of it is
together when dry and even when dipped in surrounded by liquid molecules. There is some
water but form a fine tip when taken out of it. negative potential energy due to these, but
All these and many more such experiences are obviously it is less than that of a molecule in
related with the free surfaces of liquids. As bulk, i.e., the one fully inside. Approximately
liquids have no definite shape but have a it is half of the latter. Thus, molecules on a
definite volume, they acquire a free surface when liquid surface have some extra energy in
poured in a container. These surfaces possess comparison to molecules in the interior. A
some additional energy. This phenomenon is liquid, thus, tends to have the least surface
known as surface tension and it is concerned
area which external conditions permit.
with only liquid as gases do not have free
Increasing surface area requires energy. Most
surfaces. Let us now understand this
surface phenomenon can be understood in
phenomena.
terms of this fact. What is the energy required
9.6.1 Surface Energy for having a molecule at the surface? As
mentioned above, roughly it is half the energy
A liquid stays together because of attraction required to remove it entirely from the liquid
between molecules. Consider a molecule well i.e., half the heat of evaporation.
inside a liquid. The intermolecular distances are Finally, what is a surface? Since a liquid
such that it is attracted to all the surrounding consists of molecules moving about, there cannot
molecules [Fig. 9.14(a)]. This attraction results be a perfectly sharp surface. The density of the
in a negative potential energy for the molecule, liquid molecules drops rapidly to zero around
which depends on the number and distribution z = 0 as we move along the direction indicated
of molecules around the chosen one. But the Fig 9.14 (c) in a distance of the order of a few
average potential energy of all the molecules is molecular sizes.
the same. This is supported by the fact that to
take a collection of such molecules (the liquid) 9.6.2 Surface Energy and Surface Tension
and to disperse them far away from each other As we have discussed that an extra energy is
in order to evaporate or vaporise, the heat of associated with surface of liquids, the creation
evaporation required is quite large. For water it of more surface (spreading of surface) keeping
is of the order of 40 kJ/mol. other things like volume fixed requires a
Fig. 9.14 Schematic picture of molecules in a liquid, at the surface and balance of forces. (a) Molecule inside
a liquid. Forces on a molecule due to others are shown. Direction of arrows indicates attraction of
repulsion. (b) Same, for a molecule at a surface. (c) Balance of attractive (AI and repulsive (R) forces.
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194 PHYSICS
horizontal liquid film ending in bar free to slide We make the following observations from
over parallel guides Fig (9.15). above:
(i) Surface tension is a force per unit length
(or surface energy per unit area) acting in
the plane of the interface between the plane
of the liquid and any other substance; it also
is the extra energy that the molecules at the
interface have as compared to molecules in
the interior.
(ii) At any point on the interface besides the
Fig. 9.15 Stretching a film. (a) A film in equilibrium; boundary, we can draw a line and imagine
(b) The film stretched an extra distance. equal and opposite surface tension forces
Suppose that we move the bar by a small S per unit length of the line acting
distance d as shown. Since the area of the perpendicular to the line, in the plane of
surface increases, the system now has more the interface. The line is in equilibrium. To
energy, this means that some work has been be more specific, imagine a line of atoms or
done against an internal force. Let this internal molecules at the surface. The atoms to the
force be F, the work done by the applied force is left pull the line towards them; those to the
F.d = Fd. From conservation of energy, this is right pull it towards them! This line of
stored as additional energy in the film. If the atoms is in equilibrium under tension. If
surface energy of the film is S per unit area, the the line really marks the end of the
extra area is 2dl. A film has two sides and the interface, as in Figure 9.14 (a) and (b) there
liquid in between, so there are two surfaces and is only the force S per unit length
the extra energy is acting inwards.
S (2dl) = Fd (9.19) Table 9.3 gives the surface tension of various
liquids. The value of surface tension depends
Or, S=Fd/2dl = F/2l (9.20) on temperature. Like viscosity, the surface
This quantity S is the magnitude of surface tension of a liquid usually falls with
tension. It is equal to the surface energy per unit temperature.
area of the liquid interface and is also equal to
the force per unit length exerted by the fluid on Table 9.3 Surface tension of some liquids at the
temperatures indicated with the
the movable bar. heats of the vaporisation
So far we have talked about the surface of
one liquid. More generally, we need to consider Liquid Temp (oC) Surface Heat of
fluid surface in contact with other fluids or solid Tension vaporisation
surfaces. The surface energy in that case (N/m) (kJ/mol)
depends on the materials on both sides of the
surface. For example, if the molecules of the Helium –270 0.000239 0.115
materials attract each other, surface energy is Oxygen –183 0.0132 7.1
reduced while if they repel each other the
surface energy is increased. Thus, more Ethanol 20 0.0227 40.6
appropriately, the surface energy is the energy Water 20 0.0727 44.16
of the interface between two materials and
Mercury 20 0.4355 63.2
depends on both of them.
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A fluid will stick to a solid surface if the by θ. It is different at interfaces of different pairs
surface energy between fluid and the solid is of liquids and solids. The value of θ determines
smaller than the sum of surface energies whether a liquid will spread on the surface of a
between solid-air, and fluid-air. Now there is solid or it will form droplets on it. For example,
attraction between the solid surface and the water forms droplets on lotus leaf as shown in
liquid. It can be directly measured Fig. 9.17 (a) while spreads over a clean plastic
experimentaly as schematically shown in Fig. plate as shown in Fig. 9.17(b).
9.16. A flat vertical glass plate, below which a
vessel of some liquid is kept, forms one arm of
the balance. The plate is balanced by weights
on the other side, with its horizontal edge just
over water. The vessel is raised slightly till the
liquid just touches the glass plate and pulls it
down a little because of surface tension. Weights
are added till the plate just clears water. (a)
(b)
Fig. 9.17 Different shapes of water drops with
interfacial tensions (a) on a lotus leaf (b)
on a clean plastic plate.
Fig. 9.16 Measuring Surface Tension.

We consider the three interfacial tensions at
all the three interfaces, liquid-air, solid-air and
Suppose the additional weight required is W.
solid-liquid denoted by Sla, Ssa and Ssl , respectively
Then from Eq. 9.20 and the discussion given
as given in Fig. 9.17 (a) and (b). At the line of
there, the surface tension of the liquid-air
contact, the surface forces between the three media
interface is
must be in equilibrium. From the Fig. 9.17(b) the
Sla = (W/2l) = (mg/2l ) (9.21) following relation is easily derived.
where m is the extra mass and l is the length of Sla cos θ + Ssl = Ssa (9.22)
the plate edge. The subscript (la) emphasises
The angle of contact is an obtuse angle if
the fact that the liquid-air interface tension
Ssl > Sla as in the case of water-leaf interface
is involved.
while it is an acute angle if Ssl < Sla as in the
case of water-plastic interface. When θ is an
9.6.3 Angle of Contact
obtuse angle then molecules of liquids are
The surface of liquid near the plane of contact, attracted strongly to themselves and weakly to
with another medium is in general curved. The those of solid, it costs a lot of energy to create a
angle between tangent to the liquid surface at liquid-solid surface, and liquid then does not
the point of contact and solid surface inside the wet the solid. This is what happens with water
liquid is termed as angle of contact. It is denoted on a waxy or oily surface, and with mercury on
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196 PHYSICS
any surface. On the other hand, if the molecules so that

of the liquid are strongly attracted to those of (Pi – Po) = (2 Sla/ r) (9.25)
the solid, this will reduce Ssl and therefore,
In general, for a liquid-gas interface, the
cos θ may increase or θ may decrease. In this
convex side has a higher pressure than the
case θ is an acute angle. This is what happens
concave side. For example, an air bubble in a
for water on glass or on plastic and for kerosene
liquid, would have higher pressure inside it.
oil on virtually anything (it just spreads). Soaps,
See Fig 9.18 (b).
detergents and dying substances are wetting
agents. When they are added the angle of
contact becomes small so that these may
penetrate well and become effective. Water
proofing agents on the other hand are added to
create a large angle of contact between the water
and fibres.
9.6.4 Drops and Bubbles Fig. 9.18 Drop, cavity and bubble of radius r.
One consequence of surface tension is that free A bubble Fig 9.18 (c) differs from a drop
liquid drops and bubbles are spherical if effects and a cavity; in this it has two interfaces. Applying
of gravity can be neglected. You must have seen the above argument we have for a bubble
this especially clearly in small drops just formed
(Pi – Po) = (4 Sla/ r) (9.26)
in a high-speed spray or jet, and in soap bubbles
blown by most of us in childhood. Why are drops This is probably why you have to blow hard,
and bubbles spherical? What keeps soap but not too hard, to form a soap bubble. A little
bubbles stable? extra air pressure is needed inside!
As we have been saying repeatedly, a liquid-
air interface has energy, so for a given volume 9.6.5 Capillary Rise
the surface with minimum energy is the one with One consequence of the pressure difference
the least area. The sphere has this property. across a curved liquid-air interface is the well-
Though it is out of the scope of this book, but known effect that water rises up in a narrow
you can check that a sphere is better than at tube in spite of gravity. The word capilla means
least a cube in this respect! So, if gravity and hair in Latin; if the tube were hair thin, the rise
other forces (e.g. air resistance) were ineffective, would be very large. To see this, consider a
liquid drops would be spherical. vertical capillary tube of circular cross section
Another interesting consequence of surface (radius a) inserted into an open vessel of water
tension is that the pressure inside a spherical (Fig. 9.19). The contact angle between water and
drop Fig. 9.18(a) is more than the pressure
outside. Suppose a spherical drop of radius r is
in equilibrium. If its radius increase by ∆r. The
extra surface energy is
[4π(r + ∆r) 2- 4πr2] Sla = 8πr ∆r Sla (9.23)
If the drop is in equilibrium this energy cost is
balanced by the energy gain due to
expansion under the pressure difference (Pi – Po)
between the inside of the bubble and the outside.
The work done is Fig. 9.19 Capillary rise, (a) Schematic picture of a
W = (Pi – Po) 4πr ∆r2
(9.24) narrow tube immersed water.
(b) Enlarged picture near interface.
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glass is acute. Thus the surface of water in the ⊳

Example 9.10 The lower end of a capillary
capillary is concave. This means that there is
tube of diameter 2.00 mm is dipped 8.00
a pressure difference between the two sides cm below the surface of water in a beaker.
of the top surface. This is given by What is the pressure required in the tube
(Pi – Po) =(2S/r) = 2S/(a sec θ ) in order to blow a hemispherical bubble at
its end in water? The surface tension of
= (2S/a) cos θ (9.27) water at temperature of the experiments is
Thus the pressure of the water inside the 7.30 × 10-2 Nm-1. 1 atmospheric pressure =
tube, just at the meniscus (air-water interface) 1.01 × 105 Pa, density of water = 1000 kg/m3,
g = 9.80 m s-2. Also calculate the excess
is less than the atmospheric pressure. Consider
pressure.
the two points A and B in Fig. 9.19(a). They
must be at the same pressure, namely
Answer The excess pressure in a bubble of gas
P0 + h ρ g = Pi = PA (9.28) in a liquid is given by 2S/r, where S is the
where ρ is the density of water and h is called surface tension of the liquid-gas interface. You
the capillary rise [Fig. 9.19(a)]. Using should note there is only one liquid surface in
Eq. (9.27) and (9.28) we have this case. (For a bubble of liquid in a gas, there
are two liquid surfaces, so the formula for
h ρ g = (Pi – P0) = (2S cos θ )/a (9.29)
excess pressure in that case is 4S/r.) The
The discussion here, and the Eqs. (9.24) and radius of the bubble is r. Now the pressure
(9.25) make it clear that the capillary rise is due outside the bubble Po equals atmospheric
to surface tension. It is larger, for a smaller a. pressure plus the pressure due to 8.00 cm of
water column. That is
Typically it is of the order of a few cm for fine
Po = (1.01 × 105 Pa + 0.08 m × 1000 kg m–3
capillaries. For example, if a = 0.05 cm, using × 9.80 m s–2)
the value of surface tension for water (Table 9.3), 5
= 1.01784 × 10 Pa
we find that Therefore, the pressure inside the bubble is
h = 2S/(ρ g a) Pi = Po + 2S/r
= 1.01784 × 105 Pa + (2 × 7.3 × 10-2 Pa m/10-3 m)
2 ×(0.073 N m-1 ) = (1.01784 + 0.00146) × 105 Pa
=
(10 kg m-3 ) (9.8 m s-2 )(5 × 10-4 m)
3
= 1.02 × 105 Pa
= 2.98 × 10–2 m = 2.98 cm where the radius of the bubble is taken
to be equal to the radius of the capillary tube,
Notice that if the liquid meniscus is convex, since the bubble is hemispherical ! (The answer
as for mercury, i.e., if cos θ is negative then from has been rounded off to three significant figures.)
Eq. (9.28) for example, it is clear that the liquid The excess pressure in the bubble is 146 Pa.
will be lower in the capillary ! ⊳
SUMMARY
1. The basic property of a fluid is that it can flow. The fluid does not have any
resistance to change of its shape. Thus, the shape of a fluid is governed by the
shape of its container.
2. A liquid is incompressible and has a free surface of its own. A gas is compressible
and it expands to occupy all the space available to it.
3. If F is the normal force exerted by a fluid on an area A then the average pressure Pav
is defined as the ratio of the force to area
F
Pav =
A
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198 PHYSICS
4. The unit of the pressure is the pascal (Pa). It is the same as N m-2. Other common
units of pressure are
1 atm = 1.01×105 Pa
1 bar = 105 Pa
1 torr = 133 Pa = 0.133 kPa
1 mm of Hg = 1 torr = 133 Pa
5. Pascal’s law states that: Pressure in a fluid at rest is same at all points which are at
the same height. A change in pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted
undiminished to every point of the fluid and the walls of the containing vessel.
6. The pressure in a fluid varies with depth h according to the expression
P = Pa + ρgh
where ρ is the density of the fluid, assumed uniform.
7. The volume of an incompressible fluid passing any point every second in a pipe of
non uniform crossection is the same in the steady flow.
v A = constant ( v is the velocity and A is the area of crossection)
The equation is due to mass conservation in incompressible fluid flow.
8. Bernoulli’s principle states that as we move along a streamline, the sum of the
pressure (P), the kinetic energy per unit volume (ρv2/2) and the potential energy per
unit volume (ρgy) remains a constant.
P + ρv2/2 + ρgy = constant
The equation is basically the conservation of energy applied to non viscuss fluid
motion in steady state. There is no fluid which have zero viscosity, so the above
statement is true only approximately. The viscosity is like friction and converts the
kinetic energy to heat energy.
9. Though shear strain in a fluid does not require shear stress, when a shear stress is
applied to a fluid, the motion is generated which causes a shear strain growing
with time. The ratio of the shear stress to the time rate of shearing strain is known
as coefficient of viscosity, η.
where symbols have their usual meaning and are defined in the text.
10. Stokes’ law states that the viscous drag force F on a sphere of radius a moving with
velocity v through a fluid of viscosity is, F = 6πηav.
11. Surface tension is a force per unit length (or surface energy per unit area) acting in
the plane of interface between the liquid and the bounding surface. It is the extra
energy that the molecules at the interface have as compared to the interior.
POINTS TO PONDER
1. Pressure is a scalar quantity. The definition of the pressure as “force per unit area”
may give one false impression that pressure is a vector. The “force” in the numerator of
the definition is the component of the force normal to the area upon which it is
impressed. While describing fluids as a concept, shift from particle and rigid body
mechanics is required. We are concerned with properties that vary from point to point
in the fluid.
2. One should not think of pressure of a fluid as being exerted only on a solid like the
walls of a container or a piece of solid matter immersed in the fluid. Pressure exists at
all points in a fluid. An element of a fluid (such as the one shown in Fig. 9.4) is in
equilibrium because the pressures exerted on the various faces are equal.
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3. The expression for pressure

P = Pa + ρgh
holds true if fluid is incompressible. Practically speaking it holds for liquids, which
are largely incompressible and hence is a constant with height.
4. The gauge pressure is the difference of the actual pressure and the atmospheric pressure.
P – Pa = Pg
Many pressure-measuring devices measure the gauge pressure. These include the tyre
pressure gauge and the blood pressure gauge (sphygmomanometer).
5. A streamline is a map of fluid flow. In a steady flow two streamlines do not intersect as
it means that the fluid particle will have two possible velocities at the point.
6. Bernoulli’s principle does not hold in presence of viscous drag on the fluid. The work
done by this dissipative viscous force must be taken into account in this case, and P2
[Fig. 9.9] will be lower than the value given by Eq. (9.12).
7. As the temperature rises the atoms of the liquid become more mobile and the coefficient
of viscosity, η falls. In a gas the temperature rise increases the random motion of
atoms and η increases.
8. Surface tension arises due to excess potential energy of the molecules on the surface
in comparison to their potential energy in the interior. Such a surface energy is present
at the interface separating two substances at least one of which is a fluid. It is not the
property of a single fluid alone.
EXERCISES
9.1 Explain why

(a) The blood pressure in humans is greater at the feet than at the brain
(b) Atmospheric pressure at a height of about 6 km decreases to nearly half of
its value at the sea level, though the height of the atmosphere is more than
100 km
(c) Hydrostatic pressure is a scalar quantity even though pressure is force
divided by area.
9.2 Explain why
(a) The angle of contact of mercury with glass is obtuse, while that of water
with glass is acute.
(b) Water on a clean glass surface tends to spread out while mercury on the
same surface tends to form drops. (Put differently, water wets glass while
mercury does not.)
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200 PHYSICS
(c) Surface tension of a liquid is independent of the area of the surface

(d) Water with detergent disolved in it should have small angles of contact.
(e) A drop of liquid under no external forces is always spherical in shape
9.3 Fillin the blanks using the word(s) from the list appended with each statement:
(a) Surface tension of liquids generally . . . with temperatures (increases / decreases)
(b) Viscosity of gases . . . with temperature, whereas viscosity of liquids . . . with
temperature (increases / decreases)
(c) For solids with elastic modulus of rigidity, the shearing force is proportional
to . . . , while for fluids it is proportional to . . . (shear strain / rate of shear
strain)
(d) For a fluid in a steady flow, the increase in flow speed at a constriction follows
(conservation of mass / Bernoulli’s principle)
(e) For the model of a plane in a wind tunnel, turbulence occurs at a ... speed for
turbulence for an actual plane (greater / smaller)
9.4 Explain why
(a) To keep a piece of paper horizontal, you should blow over, not under, it
(b) When we try to close a water tap with our fingers, fast jets of water gush
through the openings between our fingers
(c) The size of the needle of a syringe controls flow rate better than the thumb
pressure exerted by a doctor while administering an injection
(d) A fluid flowing out of a small hole in a vessel results in a backward thrust on
the vessel
(e) A spinning cricket ball in air does not follow a parabolic trajectory
9.5 A 50 kg girl wearing high heel shoes balances on a single heel. The heel is circular with
a diameter 1.0 cm. What is the pressure exerted by the heel on the horizontal floor ?
9.6 Toricelli’s barometer used mercury. Pascal duplicated it using French wine of density
984 kg m–3. Determine the height of the wine column for normal atmospheric
pressure.
9.7 A vertical off-shore structure is built to withstand a maximum stress of 109 Pa. Is
the structure suitable for putting up on top of an oil well in the ocean ? Take the
depth of the ocean to be roughly 3 km, and ignore ocean currents.
9.8 A hydraulic automobile lift is designed to lift cars with a maximum mass of 3000
kg. The area of cross-section of the piston carrying the load is 425 cm2. What
maximum pressure would the smaller piston have to bear ?
9.9 A U-tube contains water and methylated spirit separated by mercury. The mercury
columns in the two arms are in level with 10.0 cm of water in one arm and 12.5 cm
of spirit in the other. What is the specific gravity of spirit ?
9.10 In the previous problem, if 15.0 cm of water and spirit each are further poured into
the respective arms of the tube, what is the difference in the levels of mercury in the
two arms ? (Specific gravity of mercury = 13.6)
9.11 Can Bernoulli’s equation be used to describe the flow of water through a rapid in a
river ? Explain.
9.12 Does it matter if one uses gauge instead of absolute pressures in applying Bernoulli’s
equation ? Explain.
9.13 Glycerine flows steadily through a horizontal tube of length 1.5 m and radius 1.0
cm. If the amount of glycerine collected per second at one end is 4.0 × 10–3 kg s–1,
what is the pressure difference between the two ends of the tube ? (Density of glycerine
= 1.3 × 103 kg m–3 and viscosity of glycerine = 0.83 Pa s). [You may also like to check
if the assumption of laminar flow in the tube is correct].
9.14 In a test experiment on a model aeroplane in a wind tunnel, the flow speeds on the
upper and lower surfaces of the wing are 70 m s–1and 63 m s-1 respectively. What is
the lift on the wing if its area is 2.5 m2 ? Take the density of air to be 1.3 kg m–3.
9.15 Figures 9.20(a) and (b) refer to the steady flow of a (non-viscous) liquid. Which of
the two figures is incorrect ? Why ?
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Fig. 9.20
9.16 The cylindrical tube of a spray pump has a cross-section of 8.0 cm2 one end of
which has 40 fine holes each of diameter 1.0 mm. If the liquid flow inside the tube
is 1.5 m min–1, what is the speed of ejection of the liquid through the holes ?
9.17 A U-shaped wire is dipped in a soap solution, and removed. The thin soap film
formed between the wire and the light slider supports a weight of 1.5 × 10–2 N (which
includes the small weight of the slider). The length of the slider is 30 cm. What is
the surface tension of the film ?
9.18 Figure 9.21 (a) shows a thin liquid film supporting a small weight = 4.5 × 10–2 N.
What is the weight supported by a film of the same liquid at the same temperature
in Fig. (b) and (c) ? Explain your answer physically.
Fig. 9.21
9.19 What is the pressure inside the drop of mercury of radius 3.00 mm at room temperature ?
Surface tension of mercury at that temperature (20 °C) is 4.65 × 10–1 N m–1. The
atmospheric pressure is 1.01 × 105 Pa. Also give the excess pressure inside the drop.
9.20 What is the excess pressure inside a bubble of soap solution of radius 5.00 mm,
given that the surface tension of soap solution at the temperature (20 °C) is 2.50 ×
10–2 N m–1 ? If an air bubble of the same dimension were formed at depth of 40.0 cm
inside a container containing the soap solution (of relative density 1.20), what would
be the pressure inside the bubble ? (1 atmospheric pressure is 1.01 × 105 Pa).
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CHAPTER TEN
THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
10.1 INTRODUCTION
We all have common sense notions of heat and temperature.
Temperature is a measure of ‘hotness’ of a body. A kettle
10.1 Introduction with boiling water is hotter than a box containing ice. In
10.2 Temperature and heat physics, we need to define the notion of heat, temperature,
10.3 Measurement of etc., more carefully. In this chapter, you will learn what heat
temperature is and how it is measured, and study the various proceses by
10.4 Ideal-gas equation and which heat flows from one body to another. Along the way,
absolute temperature you will find out why blacksmiths heat the iron ring before
10.5 Thermal expansion fitting on the rim of a wooden wheel of a horse cart and why
10.6 Specific heat capacity the wind at the beach often reverses direction after the sun
10.7 Calorimetry goes down. You will also learn what happens when water boils
10.8 Change of state or freezes, and its temperature does not change during these
10.9 Heat transfer
processes even though a great deal of heat is flowing into or
out of it.
10.10 Newton’s law of cooling
Summary 10.2 TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
Points to ponder
Exercises We can begin studying thermal properties of matter with
Additional Exercises definitions of temperature and heat. Temperature is a relative
measure, or indication of hotness or coldness. A hot utensil
is said to have a high temperature, and ice cube to have a
low temperature. An object that has a higher temperature
than another object is said to be hotter. Note that hot and
cold are relative terms, like tall and short. We can perceive
temperature by touch. However, this temperature sense is
somewhat unreliable and its range is too limited to be useful
for scientific purposes.
We know from experience that a glass of ice-cold water left
on a table on a hot summer day eventually warms up whereas
a cup of hot tea on the same table cools down. It means that
when the temperature of body, ice-cold water or hot tea in
this case, and its surrounding medium are different, heat
transfer takes place between the system and the surrounding
medium, until the body and the surrounding medium are at
the same temperature. We also know that in the case of glass
tumbler of ice-cold water, heat flows from the environment to
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THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 203
the glass tumbler, whereas in the case of hot

tea, it flows from the cup of hot tea to the
environment. So, we can say that heat is the
form of energy transferred between two (or
more) systems or a system and its
surroundings by virtue of temperature
difference. The SI unit of heat energy
transferred is expressed in joule (J) while SI unit
of temperature is Kelvin (K), and degree Celsius
(oC) is a commonly used unit of temperature.
When an object is heated, many changes may
take place. Its temperature may rise, it may
expand or change state. We will study the effect
of heat on different bodies in later sections.
Fig. 10.1 A plot of Fahrenheit temperature (tF) versus
10.3 MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE
Celsius temperature (tc ).
A measure of temperature is obtained using a
thermometer. Many physical properties of A relationship for converting between the two
materials change sufficiently with temperature. scales may be obtained from a graph of
Some such properties are used as the basis for Fahrenheit temperature (tF ) versus celsius
constructing thermometers. The commonly used temperature (tC) in a straight line (Fig. 10.1),
property is variation of the volume of a liquid whose equation is
with temperature. For example, in common t F – 32 t C
liquid–in–glass thermometers, mercury, alcohol = (10.1)
180 100
etc., are used whose volume varies linearly with
temperature over a wide range. 10.4 IDEAL-GAS EQUATION AND
Thermometers are calibrated so that a ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE
numerical value may be assigned to a given
temperature in an appropriate scale. For the Liquid-in-glass thermometers show different
definition of any standard scale, two fixed readings for temperatures other than the fixed
reference points are needed. Since all points because of differing expansion properties.
substances change dimensions with A thermometer that uses a gas, however, gives
temperature, an absolute reference for the same readings regardless of which gas is
expansion is not available. However, the used. Experiments show that all gases at low
necessary fixed points may be correlated to the densities exhibit same expansion behaviour. The
physical phenomena that always occur at the variables that describe the behaviour of a given
same temperature. The ice point and the steam quantity (mass) of gas are pressure, volume, and
point of water are two convenient fixed points temperature (P, V, and T )(where T = t + 273.15;
and are known as the freezing and boiling t is the temperature in °C). When temperature
points, respectively. These two points are the is held constant, the pressure and volume of a
temperatures at which pure water freezes and quantity of gas are related as PV = constant.
boils under standard pressure. The two familiar This relationship is known as Boyle’s law, after
temperature scales are the Fahrenheit Robert Boyle (1627–1691), the English Chemist
temperature scale and the Celsius temperature who discovered it. When the pressure is held
scale. The ice and steam point have values constant, the volume of a quantity of the gas is
32 °F and 212 °F, respectively, on the Fahrenheit related to the temperature as V/T = constant.
scale and 0 °C and 100 °C on the Celsius scale. This relationship is known as Charles’ law,
On the Fahrenheit scale, there are 180 equal after French scientist Jacques Charles (1747–
intervals between two reference points, and on 1823). Low-density gases obey these
the Celsius scale, there are 100. laws, which may be combined into a single
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204 PHYSICS
Fig. 10.3 A plot of pressure versus temperature and

Fig. 10.2 Pressure versus temperature of a low extrapolation of lines for low density gases
density gas kept at constant volume. indicates the same absolute zero
temperature.
relationship. Notice that since PV = constant named after the British scientist Lord Kelvin. On
and V/T = constant for a given quantity of gas, this scale, – 273.15 °C is taken as the zero point,
then PV/T should also be a constant. This that is 0 K (Fig. 10.4).
relationship is known as ideal gas law. It can be
written in a more general form that applies not
just to a given quantity of a single gas but to any
quantity of any low-density gas and is known as
ideal-gas equation:
or PV = µRT (10.2)
where, µ is the number of moles in the sample of
gas and R is called universal gas constant:
R = 8.31 J mol–1 K–1
In Eq. 10.2, we have learnt that the pressure
and volume are directly proportional to
temperature : PV ∝ T. This relationship allows a
gas to be used to measure temperature in a
constant volume gas thermometer. Holding the
volume of a gas constant, it gives P ∝T. Thus,
with a constant-volume gas thermometer, Fig. 10.4 Comparision of the Kelvin, Celsius and
Fahrenheit temperature scales.
temperature is read in terms of pressure. A plot
The size of unit in Kelvin and Celsius
of pressure versus temperature gives a straight
temperature scales is the same. So, temperature
line in this case, as shown in Fig. 10.2.
on these scales are related by
However, measurements on real gases deviate
from the values predicted by the ideal gas law T = tC + 273.15 (10.3)
at low temperature. But the relationship is linear
over a large temperature range, and it looks as 10.5 THERMAL EXPANSION
though the pressure might reach zero with You may have observed that sometimes sealed
decreasing temperature if the gas continued to bottles with metallic lids are so tightly screwed
be a gas. The absolute minimum temperature that one has to put the lid in hot water for some
for an ideal gas, therefore, inferred by time to open it. This would allow the metallic lid
extrapolating the straight line to the axis, as in to expand, thereby loosening it to unscrew
Fig. 10.3. This temperature is found to be easily. In case of liquids, you may have observed
– 273.15 °C and is designated as absolute zero. that mercury in a thermometer rises, when the
Absolute zero is the foundation of the Kelvin thermometer is put in slightly warm water. If
temperature scale or absolute scale temperature we take out the thermometer from the warm
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water the level of mercury falls again. Similarly, Table 10.1 Values of coefficient of linear
in case of gases, a balloon partially inflated in a expansion for some material
cool room may expand to full size when placed
in warm water. On the other hand, a fully Material α l (10–5 K–1)
inflated balloon when immersed in cold water Aluminium 2.5
would start shrinking due to contraction of the Brass 1.8
air inside. Iron 1.2
It is our common experience that most Copper 1.7
substances expand on heating and contract on Silver 1.9
cooling. A change in the temperature of a body Gold 1.4
causes change in its dimensions. The increase Glass (pyrex) 0.32
in the dimensions of a body due to the increase Lead 0.29
in its temperature is called thermal expansion.
The expansion in length is called linear
Similarly, we consider the fractional change
expansion. The expansion in area is called area
expansion. The expansion in volume is called ∆V
in volume, , of a substance for temperature
volume expansion (Fig. 10.5). V
change ∆T and define the coefficient of volume
expansion (or volume expansivity), as
(10.5)
Here α V is also a characteristic of the
substance but is not strictly a constant. It
∆A ∆V depends in general on temperature (Fig 10.6). It
∆l
= a l ∆T = 2a l ∆T = 3a l ∆T is seen that αV becomes constant only at a high
l A V
temperature.
(a) Linear expansion (b) Area expansion (c) Volume expansion
Fig. 10.5 Thermal Expansion.
If the substance is in the form of a long rod,

then for small change in temperature, ∆T, the
fractional change in length, ∆l/l, is directly
proportional to ∆T.
(10.4)
where α1 is known as the coefficient of linear

expansion (or linear expansivity) and is
characteristic of the material of the rod. In Table
Fig. 10.6 Coefficient of volume expansion of copper
10.1, typical average values of the coefficient of as a function of temperature.
linear expansion for some material in the
temperature range 0 °C to 100 °C are given. From Table 10.2 gives the values of coefficient of
this Table, compare the value of αl for glass and volume expansion of some common substances
copper. We find that copper expands about five in the temperature range 0–100 °C. You can see
times more than glass for the same rise in that thermal expansion of these substances
temperature. Normally, metals expand more and (solids and liquids) is rather small, with material,
have relatively high values of αl.
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206 PHYSICS
like pyrex glass and invar (a special iron-nickel lakes and ponds, freeze at the top first. As a lake
alloy) having particularly low values of αV. From cools toward 4 °C, water near the surface loses
this Table we find that the value of αv for energy to the atmosphere, becomes denser, and
alcohol (ethanol) is more than mercury and sinks; the warmer, less dense water near the
expands more than mercury for the same rise bottom rises. However, once the colder water on
in temperature. top reaches temperature below 4 °C, it becomes
less dense and remains at the surface, where it
Table 10.2 Values of coefficient of volume freezes. If water did not have this property, lakes
expansion for some substances and ponds would freeze from the bottom up,
which would destroy much of their animal and
Material αv ( K–1) plant life.
Aluminium 7 × 10–5 Gases, at ordinary temperature, expand more
Brass 6 × 10–5 than solids and liquids. For liquids, the
Iron 3.55 × 10–5 coefficient of volume expansion is relatively
Paraffin 58.8 × 10–5 independent of the temperature. However, for
Glass (ordinary) 2.5 × 10–5 gases it is dependent on temperature. For an
Glass (pyrex) 1 × 10–5 ideal gas, the coefficient of volume expansion at
Hard rubber 2.4 × 10–4 constant pressure can be found from the ideal
Invar 2 × 10–6 gas equation:
Mercury 18.2 × 10–5 PV = µRT
Water 20.7 × 10–5 At constant pressure
Alcohol (ethanol) 110 × 10–5 P∆V = µR ∆T
∆V ∆T
Water exhibits an anomalous behaviour; it =
V T
contracts on heating between 0 °C and 4 °C. The
volume of a given amount of water decreases as 1
i.e., αv = for ideal gas (10.6)
it is cooled from room temperature, until its T
temperature reaches 4 °C, [Fig. 10.7(a)]. Below At 0 °C, αv = 3.7 × 10–3 K–1, which is much
4 °C, the volume increases, and therefore, the larger than that for solids and liquids.
density decreases [Fig. 10.7(b)]. Equation (10.6) shows the temperature
This means that water has the maximum dependence of αv; it decreases with increasing
density at 4 °C. This property has an important temperature. For a gas at room temperature and
environmental effect: bodies of water, such as constant pressure, αv is about 3300 × 10–6 K–1, as
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

(a) (b)
Fig. 10.7 Thermal expansion of water.
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much as order(s) of magnitude larger than the Answer

coefficient of volume expansion of typical liquids. ∆A3 = (∆a) (∆b)
There is a simple relation between the ∆Al = a (∆b)
coefficient of volume expansion ( α v ) and
coefficient of linear expansion (αl). Imagine a ∆b
cube of length, l, that expands equally in all
directions, when its temperature increases by b
∆T. We have ∆a
a
∆l = αl l ∆T
so, ∆V = (l+∆l)3 – l3 ≃ 3l2 ∆l (10.7)
In Equation (10.7), terms in (∆l)2 and (∆l)3 have
been neglected since ∆l is small compared to l.
So ∆A2 = b (∆a)
Fig. 10.8
3V ∆l
∆V = = 3V αl ∆T (10.8)
l Consider a rectangular sheet of the solid
which gives material of length a and breadth b (Fig. 10.8 ).
αv = 3αl (10.9) When the temperature increases by ∆T, a
increases by ∆a = αl a∆T and b increases by ∆b
What happens by preventing the thermal = αlb ∆T. From Fig. 10.8, the increase in area
expansion of a rod by fixing its ends rigidly? ∆A = ∆A1 +∆A2 + ∆A3
Clearly, the rod acquires a compressive strain ∆A = a ∆b + b ∆a + (∆a) (∆b)
due to the external forces provided by the rigid = a αlb ∆T + b αl a ∆T + (αl)2 ab (∆T)2
support at the ends. The corresponding stress = αl ab ∆T (2 + αl ∆T) = αl A ∆T (2 + αl ∆T)
set up in the rod is called thermal stress. For
Since α l ≃ 10–5 K–1, from Table 10.1, the
example, consider a steel rail of length 5 m and
product αl ∆T for fractional temperature is small
area of cross-section 40 cm2 that is prevented
in comparision with 2 and may be neglected.
from expanding while the temperature rises by
Hence,
10 °C. The coefficient of linear expansion of steel
is αl(steel) = 1.2 × 10–5 K–1. Thus, the compressive
⊳
∆l
strain is = αl(steel) ∆T = 1.2 × 10–5 × 10=1.2 × 10–4.
l ⊳
Youngs modulus of steel is Y (steel) = 2 × 1011 N m–2. Example 10.2 A blacksmith fixes iron ring
Therefore, the thermal stress developed is on the rim of the wooden wheel of a horse
cart. The diameter of the rim and the iron
∆F  ∆l  ring are 5.243 m and 5.231 m, respectively
= Y steel   = 2.4 × 10 7 N m –2 , which
A  l  at 27 °C. To what temperature should the
corresponds to an external force of ring be heated so as to fit the rim of the
wheel?
 ∆l 
∆F = AYsteel   = 2.4 × 107 × 40 × 10–4 j 105N. If
 l  Answer
two such steel rails, fixed at their outer ends,
are in contact at their inner ends, a force of this Given, T1 = 27 °C
magnitude can easily bend the rails. LT1 = 5.231 m
⊳ LT2 = 5.243 m
Example 10.1 Show that the coefficient of So,
area expansion, (∆A/A)/∆T, of a LT2 =LT1 [1+αl (T2–T1)]
rectangular sheet of the solid is twice its
linear expansivity, αl. 5.243 m = 5.231 m [1 + 1.20×10–5 K–1 (T2–27 °C)]
or T2 = 218 °C. ⊳
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208 PHYSICS
10.6 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY heat absorbed or given off to change the
Take some water in a vessel and start heating it temperature of unit mass of it by one unit. This
on a burner. Soon you will notice that bubbles quantity is referred to as the specific heat
begin to move upward. As the temperature is capacity of the substance.
raised the motion of water particles increases If ∆Q stands for the amount of heat absorbed
till it becomes turbulent as water starts boiling. or given off by a substance of mass m when it
What are the factors on which the quantity of undergoes a temperature change ∆T, then the
heat required to raise the temperature of a specific heat capacity, of that substance is given
substance depend? In order to answer this by
question in the first step, heat a given quantity S 1 ∆Q
of water to raise its temperature by, say 20 °C
s= = (10.11)
m m ∆T
and note the time taken. Again take the same The specific heat capacity is the property of
amount of water and raise its temperature by the substance which determines the change in
40 °C using the same source of heat. Note the the temperature of the substance (undergoing
time taken by using a stopwatch. You will find it no phase change) when a given quantity of heat
takes about twice the time and therefore, double is absorbed (or given off) by it. It is defined as the
the quantity of heat required raising twice the amount of heat per unit mass absorbed or given
temperature of same amount of water. off by the substance to change its temperature
In the second step, now suppose you take by one unit. It depends on the nature of the
double the amount of water and heat it, using substance and its temperature. The SI unit of
the same heating arrangement, to raise the specific heat capacity is J kg–1 K–1.
temperature by 20 °C, you will find the time taken If the amount of substance is specified in
is again twice that required in the first step. terms of moles µ, instead of mass m in kg, we
In the third step, in place of water, now heat can define heat capacity per mole of the
the same quantity of some oil, say mustard oil, substance by
and raise the temperature again by 20 °C. Now
note the time by the same stopwatch. You will (10.12)
find the time taken will be shorter and therefore,
where C is known as molar specific heat
the quantity of heat required would be less than
capacity of the substance. Like S, C also
that required by the same amount of water for
depends on the nature of the substance and its
the same rise in temperature.
temperature. The SI unit of molar specific heat
The above observations show that the quantity
capacity is J mol–1 K–1.
of heat required to warm a given substance
However, in connection with specific heat
depends on its mass, m, the change in
capacity of gases, additional conditions may be
temperature, ∆T and the nature of substance.
needed to define C. In this case, heat transfer
The change in temperature of a substance, when
can be achieved by keeping either pressure or
a given quantity of heat is absorbed or rejected
volume constant. If the gas is held under
by it, is characterised by a quantity called the
constant pressure during the heat transfer, then
heat capacity of that substance. We define heat
capacity, S of a substance as it is called the molar specific heat capacity at
constant pressure and is denoted by Cp. On
∆Q the other hand, if the volume of the gas is
S= (10.10)
∆T maintained during the heat transfer, then the
where ∆Q is the amount of heat supplied to corresponding molar specific heat capacity is
the substance to change its temperature from T called molar specific heat capacity at constant
to T + ∆T. volume and is denoted by Cv. For details see
You have observed that if equal amount of Chapter 11. Table 10.3 lists measured specific
heat is added to equal masses of different heat capacity of some substances at atmospheric
substances, the resulting temperature changes pressure and ordinary temperature while Table
will not be the same. It implies that every 10.4 lists molar specific heat capacities of some
substance has a unique value for the amount of gases. From Table 10.3 you can note that water
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Table 10.3 Specific heat capacity of some substances at room temperature and atmospheric
pressure
Substance Specific heat capacity Substance Specific heat capacity
(J kg–1 K–1) (J kg–1 K–1)
Aluminium 900.0 Ice 2060
Carbon 506.5 Glass 840
Copper 386.4 Iron 450
Lead 127.7 Kerosene 2118
Silver 236.1 Edible oil 1965
Tungesten 134.4 Mercury 140
Water 4186.0
has the highest specific heat capacity compared equal to the heat gained by the colder body,
to other substances. For this reason water is also provided no heat is allowed to escape to the
used as a coolant in automobile radiators, as surroundings. A device in which heat
well as, a heater in hot water bags. Owing to its measurement can be done is called a
high specific heat capacity, water warms up calorimeter. It consists of a metallic vessel and
more slowly than land during summer, and stirrer of the same material, like copper or
consequently wind from the sea has a cooling aluminium. The vessel is kept inside a wooden
effect. Now, you can tell why in desert areas, jacket, which contains heat insulating material,
the earth surface warms up quickly during the like glass wool etc. The outer jacket acts as a
day and cools quickly at night.
heat shield and reduces the heat loss from the
Table 10.4 Molar specific heat capacities of inner vessel. There is an opening in the outer
some gases jacket through which a mercury thermometer
Gas Cp (J mol–1K–1) Cv(J mol–1K–1) can be inserted into the calorimeter (Fig. 10.20).
The following example provides a method by
He 20.8 12.5 which the specific heat capacity of a given solid
H2 28.8 20.4 can be determinated by using the principle, heat
gained is equal to the heat lost.
N2 29.1 20.8
Example 10.3 A sphere of 0.047 kg
⊳
O2 29.4 21.1
aluminium is placed for sufficient time in a
CO2 37.0 28.5 vessel containing boiling water, so that the
sphere is at 100 °C. It is then immediately
transfered to 0.14 kg copper calorimeter
10.7 CALORIMETRY
containing 0.25 kg water at 20 °C. The
A system is said to be isolated if no exchange or temperature of water rises and attains a
transfer of heat occurs between the system and steady state at 23 °C. Calculate the specific
its surroundings. When different parts of an heat capacity of aluminium.
isolated system are at different temperature, a
quantity of heat transfers from the part at higher Answer In solving this example, we shall use
temperature to the part at lower temperature. the fact that at a steady state, heat given by an
The heat lost by the part at higher temperature aluminium sphere will be equal to the heat
is equal to the heat gained by the part at lower absorbed by the water and calorimeter.
temperature. Mass of aluminium sphere (m1) = 0.047 kg
Calorimetry means measurement of heat. Initial temperature of aluminium sphere =100 °C
When a body at higher temperature is brought Final temperature = 23 °C
in contact with another body at lower Change in temperature (∆T)=(100 °C-23°C)= 77 °C
temperature, the heat lost by the hot body is Let specific heat capacity of aluminium be sAl.
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210 PHYSICS
The amount of heat lost by the aluminium

sphere = m1s Al ∆T = 0.047kg × s Al × 77 °C
Mass of water (m2) = 0.25 kg
Mass of calorimeter (m3) = 0.14 kg
Initial temperature of water and calorimeter=20 °C
Final temperature of the mixture = 23 °C
Change in temperature (∆T2) = 23 °C – 20 °C = 3 °C
Specific heat capacity of water (sw)
= 4.18 × 103 J kg–1 K–1
Specific heat capacity of copper calorimeter
= 0.386 × 103 J kg–1 K–1
The amount of heat gained by water and
calorimeter = m2 sw ∆T2 + m3scu∆T2
Fig. 10.9 A plot of temperature versus time showing
= (m2sw + m3scu) (∆T2) the changes in the state of ice on heating
= (0.25 kg × 4.18 × 103 J kg–1 K–1 + 0.14 kg × (not to scale).
0.386 × 103 J kg–1 K–1) (23 °C – 20 °C)
In the steady state heat lost by the aluminium The change of state from solid to liquid is called
sphere = heat gained by water + heat gained by melting or fusion and from liquid to solid is called
calorimeter. freezing. It is observed that the temperature
remains constant until the entire amount of the
So, 0.047 kg × sAl × 77 °C
solid substance melts. That is, both the solid and
= (0.25 kg × 4.18 × 103 J kg–1 K–1+ 0.14 kg × the liquid states of the substance coexist in
0.386 × 103 J kg–1 K–1)(3 °C) thermal equilibrium during the change of
sAl = 0.911 kJ kg –1 K–1 ⊳ states from solid to liquid. The temperature at
which the solid and the liquid states of the
10.8 CHANGE OF STATE substance is in thermal equilibrium with each
other is called its melting point. It is
Matter normally exists in three states: solid, characteristic of the substance. It also depends
liquid and gas. A transition from one of these on pressure. The melting point of a substance
states to another is called a change of state. Two at standard atomspheric pressure is called its
common changes of states are solid to liquid normal melting point. Let us do the following
and liquid to gas (and, vice versa). These changes activity to understand the process of melting
can occur when the exchange of heat takes place of ice.
between the substance and its surroundings. Take a slab of ice. Take a metallic wire and
To study the change of state on heating or fix two blocks, say 5 kg each, at its ends. Put
cooling, let us perform the following activity. the wire over the slab as shown in Fig. 10.10.
Take some cubes of ice in a beaker. Note the You will observe that the wire passes through
temperature of ice. Start heating it slowly on a the ice slab. This happens due to the fact that
constant heat source. Note the temperature after just below the wire, ice melts at lower
every minute. Continuously stir the mixture of temperature due to increase in pressure. When
water and ice. Draw a graph between the wire has passed, water above the wire freezes
temperature and time (Fig. 10.9). You will observe again. Thus, the wire passes through the slab
no change in the temperature as long as there and the slab does not split. This phenomenon
is ice in the beaker. In the above process, the of refreezing is called regelation. Skating is
temperature of the system does not change even possible on snow due to the formation of water
though heat is being continuously supplied. The under the skates. Water is formed due to the
heat supplied is being utilised in changing the increase of pressure and it acts as a
state from solid (ice) to liquid (water). lubricant.
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100 °C when it again becomes steady. The heat

supplied is now being utilised to change water
from liquid state to vapour or gaseous state.
The change of state from liquid to vapour (or
gas) is called vaporisation. It is observed that
the temperature remains constant until the
entire amount of the liquid is converted into
vapour. That is, both the liquid and vapour states
of the substance coexist in thermal equilibrium,
during the change of state from liquid to vapour.
The temperature at which the liquid and the
vapour states of the substance coexist is called
Fig. 10.10 its boiling point. Let us do the following activity
After the whole of ice gets converted into water to understand the process of boiling of water.
and as we continue further heating, we shall see
that temperature begins to rise (Fig.10.9). The Take a round-bottom flask, more than half
temperature keeps on rising till it reaches nearly filled with water. Keep it over a burner and fix a
Triple Point
The temperature of a substance remains constant during its change of state (phase change).
A graph between the temperature T and the Pressure P of the substance is called a phase
diagram or P – T diagram. The following figure shows the phase diagram of water and CO2.
Such a phase diagram divides the P – T plane into a solid-region, the vapour-region and the
liquid-region. The regions are separated by the curves such as sublimation curve (BO), fusion
curve (AO) and vaporisation curve (CO). The points on sublimation curve represent states
in which solid and vapour phases coexist. The point on the sublimation curve BO represent
states in which the solid and vapour phases co-exist. Points on the fusion curve AO represent
states in which solid and liquid phase coexist. Points on the vapourisation curve CO represent
states in which the liquid and vapour phases coexist. The temperature and pressure at which
the fusion curve, the vaporisation curve and the sublimation curve meet and all the three
phases of a substance coexist is called the triple point of the substance. For example the
triple point of water is represented by the temperature 273.16 K and pressure 6.11×10–3 Pa.
(a) (b)
Figure : Pressure-temperature phase diagrams for (a) water and (b) CO2 (not to the scale).
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212 PHYSICS
thermometer and steam outlet through the cork cork. Keep the f lask turned upside down on the
of the flask (Fig. 10.11). As water gets heated in stand. Pour ice-cold water on the flask. Water
the flask, note first that the air, which was vapours in the flask condense reducing the
dissolved in the water, will come out as small pressure on the water surface inside the flask.
bubbles. Later, bubbles of steam will form at Water begins to boil again, now at a lower
the bottom but as they rise to the cooler water temperature. Thus boiling point decreases with
near the top, they condense and disappear. decrease in pressure.
Finally, as the temperature of the entire mass This explains why cooking is difficult on hills.
of the water reaches 100 °C, bubbles of steam At high altitudes, atmospheric pressure is lower,
reach the surface and boiling is said to occur. reducing the boiling point of water as compared
The steam in the flask may not be visible but as to that at sea level. On the other hand, boiling
it comes out of the flask, it condenses as tiny point is increased inside a pressure cooker by
droplets of water, giving a foggy appearance. increasing the pressure. Hence cooking is faster.
The boiling point of a substance at standard
atmospheric pressure is called its normal
boiling point.
However, all substances do not pass through
the three states: solid-liquid-gas. There are
certain substances which normally pass from
the solid to the vapour state directly and vice
versa. The change from solid state to vapour
state without passing through the liquid state
is called sublimation, and the substance is said
to sublime. Dry ice (solid CO2) sublimes, so also
iodine. During the sublimation process both the
solid and vapour states of a substance coexist
in thermal equilibrium.
10.8.1 Latent Heat

In Section 10.8, we have learnt that certain
amount of heat energy is transferred between a
substance and its surroundings when it
undergoes a change of state. The amount of heat
per unit mass transferred during change of state
of the substance is called latent heat of the
substance for the process. For example, if heat
Fig. 10.11 Boiling process. is added to a given quantity of ice at –10 °C, the
temperature of ice increases until it reaches its
If now the steam outlet is closed for a few melting point (0 °C). At this temperature, the
seconds to increase the pressure in the flask, addition of more heat does not increase the
you will notice that boiling stops. More heat temperature but causes the ice to melt, or
would be required to raise the temperature changes its state. Once the entire ice melts,
(depending on the increase in pressure) before adding more heat will cause the temperature of
boiling begins again. Thus boiling point increases the water to rise. A similar situation
with increase in pressure. occurs during liquid gas change of state at the
Let us now remove the burner. Allow water to boiling point. Adding more heat to boiling water
cool to about 80 °C. Remove the thermometer and causes vaporisation, without increase in
steam outlet. Close the flask with the airtight temperature.
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Table 10.5 Temperatures of the change of state and latent heats for various substances at
1 atm pressure
Substance Melting Lf Boiling Lv

Point (°C) (105J kg–1) Point (°C) (105J kg–1)
Ethanol –114 1.0 78 8.5
Gold 1063 0.645 2660 15.8
Lead 328 0.25 1744 8.67
Mercury –39 0.12 357 2.7
Nitrogen –210 0.26 –196 2.0
Oxygen –219 0.14 –183 2.1
Water 0 3.33 100 22.6
The heat required during a change of state Note that when heat is added (or removed)
depends upon the heat of transformation and during a change of state, the temperature
the mass of the substance undergoing a change remains constant. Note in Fig. 10.12 that the
of state. Thus, if mass m of a substance slopes of the phase lines are not all the same,
undergoes a change from one state to the other, which indicate that specific heats of the various
then the quantity of heat required is given by states are not equal. For water, the latent heat of
Q=mL fusion and vaporisation are Lf = 3.33 × 105 J kg–1
or L = Q/m (10.13) and Lv = 22.6 × 105 J kg–1, respectively. That is,
where L is known as latent heat and is a 3.33 × 105 J of heat is needed to melt 1 kg ice at
characteristic of the substance. Its SI unit is 0 °C, and 22.6 × 105 J of heat is needed to convert
J kg–1. The value of L also depends on the 1 kg water into steam at 100 °C. So, steam at
pressure. Its value is usually quoted at standard 100 °C carries 22.6 × 105 J kg–1 more heat than
atmospheric pressure. The latent heat for a solid- water at 100 °C. This is why burns from steam
liquid state change is called the latent heat of are usually more serious than those from
fusion (Lf), and that for a liquid-gas state change boiling water.
is called the latent heat of vaporisation (Lv). ⊳
These are often referred to as the heat of fusion Example 10.4 When 0.15 kg of ice at 0 °C
and the heat of vaporisation. A plot of is mixed with 0.30 kg of water at 50 °C in a
temperature versus heat for a quantity of water container, the resulting temperature is
is shown in Fig. 10.12. The latent heats of some 6.7 °C. Calculate the heat of fusion of ice.
substances, their freezing and boiling points, are (swater = 4186 J kg–1 K–1)
given in Table 10.5.
Answer
Heat lost by water = msw (θf–θi)w
= (0.30 kg ) (4186 J kg–1 K–1) (50.0 °C – 6.7 °C)
= 54376.14 J
Heat required to melt ice = m2Lf = (0.15 kg) Lf
Heat required to raise temperature of ice
water to final temperature = mIsw (θf–θi)I
= (0.15 kg) (4186 J kg–1 K –1) (6.7 °C – 0 °C)
= 4206.93 J
Heat lost = heat gained
Fig. 10.12 Temperature versus heat for water at 54376.14 J = (0.15 kg ) Lf + 4206.93 J
1 atm pressure (not to scale). Lf = 3.34×105 J kg–1. ⊳
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214 PHYSICS
temperature difference. What are the different

Example 10.5 Calculate the heat required
⊳
ways by which this energy transfer takes
to convert 3 kg of ice at –12 °C kept in a place? There are three distinct modes of heat
calorimeter to steam at 100 °C at transfer: conduction, convection and radiation
atmospheric pressure. Given specific heat (Fig. 10.13).
capacity of ice = 2100 J kg–1 K–1, specific heat
capacity of water = 4186 J kg– 1 K–1, latent
heat of fusion of ice = 3.35 × 105 J kg –1
and latent heat of steam = 2.256 ×106 J kg–1.
Answer We have
Mass of the ice, m = 3 kg
specific heat capacity of ice, sice
= 2100 J kg–1 K–1
specific heat capacity of water, swater
= 4186 J kg–1 K–1
latent heat of fusion of ice, Lf ice
= 3.35 × 105 J kg–1
latent heat of steam, Lsteam Fig. 10.13 Heating by conduction, convection and
= 2.256 × 106 J kg–1 radiation.
Now, Q = heat required to convert 3 kg of 10.9.1 Conduction

ice at –12 °C to steam at 100 °C, Conduction is the mechanism of transfer of heat
Q1 = heat required to convert ice at between two adjacent parts of a body because
–12 °C to ice at 0 °C. of their temperature difference. Suppose, one end
= m sice ∆T1 = (3 kg) (2100 J kg–1. of a metallic rod is put in a flame, the other end
K–1) [0–(–12)]°C = 75600 J of the rod will soon be so hot that you cannot
Q2 = heat required to melt ice at hold it by your bare hands. Here, heat transfer
0 °C to water at 0 °C takes place by conduction from the hot end of
= m Lf ice = (3 kg) (3.35 × 105 J kg–1) the rod through its different parts to the other
= 1005000 J end. Gases are poor thermal conductors, while
Q3 = heat required to convert water liquids have conductivities intermediate between
at 0 °C to water at 100 °C. solids and gases.
= msw ∆T2 = (3kg) (4186J kg–1 K–1) Heat conduction may be described
(100 °C) quantitatively as the time rate of heat flow in a
= 1255800 J material for a given temperature difference.
Q4 = heat required to convert water Consider a metallic bar of length L and uniform
at 100 °C to steam at 100 °C. cross-section A with its two ends maintained at
= m Lsteam = (3 kg) (2.256 ×106 different temperatures. This can be done, for
J kg–1) example, by putting the ends in thermal contact
with large reservoirs at temperatures, say, TC and
= 6768000 J
TD, respectively (Fig. 10.14). Let us assume the
So, Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + Q4
ideal condition that the sides of the bar are fully
= 75600J + 1005000 J
insulated so that no heat is exchanged between
+ 1255800 J + 6768000 J the sides and the surroundings.
= 9.1×106 J ⊳ After sometime, a steady state is reached; the
temperature of the bar decreases uniformly with
10.9 HEAT TRANSFER distance from TC to TD; (TC>TD). The reservoir at
We have seen that heat is energy transfer C supplies heat at a constant rate, which
from one system to another or from one part transfers through the bar and is given out at
of a system to another part, arising due to the same rate to the reservoir at D. It is found
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prohibited and keeps the room cooler. In some

situations, heat transfer is critical. In a nuclear
reactor, for example, elaborate heat transfer
systems need to be installed so that the
enormous energy produced by nuclear fission
in the core transits out sufficiently fast, thus
preventing the core from overheating.
Table 10.6 Thermal conductivities of some

material
Fig. 10.14 Steady state heat flow by conduction in
a bar with its two ends maintained at Material Thermal conductivity
temperatures TC and TD; (TC > TD). (J s–1 m–1 K–1 )
Metals
experimentally that in this steady state, the rate
of flow of heat (or heat current) H is proportional Silver 406
to the temperature difference (TC – TD) and the Copper 385
area of cross-section A and is inversely Aluminium 205
proportional to the length L : Brass 109
Steel 50.2
TC – TD Lead 34.7
H = KA (10.14)
L Mercury 8.3
The constant of proportionality K is called the
thermal conductivity of the material. The Non-metals
greater the value of K for a material, the more
rapidly will it conduct heat. The SI unit of K is Insulating brick 0.15
J s –1 m –1 K –1 or W m –1 K –1 . The thermal Concrete 0.8
conductivities of various substances are listed Body fat 0.20
in Table 10.6. These values vary slightly with Felt 0.04
temperature, but can be considered to be Glass 0.8
constant over a normal temperature range. Ice 1.6
Compare the relatively large thermal Glass wool 0.04
conductivities of good thermal conductors and, Wood 0.12
metals, with the relatively small thermal Water 0.8
conductivities of some good thermal insulators,
such as wood and glass wool. You may have Gases
noticed that some cooking pots have copper
coating on the bottom. Being a good conductor Air 0.024
of heat, copper promotes the distribution of heat Argon 0.016
over the bottom of a pot for uniform cooking. Hydrogen 0.14
Plastic foams, on the other hand, are good
insulators, mainly because they contain pockets Example 10.6 What is the temperature of
⊳
of air. Recall that gases are poor conductors, the steel-copper junction in the steady
and note the low thermal conductivity of air in state of the system shown in Fig. 10.15.
the Table 10.5. Heat retention and transfer are Length of the steel rod = 15.0 cm, length
important in many other applications. Houses of the copper rod = 10.0 cm, temperature
made of concrete roofs get very hot during of the furnace = 300 °C, temperature of the
summer days because thermal conductivity of other end = 0 °C. The area of cross section
concrete (though much smaller than that of a of the steel rod is twice that of the copper
metal) is still not small enough. Therefore, people, rod. (Thermal conductivity of steel
usually, prefer to give a layer of earth or foam = 50.2 J s – 1 m –1 K – 1; and of copper
insulation on the ceiling so that heat transfer is = 385 J s–1m–1 K–1).
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216 PHYSICS
Answer
Given, L1 = L2= L = 0.1 m, A1 = A2= A= 0.02 m2
K 1 = 79 W m –1 K –1 , K 2 = 109 W m –1 K –1 ,
T1 = 373 K, and T2 = 273 K.
Under steady state condition, the heat
current (H1) through iron bar is equal to the
Fig. 10.15
heat current (H2) through brass bar.
Answer The insulating material around the rods So, H = H1 = H2
reduces heat loss from the sides of the rods.
Therefore, heat flows only along the length of K1 A1 ( T1 – T0 ) K 2 A 2 ( T 0 – T2 )
= =
the rods. Consider any cross section of the rod. L1 L2
In the steady state, heat flowing into the element For A1 = A2 = A and L1 = L2 = L, this equation
must equal the heat flowing out of it; otherwise leads to
there would be a net gain or loss of heat by the K1 (T1 – T0) = K2 (T0 – T2)
element and its temperature would not be Thus, the junction temperature T0 of the two
steady. Thus in the steady state, rate of heat bars is
flowing across a cross section of the rod is the
same at every point along the length of the ( K1T1 + K 2T2 )
T0 =
combined steel-copper rod. Let T be the ( K1 + K 2 )
temperature of the steel-copper junction in the
Using this equation, the heat current H through
steady state. Then,
either bar is
K1 A1 (300 − T ) K 2 A2 (T – 0) K1 A (T1 – T0 )
= K 2 A(T0 – T2 )
L1 L2 H= =
L L
where 1 and 2 refer to the steel and copper rod
respectively. For A 1 = 2 A2, L1 = 15.0 cm,
L2 = 10.0 cm, K1 = 50.2 J s–1 m–1 K –1, K2 = 385 J
s–1 m–1 K –1, we have
50.2 × 2 ( 300 − T )
Using these equations, the heat current H′
385 T
= through the compound bar of length L1 + L2 = 2L
15 10
and the equivalent thermal conductivity K′, of
which gives T = 44.4 °C ⊳ the compound bar are given by
Example 10.7 An iron bar (L1 = 0.1 m, A1 = K ′ A (T1 – T2 )

H′= = H
⊳
0.02 m 2 , K 1 = 79 W m –1 K – 1 ) and a 2L
brass bar (L 2 = 0.1 m, A 2 = 0.02 m 2 ,
2 K1 K 2
K2 = 109 W m–1K–1) are soldered end to end K′ =
as shown in Fig. 10.16. The free ends of K1 + K 2
the iron bar and brass bar are maintained ( K1T1 + K 2T2 )
at 373 K and 273 K respectively. Obtain (i) T0 =
expressions for and hence compute (i) the
( K1 + K 2 )
temperature of the junction of the two bars,
=
(79 W m –1
) (
K –1 (373 K ) + 109 W m –1 K –1 (273 K ) )
(ii) the equivalent thermal conductivity of 79 W m K –1 –1
+ 109 W m K –1 –1
the compound bar, and (iii) the heat

current through the compound bar. = 315 K
2K 1 K 2
(ii) K ′ = K + K
1 2
2 × (79 W m –1 K –1 ) × (109 W m –1 K –1 )
=
79 W m –1 K –1 +109 W m –1 K –1
Fig 10.16 = 91.6 W m–1 K–1
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of water do. This occurs both because water has

K ′ A (T1 – T2 )
(iii) H ′ = H = a greater specific heat capacity and because
2L mixing currents disperse the absorbed heat
throughout the great volume of water. The air
=
(91.6 W m –1
) ( )
K –1 × 0.02 m 2 × (373 K–273 K )
in contact with the warm ground is heated by
2× (0.1 m ) conduction. It expands, becoming less dense
= 916.1 W ⊳ than the surrounding cooler air. As a result, the
warm air rises (air currents) and the other air
10.9.2 Convection moves (winds) to fill the space-creating a sea
breeze near a large body of water. Cooler air
Convection is a mode of heat transfer by actual
descends, and a thermal convection cycle is set
motion of matter. It is possible only in fluids.
up, which transfers heat away from the land.
Convection can be natural or forced. In natural
At night, the ground loses its heat more quickly,
convection, gravity plays an important part.
and the water surface is warmer than the land.
When a fluid is heated from below, the hot part
As a result, the cycle is reveresed (Fig. 10.17).
expands and, therefore, becomes less dense.
Because of buoyancy, it rises and the upper The other example of natural convection is
colder part replaces it. This again gets heated, the steady surface wind on the earth blowing
rises up and is replaced by the relatively colder in from north-east towards the equator, the
part of the fluid. The process goes on. This mode so-called trade wind. A resonable explanation
of heat transfer is evidently different from is as follows: the equatorial and polar regions of
conduction. Convection involves bulk transport the earth receive unequal solar heat. Air at the
of different parts of the fluid. earth’s surface near the equator is hot, while
In forced convection, material is forced to move the air in the upper atmosphere of the poles is
by a pump or by some other physical means. The cool. In the absence of any other factor, a
common examples of forced convection systems convection current would be set up, with the
are forced-air heating systems in home, the air at the equatorial surface rising and moving
human circulatory system, and the cooling out towards the poles, descending and
system of an automobile engine. In the human streaming in towards the equator. The rotation
body, the heart acts as the pump that circulates of the earth, however, modifies this convection
blood through different parts of the body, current. Because of this, air close to the equator
transferring heat by forced convection and has an eastward speed of 1600 km/h, while it
maintaining it at a uniform temperature. is zero close to the poles. As a result, the air
Natural convection is responsible for many descends not at the poles but at 30° N (North)
familiar phenomena. During the day, the latitude and returns to the equator. This is
ground heats up more quickly than large bodies called trade wind.
Fig. 10.17 Convection cycles.
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218 PHYSICS
10.9.3 Radiation contents of the bottle. The outer wall similarly

reflects back any incoming radiation. The space
Conduction and convection require some
between the walls is evacuted to reduce
material as a transport medium. These modes
conduction and convection losses and the flask
of heat transfer cannot operate between bodies
is supported on an insulator, like cork. The
separated by a distance in vacuum. But the
device is, therefore, useful for preventing hot
earth does receive heat from the Sun across a contents (like, milk) from getting cold, or
huge distance. Similarly, we quickly feel the alternatively, to store cold contents (like, ice).
warmth of the fire nearby even though air
conducts poorly and before convection takes 10.9.4 Blackbody Radiation
some time to set in. The third mechanism for We have so far not mentioned the wavelength
heat transfer needs no medium; it is called content of thermal radiation. The important
radiation and the energy so transferred by thing about thermal radiation at any
electromagnetic waves is called radiant energy. temperature is that it is not of one (or a few)
In an electromagnetic wave, electric and wavelength(s) but has a continuous spectrum
magnetic fields oscillate in space and time. Like from the small to the long wavelengths. The
any wave, electromagnetic waves can have energy content of radiation, however, varies for
different wavelengths and can travel in vacuum different wavelengths. Figure 10.18 gives the
with the same speed, namely the speed of light experimental curves for radiation energy per unit
i.e., 3 × 108 m s–1 . You will learn these matters in area per unit wavelength emitted by a blackbody
more detail later, but you now know why heat versus wavelength for different temperatures.
transfer by radiation does not need any medium
and why it is so fast. This is how heat is
transferred to the earth from the Sun through
empty space. All bodies emit radiant energy,
whether they are solid, liquid or gas. The
electromagnetic radiation emitted by a body by
virtue of its temperature, like radiation by a red
hot iron or light from a filament lamp is called
thermal radiation.
When this thermal radiation falls on other
bodies, it is partly reflected and partly absorbed.
The amount of heat that a body can absorb by
radiation depends on the colour of the body.
We find that black bodies absorb and emit
radiant energy better than bodies of lighter Fig. 10.18: Energy emitted versus wavelength
colours. This fact finds many applications in our for a blackbody at different
daily life. We wear white or light coloured clothes temperatures
in summer, so that they absorb the least heat Notice that the wavelength λm for which energy
from the Sun. However, during winter, we use is the maximum decreases with increasing
dark coloured clothes, which absorb heat from temperature. The relation between λm and T is
the sun and keep our body warm. The bottoms of given by what is known as Wien’s Displacement
utensils for cooking food are blackened so that Law:
they absorb maximum heat from fire and transfer λm T = constant (10.15)
it to the vegetables to be cooked.
Similarly, a Dewar flask or thermos bottle is The value of the constant (Wien’s constant)
a device to minimise heat transfer between the is 2.9 × 10–3 m K. This law explains why the
contents of the bottle and outside. It consists colour of a piece of iron heated in a hot flame
of a double-walled glass vessel with the inner first becomes dull red, then reddish yellow, and
and outer walls coated with silver. Radiation finally white hot. Wien’s law is useful for
from the inner wall is reflected back to the estimating the surface temperatures of celestial
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bodies like, the moon, Sun and other stars. Light For a body with emissivity e, the relation
from the moon is found to have a maximum modifies to
intensity near the wavelength 14 µm. By Wien’s
H = eσ A (T 4 – Ts4) (10.18)
law, the surface of the moon is estimated to have
a temperature of 200 K. Solar radiation has a As an example, let us estimate the heat
maximum at λm = 4753 Å. This corresponds to radiated by our bodies. Suppose the surface area
T = 6060 K. Remember, this is the temperature of a person’s body is about 1.9 m2 and the room
of the surface of the sun, not its interior. temperature is 22 ° C. The internal body
The most significant feature of the temperature, as we know, is about 37°°C. The
blackbody radiation curves in Fig. 10.18 is that
skin temperature may be 28° °C (say). The
they are universal. They depend only on the
temperature and not on the size, shape or emissivity of the skin is about 0.97 for the
material of the blackbody. Attempts to explain relevant region of electromagnetic radiation. The
blackbody radiation theoretically, at the rate of heat loss is:
beginning of the twentieth century, spurred the H = 5.67 × 10–8 × 1.9 × 0.97 × {(301)4 – (295)4}
quantum revolution in physics, as you will
learn in later courses. = 66.4 W
Energy can be transferred by radiation over which is more than half the rate of energy
large distances, without a medium (i.e., in production by the body at rest (120 W). To
vacuum). The total electromagnetic energy prevent this heat loss effectively (better than
radiated by a body at absolute temperature T ordinary clothing), modern arctic clothing has
is proportional to its size, its ability to radiate an additional thin shiny metallic layer next to
(called emissivity) and most importantly to its the skin, which reflects the body’s radiation.
temperature. For a body, which is a perfect
radiator, the energy emitted per unit time (H) 10.10 NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING
is given by We all know that hot water or milk when left on
H = AσT 4 (10.16) a table begins to cool, gradually. Ultimately it
attains the temperature of the surroundings. To
where A is the area and T is the absolute study how slow or fast a given body can cool on
temperature of the body. This relation obtained
exchanging heat with its surroundings, let us
experimentally by Stefan and later proved
perform the following activity.
theoretically by Boltzmann is known as Stefan-
T a k e s o m e w a t e r, s a y 3 0 0 m L , i n a
Boltzmann law and the constant σ is called
calorimeter with a stirrer and cover it with a
Stefan-Boltzmann constant. Its value in SI units
two-holed lid. Fix the stirrer through one hole
is 5.67 × 10–8 W m–2 K–4. Most bodies emit only a
and fix a thermometer through another hole
fraction of the rate given by Eq. 10.16. A substance
in the lid and make sure that the bulb of
like lamp black comes close to the limit. One,
thermometer is immersed in the water. Note
therefore, defines a dimensionless fraction e
the reading of the thermometer. This reading
called emissivity and writes,
T1 is the temperature of the surroundings.
H = AeσT 4 (10.17) Heat the water kept in the calorimeter till it
Here, e = 1 for a perfect radiator. For a tungsten attains a temperature, say 40 °C above room
lamp, for example, e is about 0.4. Thus, a tungsten temperature (i.e., temperature of the
lamp at a temperature of 3000 K and a surface surroundings). Then, stop heating the water
area of 0.3 cm2 radiates at the rate H = 0.3 × by removing the heat source. Start the
10–4 × 0.4 × 5.67 × 10–8 × (3000)4 = 60 W. stop-watch and note the reading of the
A body at temperature T, with surroundings thermometer after a fixed interval of time, say
at temperatures Ts, emits, as well as, receives after every one minute of stirring gently with
energy. For a perfect radiator, the net rate of the stirrer. Continue to note the temperature
loss of radiant energy is (T2) of water till it attains a temperature about
5 °C above that of the surroundings. Then, plot
H = σA (T 4 – Ts4)
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220 PHYSICS
a graph by taking each value of temperature From Eqs. (10.15) and (10.16) we have
∆T = T2 – T1 along y-axis and the coresponding dT2
value of t along x-axis (Fig. 10.19). –m s = k (T2 – T1 )
dt
dT2 k
=– dt = – K dt (10.21)
T2 – T1 ms
where K = k/m s
On integrating,
∆
log e (T2 – T1) = – K t + c (10.22)
or T2 = T1 + C′ e –Kt; where C′ = e c (10.23)
Equation (10.23) enables you to calculate the
time of cooling of a body through a particular
Fig. 10.19 Curve showing cooling of hot water range of temperature.
with time. For small temperature differences, the rate
From the graph you can infer how the cooling of cooling, due to conduction, convection, and
of hot water depends on the difference of its radiation combined, is proportional to the
temperature from that of the surroundings. You difference in temperature. It is a valid
will also notice that initially the rate of cooling approximation in the transfer of heat from a
is higher and decreases as the temperature of radiator to a room, the loss of heat through the
the body falls. wall of a room, or the cooling of a cup of tea on
The above activity shows that a hot body loses the table.
heat to its surroundings in the form of heat
radiation. The rate of loss of heat depends on
the difference in temperature between the body
and its surroundings. Newton was the first to
study, in a systematic manner, the relation
between the heat lost by a body in a given
enclosure and its temperature.
According to Newton’s law of cooling, the rate
of loss of heat, – dQ/dt of the body is directly
proportional to the difference of temperature
∆T = (T2–T1) of the body and the surroundings.
The law holds good only for small difference of
temperature. Also, the loss of heat by radiation
depends upon the nature of the surface of the
body and the area of the exposed surface. We Fig. 10.20 Verification of Newton’s Law of cooling.
can write Newton’s law of cooling can be verified with
the help of the experimental set-up shown in
– (10.19) Fig. 10.20(a). The set-up consists of a double-
where k is a positive constant depending upon walled vessel (V) containing water between
the area and nature of the surface of the body. the two walls. A copper calorimeter (C)
Suppose a body of mass m and specific heat containing hot water is placed inside the
capacity s is at temperature T2. Let T1 be the double-walled vessel. Two thermometers
temperature of the surroundings. If the through the corks are used to note the
temperature falls by a small amount dT2 in time temperatures T2 of water in calorimeter and
dt, then the amount of heat lost is T1 of hot water in between the double walls,
respectively. Temperature of hot water in the
dQ = ms dT2
calorimeter is noted after equal intervals of
∴ Rate of loss of heat is given by time. A graph is plotted between log e (T2–T1)
dQ dT [or ln(T2–T1)] and time (t ). The nature of the
= ms 2 (10.20)
dt dt
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graph is observed to be a straight line having

8 °C
a negative slope as shown in Fig. 10.20(b). This = K ( 70 °C)
is in support of Eq. 10.22. 2 min
The average of 69 °C and 71 °C is 70 °C, which
Example 10.8 A pan filled with hot food
⊳
is 50 °C above room temperature. K is the same
cools from 94 °C to 86 °C in 2 minutes when
for this situation as for the original.
the room temperature is at 20 °C. How long
will it take to cool from 71 °C to 69 °C? 2 °C
= K (50 °C)
Time
Answer The average temperature of 94 °C and When we divide above two equations, we
86 °C is 90 °C, which is 70 °C above the room have
temperature. Under these conditions the pan
cools 8 °C in 2 minutes. 8 °C/2 min K (70 °C)
Using Eq. (10.21), we have =
2 °C/time K (50 °C)
Change in temperature Time = 0.7 min
= K ∆T
Time
= 42 s ⊳
SUMMARY
1. Heat is a form of energy that flows between a body and its surrounding medium by
virtue of temperature difference between them. The degree of hotness of the body is
quantitatively represented by temperature.
2. A temperature-measuring device (thermometer) makes use of some measurable property
(called thermometric property) that changes with temperature. Different thermometers
lead to different temperature scales. To construct a temperature scale, two fixed points
are chosen and assigned some arbitrary values of temperature. The two numbers fix
the origin of the scale and the size of its unit.
3. The Celsius temperature (tC) and the Farenheit temperare (tF)are related by
tF = (9/5) tC + 32
4. The ideal gas equation connecting pressure (P), volume (V) and absolute temperature (T)
is :
PV = µRT
where µ is the number of moles and R is the universal gas constant.
5. In the absolute temperature scale, the zero of the scale corresponds to the temperature
where every substance in nature has the least possible molecular activity. The Kelvin
absolute temperature scale (T ) has the same unit size as the Celsius scale (Tc ), but
differs in the origin :
TC = T – 273.15
6. The coefficient of linear expansion (αl ) and volume expansion (αv ) are defined by the
relations :
∆l
= α l ∆T
l
∆V
= α V ∆T
V
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222 PHYSICS
where ∆l and ∆V denote the change in length l and volume V for a change of temperature
∆T. The relation between them is :
αv = 3 αl
7. The specific heat capacity of a substance is defined by
1 ∆Q
s=
m ∆T
where m is the mass of the substance and ∆Q is the heat required to change its
temperature by ∆T. The molar specific heat capacity of a substance is defined by
1 ∆Q
C=
µ ∆T
where µ is the number of moles of the substance.
8. The latent heat of fusion (Lf) is the heat per unit mass required to change a substance
from solid into liquid at the same temperature and pressure. The latent heat of
vaporisation (Lv) is the heat per unit mass required to change a substance from liquid
to the vapour state without change in the temperature and pressure.
9. The three modes of heat transfer are conduction, convection and radiation.
10. In conduction, heat is transferred between neighbouring parts of a body through
molecular collisions, without any flow of matter. For a bar of length L and uniform
cross section A with its ends maintained at temperatures TC and TD, the rate of flow of
heat H is :
T −T
C D
H=K A
L
where K is the thermal conductivity of the material of the bar.
11. Newton’s Law of Cooling says that the rate of cooling of a body is proportional to the
excess temperature of the body over the surroundings :
dQ
= – k (T2 – T1 )
dt
Where T1 is the temperature of the surrounding medium and T2 is the temperature of
the body.
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POINTS TO PONDER
1. The relation connecting Kelvin temperature (T ) and the Celsius temperature tc
T = tc + 273.15
and the assignment T = 273.16 K for the triple point of water are exact relations (by
choice). With this choice, the Celsius temperature of the melting point of water and
boiling point of water (both at 1 atm pressure) are very close to, but not exactly equal
to 0 °C and 100 °C respectively. In the original Celsius scale, these latter fixed points
were exactly at 0 °C and 100 °C (by choice), but now the triple point of water is the
preferred choice for the fixed point, because it has a unique temperature.
2. A liquid in equilibrium with vapour has the same pressure and temperature throughout
the system; the two phases in equilibrium differ in their molar volume (i.e. density).
This is true for a system with any number of phases in equilibrium.
3. Heat transfer always involves temperature difference between two systems or two parts
of the same system. Any energy transfer that does not involve temperature difference
in some way is not heat.
4. Convection involves flow of matter within a fluid due to unequal temperatures of its
parts. A hot bar placed under a running tap loses heat by conduction between the
surface of the bar and water and not by convection within water.
EXERCISES
10.1 The triple points of neon and carbon dioxide are 24.57 K and 216.55 K respectively.
Express these temperatures on the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales.
10.2 Two absolute scales A and B have triple points of water defined to be 200 A and 350
B. What is the relation between TA and TB ?
10.3 The electrical resistance in ohms of a certain thermometer varies with temperature
according to the approximate law :
R = Ro [1 + α (T – To )]
The resistance is 101.6 Ω at the triple-point of water 273.16 K, and 165.5 Ω at the
normal melting point of lead (600.5 K). What is the temperature when the resistance
is 123.4 Ω ?
10.4 Answer the following :
(a) The triple-point of water is a standard fixed point in modern thermometry.
Why ? What is wrong in taking the melting point of ice and the boiling point
of water as standard fixed points (as was originally done in the Celsius scale) ?
(b) There were two fixed points in the original Celsius scale as mentioned above
which were assigned the number 0 °C and 100 °C respectively. On the absolute
scale, one of the fixed points is the triple-point of water, which on the Kelvin
absolute scale is assigned the number 273.16 K. What is the other fixed point
on this (Kelvin) scale ?
(c) The absolute temperature (Kelvin scale) T is related to the temperature tc on
the Celsius scale by
tc = T – 273.15
Why do we have 273.15 in this relation, and not 273.16 ?
(d) What is the temperature of the triple-point of water on an absolute scale
whose unit interval size is equal to that of the Fahrenheit scale ?
10.5 Two ideal gas thermometers A and B use oxygen and hydrogen respectively. The
following observations are made :
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224 PHYSICS
Temperature Pressure Pressure

thermometer A thermometer B
Triple-point of water 1.250 × 105 Pa 0.200 × 105 Pa

Normal melting point 1.797 × 105 Pa 0.287 × 105 Pa
of sulphur
(a) What is the absolute temperature of normal melting point of sulphur as read
by thermometers A and B ?
(b) What do you think is the reason behind the slight difference in answers of
thermometers A and B ? (The thermometers are not faulty). What further
procedure is needed in the experiment to reduce the discrepancy between the
two readings ?
10.6 A steel tape 1m long is correctly calibrated for a temperature of 27.0 °C. The length
of a steel rod measured by this tape is found to be 63.0 cm on a hot day when the
temperature is 45.0 °C. What is the actual length of the steel rod on that day ?
What is the length of the same steel rod on a day when the temperature is 27.0 °C
? Coefficient of linear expansion of steel = 1.20 × 10–5 K–1 .
10.7 A large steel wheel is to be fitted on to a shaft of the same material. At 27 °C, the
outer diameter of the shaft is 8.70 cm and the diameter of the central hole in the
wheel is 8.69 cm. The shaft is cooled using ‘dry ice’. At what temperature of the
shaft does the wheel slip on the shaft? Assume coefficient of linear expansion of
the steel to be constant over the required temperature range :
αsteel = 1.20 × 10–5 K–1.
10.8 A hole is drilled in a copper sheet. The diameter of the hole is 4.24 cm at 27.0 °C.
What is the change in the diameter of the hole when the sheet is heated to 227 °C?
Coefficient of linear expansion of copper = 1.70 × 10–5 K–1.
10.9 A brass wire 1.8 m long at 27 °C is held taut with little tension between two rigid
supports. If the wire is cooled to a temperature of –39 °C, what is the tension
developed in the wire, if its diameter is 2.0 mm ? Co-efficient of linear expansion
of brass = 2.0 × 10–5 K–1; Young’s modulus of brass = 0.91 × 1011 Pa.
10.10 A brass rod of length 50 cm and diameter 3.0 mm is joined to a steel rod of the same
length and diameter. What is the change in length of the combined rod at 250 °C, if
the original lengths are at 40.0 °C? Is there a ‘thermal stress’ developed at the
junction ? The ends of the rod are free to expand (Co-efficient of linear expansion of
brass = 2.0 × 10–5 K–1, steel = 1.2 × 10–5 K–1 ).
10.11 The coefficient of volume expansion of glycerine is 49 × 10–5 K–1. What is the fractional
change in its density for a 30 °C rise in temperature ?
10.12 A 10 kW drilling machine is used to drill a bore in a small aluminium block of mass
8.0 kg. How much is the rise in temperature of the block in 2.5 minutes, assuming
50% of power is used up in heating the machine itself or lost to the surroundings.
Specific heat of aluminium = 0.91 J g–1 K–1.
10.13 A copper block of mass 2.5 kg is heated in a furnace to a temperature of 500 °C and
then placed on a large ice block. What is the maximum amount of ice that can
melt? (Specific heat of copper = 0.39 J g –1 K –1; heat of fusion of water
= 335 J g–1 ).
10.14 In an experiment on the specific heat of a metal, a 0.20 kg block of the metal at
150 °C is dropped in a copper calorimeter (of water equivalent 0.025 kg) containing
150 cm3 of water at 27 °C. The final temperature is 40 °C. Compute the specific heat
of the metal. If heat losses to the surroundings are not negligible, is your answer
greater or smaller than the actual value for specific heat of the metal ?
10.15 Given below are observations on molar specific heats at room temperature of some
common gases.
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Gas Molar specific heat (Cv )

(cal mo1–1 K–1)
Hydrogen 4.87
Nitrogen 4.97
Oxygen 5.02
Nitric oxide 4.99
Carbon monoxide 5.01
Chlorine 6.17
The measured molar specific heats of these gases are markedly different from
those for monatomic gases. Typically, molar specific heat of a monatomic gas is
2.92 cal/mol K. Explain this difference. What can you infer from the somewhat
larger (than the rest) value for chlorine ?
10.16 A child running a temperature of 101°F is given an antipyrin (i.e. a medicine that
lowers fever) which causes an increase in the rate of evaporation of sweat from his
body. If the fever is brought down to 98 °F in 20 minutes, what is the average rate
of extra evaporation caused, by the drug. Assume the evaporation mechanism to
be the only way by which heat is lost. The mass of the child is 30 kg. The specific
heat of human body is approximately the same as that of water, and latent heat of
evaporation of water at that temperature is about 580 cal g–1.
10.17 A ‘thermacole’ icebox is a cheap and an efficient method for storing small quantities
of cooked food in summer in particular. A cubical icebox of side 30 cm has a
thickness of 5.0 cm. If 4.0 kg of ice is put in the box, estimate the amount of ice
remaining after 6 h. The outside temperature is 45 °C, and co-efficient of thermal
conductivity of thermacole is 0.01 J s–1 m–1 K–1. [Heat of fusion of water = 335 × 103
J kg–1]
10.18 A brass boiler has a base area of 0.15 m2 and thickness 1.0 cm. It boils water at the
rate of 6.0 kg/min when placed on a gas stove. Estimate the temperature of the part
of the flame in contact with the boiler. Thermal conductivity of brass = 109 J s–1 m–1
K–1 ; Heat of vaporisation of water = 2256 × 103 J kg–1.
10.19 Explain why :
(a) a body with large reflectivity is a poor emitter
(b) a brass tumbler feels much colder than a wooden tray on a chilly day
(c) an optical pyrometer (for measuring high temperatures) calibrated for an ideal
black body radiation gives too low a value for the temperature of a red hot
iron piece in the open, but gives a correct value for the temperature when the
same piece is in the furnace
(d) the earth without its atmosphere would be inhospitably cold
(e) heating systems based on circulation of steam are more efficient in warming
a building than those based on circulation of hot water
10.20 A body cools from 80 °C to 50 °C in 5 minutes. Calculate the time it takes to cool
from 60 °C to 30 °C. The temperature of the surroundings is 20 °C.
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CHAPTER ELEVEN
THERMODYNAMICS
11.1 INTRODUCTION
In previous chapter we have studied thermal properties of
matter. In this chapter we shall study laws that govern
thermal energy. We shall study the processes where work is
11.1 Introduction
converted into heat and vice versa. In winter, when we rub
11.2 Thermal equilibrium our palms together, we feel warmer; here work done in rubbing
11.3 Zeroth law of produces the ‘heat’. Conversely, in a steam engine, the ‘heat’
Thermodynamics of the steam is used to do useful work in moving the pistons,
11.4 Heat, internal energy and which in turn rotate the wheels of the train.
work In physics, we need to define the notions of heat,
11.5 First law of temperature, work, etc. more carefully. Historically, it took a
thermodynamics long time to arrive at the proper concept of ‘heat’. Before the
11.6 Specific heat capacity modern picture, heat was regarded as a fine invisible fluid
11.7 Thermodynamic state filling in the pores of a substance. On contact between a hot
variables and equation of body and a cold body, the fluid (called caloric) flowed from
state the colder to the hotter body ! This is similar to what happens
11.8 Thermodynamic processes when a horizontal pipe connects two tanks containing water
11.9 Second law of up to different heights. The flow continues until the levels of
thermodynamics water in the two tanks are the same. Likewise, in the ‘caloric’
11.10 Reversible and irreversible picture of heat, heat flows until the ‘caloric levels’ (i.e., the
processes temperatures) equalise.
11.11 Carnot engine In time, the picture of heat as a fluid was discarded in
favour of the modern concept of heat as a form of energy. An
Summary
important experiment in this connection was due to Benjamin
Points to ponder
Thomson (also known as Count Rumford) in 1798. He
Exercises
observed that boring of a brass cannon generated a lot of
heat, indeed enough to boil water. More significantly, the
amount of heat produced depended on the work done (by the
horses employed for turning the drill) but not on the
sharpness of the drill. In the caloric picture, a sharper drill
would scoop out more heat fluid from the pores; but this
was not observed. A most natural explanation of the
observations was that heat was a form of energy and the
experiment demonstrated conversion of energy from one form
to another–from work to heat.
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THERMODYNAMICS 227
Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that in a different context : we say the state of a system
deals with the concepts of heat and temperature is an equilibrium state if the macroscopic
and the inter-conversion of heat and other forms variables that characterise the system do not
of energy. Thermodynamics is a macroscopic change in time. For example, a gas inside a closed
science. It deals with bulk systems and does not rigid container, completely insulated from its
go into the molecular constitution of matter. In surroundings, with fixed values of pressure,
fact, its concepts and laws were formulated in the volume, temperature, mass and composition that
nineteenth century before the molecular picture do not change with time, is in a state of
of matter was firmly established. Thermodynamic thermodynamic equilibrium.
description involves relatively few macroscopic
variables of the system, which are suggested by
common sense and can be usually measured
directly. A microscopic description of a gas, for
example, would involve specifying the co-ordinates
and velocities of the huge number of molecules
constituting the gas. The description in kinetic
theory of gases is not so detailed but it does involve
molecular distribution of velocities.
Thermodynamic description of a gas, on the other (a)
hand, avoids the molecular description altogether.
Instead, the state of a gas in thermodynamics is
specified by macroscopic variables such as
pressure, volume, temperature, mass and
composition that are felt by our sense perceptions
and are measurable*.
The distinction between mechanics and
thermodynamics is worth bearing in mind. In
mechanics, our interest is in the motion of particles (b)
or bodies under the action of forces and torques. Fig. 11.1 (a) Systems A and B (two gases) separated
Thermodynamics is not concerned with the by an adiabatic wall – an insulating wall
motion of the system as a whole. It is concerned that does not allow flow of heat. (b) The
with the internal macroscopic state of the body. same systems A and B separated by a
When a bullet is fired from a gun, what changes diathermic wall – a conducting wall that
is the mechanical state of the bullet (its kinetic allows heat to flow from one to another. In
this case, thermal equilibrium is attained
energy, in particular), not its temperature. When
in due course.
the bullet pierces a wood and stops, the kinetic
energy of the bullet gets converted into heat, In general, whether or not a system is in a state
changing the temperature of the bullet and the of equilibrium depends on the surroundings and
surrounding layers of wood. Temperature is the nature of the wall that separates the system
related to the energy of the internal (disordered) from the surroundings. Consider two gases A and
motion of the bullet, not to the motion of the bullet B occupying two different containers. We know
as a whole. experimentally that pressure and volume of a
given mass of gas can be chosen to be its two
11.2 THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM
independent variables. Let the pressure and
Equilibrium in mechanics means that the net volume of the gases be (PA, VA) and (PB, VB)
external force and torque on a system are zero. respectively. Suppose first that the two systems
The term ‘equilibrium’ in thermodynamics appears are put in proximity but are separated by an
* Thermodynamics may also involve other variables that are not so obvious to our senses e.g. entropy, enthalpy,
etc., and they are all macroscopic variables. However, a thermodynamic state is specified by five state
variables viz., pressure, volume, temperature, internal energy and entropy. Entropy is a measure of disorderness
in the system. Enthalpy is a measure of total heat content of the system.
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228 PHYSICS
adiabatic wall – an insulating wall (can be law in 1931 long after the first and second Laws
movable) that does not allow flow of energy (heat) of thermodynamics were stated and so numbered.
from one to another. The systems are insulated The Zeroth Law clearly suggests that when two
from the rest of the surroundings also by similar systems A and B, are in thermal equilibrium,
adiabatic walls. The situation is shown there must be a physical quantity that has the
schematically in Fig. 11.1 (a). In this case, it is same value for both. This thermodynamic
found that any possible pair of values (PA, VA) will variable whose value is equal for two systems in
be in equilibrium with any possible pair of values thermal equilibrium is called temperature (T ).
(PB, VB ). Next, suppose that the adiabatic wall is Thus, if A and B are separately in equilibrium
replaced by a diathermic wall – a conducting wall with C, TA = TC and TB = TC. This implies that
that allows energy flow (heat) from one to another. TA = TB i.e. the systems A and B are also in
It is then found that the macroscopic variables of thermal equilibrium.
the systems A and B change spontaneously until We have arrived at the concept of temperature
both the systems attain equilibrium states. After formally via the Zeroth Law. The next question
that there is no change in their states. The is : how to assign numerical values to
situation is shown in Fig. 11.1(b). The pressure temperatures of different bodies ? In other words,
and volume variables of the two gases change to how do we construct a scale of temperature ?
(PB ′, VB ′) and (PA ′, VA ′) such that the new states Thermometry deals with this basic question to
of A and B are in equilibrium with each other*. which we turn in the next section.
There is no more energy flow from one to another.
We then say that the system A is in thermal
equilibrium with the system B.
What characterises the situation of thermal
equilibrium between two systems ? You can guess
the answer from your experience. In thermal
equilibrium, the temperatures of the two systems
are equal. We shall see how does one arrive at the
concept of temperature in thermodynamics? The
Zeroth law of thermodynamics provides the clue.
11.3 ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS (a)
Imagine two systems A and B, separated by an
adiabatic wall, while each is in contact with a third
system C, via a conducting wall [Fig. 11.2(a)]. The
states of the systems (i.e., their macroscopic
variables) will change until both A and B come to
thermal equilibrium with C. After this is achieved,
suppose that the adiabatic wall between A and B
is replaced by a conducting wall and C is insulated
from A and B by an adiabatic wall [Fig.11.2(b)]. It
is found that the states of A and B change no (b)
further i.e. they are found to be in thermal
Fig. 11.2 (a) Systems A and B are separated by an
equilibrium with each other. This observation adiabatic wall, while each is in contact
forms the basis of the Zeroth Law of with a third system C via a conducting
Thermodynamics, which states that ‘two wall. (b) The adiabatic wall between A
systems in thermal equilibrium with a third and B is replaced by a conducting wall,
system separately are in thermal equilibrium while C is insulated from A and B by an
with each other’. R.H. Fowler formulated this adiabatic wall.
* Both the variables need not change. It depends on the constraints. For instance, if the gases are in containers
of fixed volume, only the pressures of the gases would change to achieve thermal equilibrium.
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THERMODYNAMICS 229
11.4 HEAT, INTERNAL ENERGY AND WORK associated with various random motions of its
The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics led us to molecules. We will see in the next chapter that
the concept of temperature that agrees with our in a gas this motion is not only translational
commonsense notion. Temperature is a marker (i.e. motion from one point to another in the
of the ‘hotness’ of a body. It determines the volume of the container); it also includes
direction of flow of heat when two bodies are rotational and vibrational motion of the
placed in thermal contact. Heat flows from the molecules (Fig. 11.3).
body at a higher temperature to the one at lower
temperature. The flow stops when the
temperatures equalise; the two bodies are then
in thermal equilibrium. We saw in some detail
how to construct temperature scales to assign
temperatures to different bodies. We now
describe the concepts of heat and other relevant
quantities like internal energy and work. Fig. 11.3 (a) Internal energy U of a gas is the sum
of the kinetic and potential energies of its
The concept of internal energy of a system is
molecules when the box is at rest. Kinetic
not difficult to understand. We know that every energy due to various types of motion
bulk system consists of a large number of (translational, rotational, vibrational) is to
molecules. Internal energy is simply the sum of be included in U. (b) If the same box is
the kinetic energies and potential energies of moving as a whole with some velocity,
these molecules. We remarked earlier that in the kinetic energy of the box is not to be
thermodynamics, the kinetic energy of the included in U.
system, as a whole, is not relevant. Internal
energy is thus, the sum of molecular kinetic and
potential energies in the frame of reference
relative to which the centre of mass of the system
is at rest. Thus, it includes only the (disordered)
energy associated with the random motion of
molecules of the system. We denote the internal
energy of a system by U.
Though we have invoked the molecular
picture to understand the meaning of internal
energy, as far as thermodynamics is concerned,
U is simply a macroscopic variable of the system.
The important thing about internal energy is
that it depends only on the state of the system,
not on how that state was achieved. Internal
energy U of a system is an example of a
thermodynamic ‘state variable’ – its value
depends only on the given state of the system,
not on history i.e. not on the ‘path’ taken to arrive
at that state. Thus, the internal energy of a given
mass of gas depends on its state described by Fig. 11.4 Heat and work are two distinct modes of
specific values of pressure, volume and energy transfer to a system that results in
temperature. It does not depend on how this change in its internal energy. (a) Heat is
state of the gas came about. Pressure, volume, energy transfer due to temperature
difference between the system and the
temperature, and internal energy are
surroundings. (b) Work is energy transfer
thermodynamic state variables of the system brought about by means (e.g. moving the
(gas) (see section 11.7). If we neglect the small piston by raising or lowering some weight
intermolecular forces in a gas, the internal connected to it) that do not involve such a
energy of a gas is just the sum of kinetic energies temperature difference.
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230 PHYSICS
What are the ways of changing internal 11.5 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
energy of a system ? Consider again, for We have seen that the internal energy U of a
simplicity, the system to be a certain mass of system can change through two modes of energy
gas contained in a cylinder with a movable transfer : heat and work. Let
piston as shown in Fig. 11.4. Experience shows
there are two ways of changing the state of the ∆Q = Heat supplied to the system by the
gas (and hence its internal energy). One way is surroundings
to put the cylinder in contact with a body at a ∆W = Work done by the system on the
higher temperature than that of the gas. The surroundings
temperature difference will cause a flow of ∆U = Change in internal energy of the system
energy (heat) from the hotter body to the gas, The general principle of conservation of
thus increasing the internal energy of the gas. energy then implies that
The other way is to push the piston down i.e. to ∆Q = ∆U + ∆W (11.1)
do work on the system, which again results in
increasing the internal energy of the gas. Of i.e. the energy (∆Q) supplied to the system goes
course, both these things could happen in the in partly to increase the internal energy of the
reverse direction. With surroundings at a lower system (∆U) and the rest in work on the
temperature, heat would flow from the gas to environment (∆W). Equation (11.1) is known as
the surroundings. Likewise, the gas could push the First Law of Thermodynamics. It is simply
the general law of conservation of energy applied
the piston up and do work on the surroundings.
to any system in which the energy transfer from
In short, heat and work are two different modes
or to the surroundings is taken into account.
of altering the state of a thermodynamic system
Let us put Eq. (11.1) in the alternative form
and changing its internal energy.
The notion of heat should be carefully ∆Q – ∆W = ∆U (11.2)
distinguished from the notion of internal energy.
Heat is certainly energy, but it is the energy in Now, the system may go from an initial state
transit. This is not just a play of words. The to the final state in a number of ways. For
distinction is of basic significance. The state of example, to change the state of a gas from
a thermodynamic system is characterised by its (P1, V1) to (P2, V2), we can first change the
internal energy, not heat. A statement like ‘a volume of the gas from V1 to V2, keeping its
gas in a given state has a certain amount of pressure constant i.e. we can first go the state
heat’ is as meaningless as the statement that (P1, V2) and then change the pressure of the
gas from P1 to P2, keeping volume constant, to
‘a gas in a given state has a certain amount
take the gas to (P2, V2). Alternatively, we can
of work’. In contrast, ‘a gas in a given state
first keep the volume constant and then keep
has a certain amount of internal energy’ is a
the pressure constant. Since U is a state
perfectly meaningful statement. Similarly, the variable, ∆U depends only on the initial and
statements ‘a certain amount of heat is final states and not on the path taken by the
supplied to the system’ or ‘a certain amount gas to go from one to the other. However, ∆Q
of work was done by the system’ are perfectly and ∆W will, in general, depend on the path
meaningful. taken to go from the initial to final states. From
To summarise, heat and work in the First Law of Thermodynamics, Eq. (11.2),
thermodynamics are not state variables. They it is clear that the combination ∆Q – ∆W, is
are modes of energy transfer to a system however, path independent. This shows that
resulting in change in its internal energy, if a system is taken through a process in which
which, as already mentioned, is a state variable. ∆U = 0 (for example, isothermal expansion of
an ideal gas, see section 11.8),
In ordinary language, we often confuse heat
with internal energy. The distinction between ∆Q = ∆W
them is sometimes ignored in elementary
physics books. For proper understanding of i.e., heat supplied to the system is used up
thermodynamics, however, the distinction is entirely by the system in doing work on the
crucial. environment.
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THERMODYNAMICS 231
If the system is a gas in a cylinder with a If the amount of substance is specified in

movable piston, the gas in moving the piston does terms of moles µ (instead of mass m in kg ), we
work. Since force is pressure times area, and can define heat capacity per mole of the
area times displacement is volume, work done substance by
by the system against a constant pressure P is
S 1 ∆Q
C= = (11.6)
∆W = P ∆V µ µ ∆T
C is known as molar specific heat capacity of
where ∆V is the change in volume of the gas.
the substance. Like s, C is independent of the
Thus, for this case, Eq. (11.1) gives
amount of substance. C depends on the nature
∆Q = ∆U + P ∆V (11.3) of the substance, its temperature and the
conditions under which heat is supplied. The
As an application of Eq. (11.3), consider the unit of C is J mo1–1 K–1. As we shall see later (in
change in internal energy for 1 g of water when connection with specific heat capacity of gases),
we go from its liquid to vapour phase. The additional conditions may be needed to define
measured latent heat of water is 2256 J/g. i.e., C or s. The idea in defining C is that simple
for 1 g of water ∆Q = 2256 J. At atmospheric predictions can be made in regard to molar
pressure, 1 g of water has a volume 1 cm3 in specific heat capacities.
liquid phase and 1671 cm3 in vapour phase. Table 11.1 lists measured specific and molar
heat capacities of solids at atmospheric pressure
Therefore, and ordinary room temperature.
∆W =P (Vg –Vl ) = 1.013 ×105 × (1671 × 10–6) =169.2 J We will see in Chapter 12 that predictions of
specific heats of gases generally agree with
Equation (11.3) then gives experiment. We can use the same law of
∆U = 2256 – 169.2 = 2086.8 J equipartition of energy that we use there to
predict molar specific heat capacities of solids
We see that most of the heat goes to increase (See Section 12.5 and 12.6). Consider a solid of
the internal energy of water in transition from N atoms, each vibrating about its mean
the liquid to the vapour phase. position. An oscillator in one dimension has
11.6 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY average energy of 2 × ½ kBT = kBT. In three
dimensions, the average energy is 3 k BT.
Suppose an amount of heat ∆Q supplied to a
For a mole of a solid, the total energy is
substance changes its temperature from T to
T + ∆T. We define heat capacity of a substance U = 3 kBT × NA = 3 RT (∵ kBT × NA = R )
(see Chapter 10) to be Now, at constant pressure, ∆Q = ∆U + P ∆V ≅
∆Q ∆U, since for a solid ∆V is negligible. Therefore,
S= (11.4)
∆T ∆Q ∆U
We expect ∆Q and, therefore, heat capacity S C= = = 3R (11.7)
∆T ∆T
to be proportional to the mass of the substance.
Table 11.1 Specific and molar heat capacities
Further, it could also depend on the of some solids at room
temperature, i.e., a different amount of heat may temperature and atmospheric
be needed for a unit rise in temperature at pressure
different temperatures. To define a constant
Speci"c–v heat Molar speci"c
characteristic of the substance and Substance
(J kg–1 K–1) heat (J mol–1 K–1)
independent of its amount, we divide S by the
mass of the substance m in kg :
S  1  ∆Q
s = =   (11.5)
m  m  ∆T
s is known as the specific heat capacity of the
substance. It depends on the nature of the
As Table 11.1 shows, the experimentally
substance and its temperature. The unit of
specific heat capacity is J kg–1 K–1. measured values which generally agrees with
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232 PHYSICS
predicted value 3R at ordinary temperatures. ideal gas, we have a simple relation.

(Carbon is an exception.) The agreement is
known to break down at low temperatures. Cp – Cv = R (11.8)
Specific heat capacity of water where C p and C v are molar specific heat
capacities of an ideal gas at constant pressure
The old unit of heat was calorie. One calorie
and volume respectively and R is the universal
was earlier defined to be the amount of heat
gas constant. To prove the relation, we begin
required to raise the temperature of 1g of water
with Eq. (11.3) for 1 mole of the gas :
by 1°C. With more precise measurements, it was
found that the specific heat of water varies ∆Q = ∆U + P ∆V
slightly with temperature. Figure 11.5 shows
this variation in the temperature range 0 to If ∆Q is absorbed at constant volume, ∆V = 0
100 °C.
 ∆Q   ∆U   ∆U 
Cv =  = =
 ∆T  v  ∆T  v  ∆T  (11.9)
where the subscript v is dropped in the last

step, since U of an ideal gas depends only on
temperature. (The subscript denotes the
quantity kept fixed.) If, on the other hand, ∆Q
is absorbed at constant pressure,
 ∆Q   ∆U   ∆V 
Cp =   =   +P
 ∆T  p  ∆T  p  ∆T  p (11.10)
The subscript p can be dropped from the

Fig. 11.5 Variation of specific heat capacity of
first term since U of an ideal gas depends only
water with temperature.
on T. Now, for a mole of an ideal gas
For a precise definition of calorie, it was,
therefore, necessary to specify the unit PV = RT
temperature interval. One calorie is defined which gives
to be the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1g of water from 14.5 °C to  ∆V 
P  = R
15.5 °C. Since heat is just a form of energy,  ∆T  p (11.11)
it is preferable to use the unit joule, J.
In SI units, the specific heat capacity of water Equations (11.9) to (11.11) give the desired
is 4186 J kg–1 K–1 i.e. 4.186 J g–1 K–1. The so relation, Eq. (11.8).
called mechanical equivalent of heat defined
11.7THERMODYNAMIC STATE VARIABLES
as the amount of work needed to produce
AND EQUATION OF STATE
1 cal of heat is in fact just a conversion factor
between two different units of energy : calorie Every equilibrium state of a thermodynamic
to joule. Since in SI units, we use the unit joule system is completely described by specific
for heat, work or any other form of energy, the values of some macroscopic variables, also
term mechanical equivalent is now called state variables. For example, an
superfluous and need not be used. equilibrium state of a gas is completely
As already remarked, the specific heat specified by the values of pressure, volume,
capacity depends on the process or the temperature, and mass (and composition if
conditions under which heat capacity transfer there is a mixture of gases). A thermodynamic
takes place. For gases, for example, we can system is not always in equilibrium. For example,
define two specific heats : specific heat a gas allowed to expand freely against vacuum
capacity at constant volume and specific is not an equilibrium state [Fig. 11.6(a)]. During
heat capacity at constant pressure. For an the rapid expansion, pressure of the gas may
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THERMODYNAMICS 233
not be uniform throughout. Similarly, a mixture temperature do not. To decide which variable is
of gases undergoing an explosive chemical extensive and which intensive, think of a
reaction (e.g. a mixture of petrol vapour and relevant system in equilibrium, and imagine that
air when ignited by a spark) is not an it is divided into two equal parts. The variables
equilibrium state; again its temperature and that remain unchanged for each part are
pressure are not uniform [Fig. 11.6(b)]. intensive. The variables whose values get halved
Eventually, the gas attains a uniform in each part are extensive. It is easily seen, for
example, that internal energy U, volume V, total
temperature and pressure and comes to
mass M are extensive variables. Pressure P,
thermal and mechanical equilibrium with its
temperature T, and density ρ are intensive
surroundings.
variables. It is a good practice to check the
consistency of thermodynamic equations using
this classification of variables. For example, in
the equation
∆Q = ∆U + P ∆V
quantities on both sides are extensive*. (The
product of an intensive variable like P and an
extensive quantity ∆V is extensive.)
11.8 THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES

11.8.1 Quasi-static process
Consider a gas in thermal and mechanical
equilibrium with its surroundings. The pressure
of the gas in that case equals the external
Fig. 11.6 (a) The partition in the box is suddenly pressure and its temperature is the same as
removed leading to free expansion of the that of its surroundings. Suppose that the
gas. (b) A mixture of gases undergoing an external pressure is suddenly reduced (say by
explosive chemical reaction. In both lifting the weight on the movable piston in the
situations, the gas is not in equilibrium and
container). The piston will accelerate outward.
cannot be described by state variables.
During the process, the gas passes through
In short, thermodynamic state variables states that are not equilibrium states. The non-
describe equilibrium states of systems. The equilibrium states do not have well-defined
various state variables are not necessarily pressure and temperature. In the same way, if
independent. The connection between the state a finite temperature difference exists between
variables is called the equation of state. For the gas and its surroundings, there will be a
example, for an ideal gas, the equation of state rapid exchange of heat during which the gas
is the ideal gas relation will pass through non-equilibrium states. In
due course, the gas will settle to an equilibrium
PV=µRT state with well-defined temperature and
For a fixed amount of the gas i.e. given µ, there pressure equal to those of the surroundings. The
are thus, only two independent variables, say P free expansion of a gas in vacuum and a mixture
and V or T and V. The pressure-volume curve of gases undergoing an explosive chemical
for a fixed temperature is called an isotherm. reaction, mentioned in section 11.7 are also
Real gases may have more complicated examples where the system goes through non-
equations of state. equilibrium states.
The thermodynamic state variables are of two Non-equilibrium states of a system are difficult
kinds: extensive and intensive. Extensive to deal with. It is, therefore, convenient to
variables indicate the ‘size’ of the system. imagine an idealised process in which at every
Intensive variables such as pressure and stage the system is an equilibrium state. Such a
* As emphasised earlier, Q is not a state variable. However, ∆Q is clearly proportional to the total mass of
system and hence is extensive.
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234 PHYSICS
process is, in principle, infinitely slow, hence the A process in which the temperature of the
name quasi-static (meaning nearly static). The system is kept fixed throughout is called an
system changes its variables (P, T, V ) so slowly isothermal process. The expansion of a gas in
that it remains in thermal and mechanical a metallic cylinder placed in a large reservoir of
equilibrium with its surroundings throughout. fixed temperature is an example of an isothermal
In a quasi-static process, at every stage, the process. (Heat transferred from the reservoir to
difference in the pressure of the system and the the system does not materially affect the
external pressure is infinitesimally small. The temperature of the reservoir, because of its very
same is true of the temperature difference large heat capacity.) In isobaric processes the
between the system and its surroundings pressure is constant while in isochoric
(Fig.11.7). To take a gas from the state (P, T ) to processes the volume is constant. Finally, if the
another state (P ′, T ′ ) via a quasi-static process, system is insulated from the surroundings and
we change the external pressure by a very small no heat flows between the system and the
surroundings, the process is adiabatic. The
amount, allow the system to equalise its pressure
definitions of these special processes are
with that of the surroundings and continue the
summarised in Table. 11.2
process infinitely slowly until the system
achieves the pressure P ′. Similarly, to change Table 11.2 Some special thermodynamic
the temperature, we introduce an infinitesimal processes
temperature difference between the system and
the surrounding reservoirs and by choosing
reservoirs of progressively different temperatures
T to T ′, the system achieves the temperature T ′.
We now consider these processes in some detail :

11.8.2 Isothermal process
For an isothermal process (T fixed), the ideal gas
equation gives
PV = constant
i.e., pressure of a given mass of gas varies inversely
as its volume. This is nothing but Boyle’s Law.
Suppose an ideal gas goes isothermally (at
temperature T ) from its initial state (P1, V1) to
Fig. 11.7 In a quasi-static process, the temperature the final state (P2, V 2). At any intermediate stage
of the surrounding reservoir and the with pressure P and volume change from V to
external pressure differ only infinitesimally V + ∆V (∆V small)
from the temperature and pressure of the
system. ∆W = P ∆ V
A quasi-static process is obviously a Taking (∆V → 0) and summing the quantity
hypothetical construct. In practice, processes ∆W over the entire process,
that are sufficiently slow and do not involve V2
accelerated motion of the piston, large W = ∫ P dV
temperature gradient, etc., are reasonably V1
approximation to an ideal quasi-static process.
V2
We shall from now on deal with quasi-static dV V
= µ RT ∫ = µ RT In 2 (11.12)
processes only, except when stated otherwise. V1
V V1
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THERMODYNAMICS 235
where in the second step we have made use of We can calculate, as before, the work done in
the ideal gas equation PV = µ RT and taken the an adiabatic change of an ideal gas from the
constants out of the integral. For an ideal gas, state (P1, V1, T1) to the state (P2, V2, T2).
internal energy depends only on temperature.
V2
Thus, there is no change in the internal energy
W = ∫ P dV
of an ideal gas in an isothermal process. The
V1
First Law of Thermodynamics then implies that
heat supplied to the gas equals the work done
by the gas : Q = W. Note from Eq. (11.12) that
for V2 > V1, W > 0; and for V2 < V1, W < 0. That
is, in an isothermal expansion, the gas absorbs
heat and does work while in an isothermal
(11.15)
compression, work is done on the gas by the
environment and heat is released.
From Eq. (11.14), the constant is P1V1γ or P2V2γ
11.8.3 Adiabatic process
In an adiabatic process, the system is insulated 1  P2V2γ P1V1γ 
W =  − γ −1 
from the surroundings and heat absorbed or 1 − γ  V2γ −1 V1 
released is zero. From Eq. (11.1), we see that
µR(T1 − T2 )
[P2V2 − P1V1 ] =
work done by the gas results in decrease in its 1
= (11.16)
internal energy (and hence its temperature for 1−γ γ −1
an ideal gas). We quote without proof (the result
that you will learn in higher courses) that for As expected, if work is done by the gas in an
an adiabatic process of an ideal gas. adiabatic process (W > 0), from Eq. (11.16),
P V γ = const (11.13) T2 < T1. On the other hand, if work is done on
the gas (W < 0), we get T 2 > T 1 i.e., the
where γ is the ratio of specific heats (ordinary
temperature of the gas rises.
or molar) at constant pressure and at constant
volume. 11.8.4 Isochoric process
Cp
In an isochoric process, V is constant. No work
γ =
Cv is done on or by the gas. From Eq. (11.1), the
heat absorbed by the gas goes entirely to change
Thus if an ideal gas undergoes a change in
its internal energy and its temperature. The
its state adiabatically from (P1, V1) to (P2, V2) :
change in temperature for a given amount of
γ γ
P1 V1 = P2 V2 (11.14) heat is determined by the specific heat of the
Figure11.8 shows the P-V curves of an ideal gas at constant volume.
gas for two adiabatic processes connecting two 11.8.5 Isobaric process
isotherms.
In an isobaric process, P is fixed. Work done by
the gas is
W = P (V2 – V1) = µ R (T2 – T1) (11.17)
Since temperature changes, so does internal
energy. The heat absorbed goes partly to
increase internal energy and partly to do work.
The change in temperature for a given amount
of heat is determined by the specific heat of the
gas at constant pressure.
11.8.6 Cyclic process
In a cyclic process, the system returns to its
Fig. 11.8 P-V curves for isothermal and adiabatic
initial state. Since internal energy is a state
processes of an ideal gas. variable, ∆U = 0 for a cyclic process. From
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236 PHYSICS
Eq. (11.1), the total heat absorbed equals the 11.10 REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE
work done by the system. PROCESSES
11.9 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS Imagine some process in which a thermodynamic
system goes from an initial state i to a final state
The First Law of Thermodynamics is the
f. During the process the system absorbs heat Q
principle of conservation of energy. Common
from the surroundings and performs work W on
experience shows that there are many
it. Can we reverse this process and bring both
conceivable processes that are perfectly
the system and surroundings to their initial
allowed by the First Law and yet are never
states with no other effect anywhere ? Experience
observed. For example, nobody has ever seen
suggests that for most processes in nature this
a book lying on a table jumping to a height by
itself. But such a thing would be possible if is not possible. The spontaneous processes of
the principle of conservation of energy were nature are irreversible. Several examples can be
the only restriction. The table could cool cited. The base of a vessel on an oven is hotter
spontaneously, converting some of its internal than its other parts. When the vessel is removed,
energy into an equal amount of mechanical heat is transferred from the base to the other
energy of the book, which would then hop to a parts, bringing the vessel to a uniform
height with potential energy equal to the temperature (which in due course cools to the
mechanical energy it acquired. But this never temperature of the surroundings). The process
happens. Clearly, some additional basic cannot be reversed; a part of the vessel will not
principle of nature forbids the above, even get cooler spontaneously and warm up the base.
though it satisfies the energy conservation It will violate the Second Law of Thermodynamics,
principle. This principle, which disallows if it did. The free expansion of a gas is irreversible.
many phenomena consistent with the First The combustion reaction of a mixture of petrol
Law of Thermodynamics is known as the and air ignited by a spark cannot be reversed.
Second Law of Thermodynamics. Cooking gas leaking from a gas cylinder in the
The Second Law of Thermodynamics gives kitchen diffuses to the entire room. The diffusion
a fundamental limitation to the efficiency of a process will not spontaneously reverse and bring
heat engine and the co-efficient of the gas back to the cylinder. The stirring of a
performance of a refrigerator. In simple terms, liquid in thermal contact with a reservoir will
it says that efficiency of a heat engine can convert the work done into heat, increasing the
never be unity. For a refrigerator, the Second internal energy of the reservoir. The process
Law says that the co-efficient of performance cannot be reversed exactly; otherwise it would
can never be infinite. The following two amount to conversion of heat entirely into work,
statements, one due to Kelvin and Planck violating the Second Law of Thermodynamics.
denying the possibility of a perfect heat engine,
Irreversibility is a rule rather an exception
and another due to Clausius denying the
in nature.
possibility of a perfect refrigerator or heat
Irreversibility arises mainly from two causes:
pump, are a concise summary of these
one, many processes (like a free expansion, or
observations.
an explosive chemical reaction) take the system
Kelvin-Planck statement to non-equilibrium states; two, most processes
No process is possible whose sole result is the involve friction, viscosity and other dissipative
absorption of heat from a reservoir and the effects (e.g., a moving body coming to a stop and
complete conversion of the heat into work. losing its mechanical energy as heat to the floor
and the body; a rotating blade in a liquid coming
Clausius statement
to a stop due to viscosity and losing its
No process is possible whose sole result is the mechanical energy with corresponding gain in
transfer of heat from a colder object to a the internal energy of the liquid). Since
hotter object. dissipative effects are present everywhere and
It can be proved that the two statements can be minimised but not fully eliminated, most
above are completely equivalent. processes that we deal with are irreversible.
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THERMODYNAMICS 237
A thermodynamic process (state i → state f ) in a reversible heat engine operating between

is reversible if the process can be turned back two temperatures, heat should be absorbed
such that both the system and the surroundings (from the hot reservoir) isothermally and
return to their original states, with no other released (to the cold reservoir) isothermally. We
change anywhere else in the universe. From the thus have identified two steps of the reversible
preceding discussion, a reversible process is an heat engine : isothermal process at temperature
idealised notion. A process is reversible only if T1 absorbing heat Q1 from the hot reservoir, and
it is quasi-static (system in equilibrium with the another isothermal process at temperature T2
surroundings at every stage) and there are no releasing heat Q 2 to the cold reservoir. To
dissipative effects. For example, a quasi-static complete a cycle, we need to take the system
isothermal expansion of an ideal gas in a from temperature T1 to T2 and then back from
cylinder fitted with a frictionless movable piston temperature T2 to T1. Which processes should
is a reversible process. we employ for this purpose that are reversible?
A little reflection shows that we can only adopt
Why is reversibility such a basic concept in reversible adiabatic processes for these
thermodynamics ? As we have seen, one of the purposes, which involve no heat flow from any
concerns of thermodynamics is the efficiency reservoir. If we employ any other process that is
with which heat can be converted into work. not adiabatic, say an isochoric process, to take
The Second Law of Thermodynamics rules out the system from one temperature to another, we
the possibility of a perfect heat engine with 100% shall need a series of reservoirs in the
efficiency. But what is the highest efficiency temperature range T2 to T1 to ensure that at each
possible for a heat engine working between two stage the process is quasi-static. (Remember
reservoirs at temperatures T1 and T2 ? It turns again that for a process to be quasi-static and
out that a heat engine based on idealised reversible, there should be no finite temperature
reversible processes achieves the highest difference between the system and the reservoir.)
efficiency possible. All other engines involving But we are considering a reversible engine that
irreversibility in any way (as would be the case operates between only two temperatures. Thus
for practical engines) have lower than this adiabatic processes must bring about the
limiting efficiency. temperature change in the system from T1 to T2
and T2 to T1 in this engine.
11.11 CARNOT ENGINE
Suppose we have a hot reservoir at temperature
T1 and a cold reservoir at temperature T2. What
is the maximum efficiency possible for a heat
engine operating between the two reservoirs and
what cycle of processes should be adopted to
achieve the maximum efficiency ? Sadi Carnot,
a French engineer, first considered this question
in 1824. Interestingly, Carnot arrived at the
correct answer, even though the basic concepts
of heat and thermodynamics had yet to be firmly
established.
We expect the ideal engine operating between
two temperatures to be a reversible engine.
Irreversibility is associated with dissipative Fig. 11.9 Carnot cycle for a heat engine with an
effects, as remarked in the preceding section, ideal gas as the working substance.
and lowers efficiency. A process is reversible if
it is quasi-static and non-dissipative. We have A reversible heat engine operating between
seen that a process is not quasi-static if it two temperatures is called a Carnot engine. We
involves finite temperature difference between have just argued that such an engine must have
the system and the reservoir. This implies that the following sequence of steps constituting one
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238 PHYSICS
cycle, called the Carnot cycle, shown in

Fig. 11.9. We have taken the working substance In  V3 
 
of the Carnot engine to be an ideal gas.  T   V4 
=1−  2 
 T1   V2  (11.23)
(a) Step 1 → 2 Isothermal expansion of the gas
In  V 
taking its state from (P1, V1, T1) to 1
(P2, V2, T1).

Now since step 2 → 3 is an adiabatic process,
The heat absorbed by the gas (Q1) from the
γ −1 γ −1
reservoir at temperature T 1 is given by T1 V2 = T2 V3
Eq. (11.12). This is also the work done (W1 → 2)
by the gas on the environment.
1 /( γ −1)
V2 T 
 V2  i.e. =  2 (11.24)
W1 → 2 = Q1 = µ R T1 ln   (11.18) V3  T1 
V 
1
(b) Step 2 → 3 Adiabatic expansion of the gas Similarly, since step 4 → 1 is an adiabatic
from (P2, V2, T1) to (P3, V3, T2) process
Work done by the gas, using
γ −1 γ −1
Eq. (11.16), is T2 V4 = T1 V1
µR (T1 − T2 ) 1 / γ −1
W2 → 3 = (11.19) V1  T2 
γ −1 =
 T1 
i.e. (11.25)
V4
(c) Step 3 → 4 Isothermal compression of the
gas from (P3, V3, T2) to (P4, V4, T2). From Eqs. (11.24) and (11.25),
Heat released (Q2) by the gas to the reservoir V3 V2

= (11.26)
at temperature T2 is given by Eq. (11.12). This V4 V1
is also the work done (W3 → 4) on the gas by the
environment. Using Eq. (11.26) in Eq. (11.23), we get
V 
W3 → 4 = Q2 = µRT2 ln  3  T2
 V4 
(11.20) η =1 − (Carnot engine) (11.27)
T1
(d) Step 4 → 1 Adiabatic compression of the
gas from (P4, V4, T2) to (P1,V1, T1). We have already seen that a Carnot engine
is a reversible engine. Indeed it is the only
Work done on the gas, [using Eq.(11.16), is reversible engine possible that works between
two reservoirs at different temperatures. Each
 T − T2 
W4 → 1 = µ R  1 step of the Carnot cycle given in Fig. 11.9 can
 γ -1 
(11.21)
be reversed. This will amount to taking heat Q2
From Eqs. (11.18) to (11.21) total work done from the cold reservoir at T2, doing work W on
by the gas in one complete cycle is the system, and transferring heat Q1 to the hot
reservoir. This will be a reversible refrigerator.
W = W1 → 2 + W2 → 3 – W3 →4 – W4 → 1 We next establish the important result
 V2   V3  (sometimes called Carnot’s theorem) that
= µ RT1 ln   – µ RT2 ln   (11.22) (a) working between two given temperatures T1
 V1   V4 
and T2 of the hot and cold reservoirs respectively,
The efficiency η of the Carnot engine is no engine can have efficiency more than that of
the Carnot engine and (b) the efficiency of the
W Q2
η = =1 − Carnot engine is independent of the nature of
Q1 Q1
the working substance.
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THERMODYNAMICS 239
To prove the result (a), imagine a reversible reservoir and delivers the same amount of work
(Carnot) engine R and an irreversible engine I in one cycle, without any change in the source
working between the same source (hot reservoir) or anywhere else. This is clearly against the
and sink (cold reservoir). Let us couple the Kelvin-Planck statement of the Second Law of
engines, I and R, in such a way so that I acts Thermodynamics. Hence the assertion ηI > ηR
like a heat engine and R acts as a refrigerator. is wrong. No engine can have efficiency greater
Let I absorb heat Q1 from the source, deliver than that of the Carnot engine. A similar
work W ′ and release the heat Q1- W′ to the sink. argument can be constructed to show that a
We arrange so that R returns the same heat Q1 reversible engine with one particular substance
to the source, taking heat Q2 from the sink and cannot be more efficient than the one using
requiring work W = Q1 – Q2 to be done on it. another substance. The maximum efficiency of
Now suppose ηR < ηI i.e. if R were to act a Carnot engine given by Eq. (11.27) is
as an engine it would give less work output independent of the nature of the system
performing the Carnot cycle of operations. Thus
we are justified in using an ideal gas as a system
in the calculation of efficiency η of a Carnot
engine. The ideal gas has a simple equation of
I
state, which allows us to readily calculate η, but
the final result for η, [Eq. (11.27)], is true for
any Carnot engine.
R This final remark shows that in a Carnot
cycle,
Q1 T1
W = (11.28)
Q 2 T2
Fig. 11.10 An irreversible engine (I) coupled to a is a universal relation independent of the nature
reversible refrigerator (R). If W ′ > W, this of the system. Here Q1 and Q2 are respectively,
would amount to extraction of heat the heat absorbed and released isothermally
W ′ – W from the sink and its full (from the hot and to the cold reservoirs) in a
conversion to work, in contradiction with Carnot engine. Equation (11.28), can, therefore,
the Second Law of Thermodynamics. be used as a relation to define a truly universal
thermodynamic temperature scale that is
than that of I i.e. W < W ′ for a given Q1. With R independent of any particular properties of the
acting like a refrigerator, this would mean system used in the Carnot cycle. Of course, for
Q2 = Q1 – W > Q1 – W ′. Thus, on the whole, an ideal gas as a working substance, this
the coupled I-R system extracts heat universal temperature is the same as the ideal
(Q1 – W) – (Q1 – W ′) = (W ′ – W ) from the cold gas temperature introduced in section 11.9.
SUMMARY
1. The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that ‘two systems in thermal equilibrium with a
third system separately are in thermal equilibrium with each other’. The Zeroth Law leads
to the concept of temperature.
2. Internal energy of a system is the sum of kinetic energies and potential energies of the
molecular constituents of the system. It does not include the over-all kinetic energy of
the system. Heat and work are two modes of energy transfer to the system. Heat is the
energy transfer arising due to temperature difference between the system and the
surroundings. Work is energy transfer brought about by other means, such as moving
the piston of a cylinder containing the gas, by raising or lowering some weight connected
to it.
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240 PHYSICS
3. The first law of thermodynamics is the general law of conservation of energy applied to
any system in which energy transfer from or to the surroundings (through heat and
work) is taken into account. It states that
∆Q = ∆U + ∆W
where ∆Q is the heat supplied to the system, ∆W is the work done by the system and ∆U
is the change in internal energy of the system.
4. The specific heat capacity of a substance is defined by
1 ∆Q
s=
m ∆T
where m is the mass of the substance and ∆Q is the heat required to change its
temperature by ∆T. The molar specific heat capacity of a substance is defined by
1 ∆Q
C=
µ ∆T
where µ is the number of moles of the substance. For a solid, the law of equipartition
of energy gives
C = 3R
which generally agrees with experiment at ordinary temperatures.
Calorie is the old unit of heat. 1 calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 g of water from 14.5 °C to 15.5 °C. 1 cal = 4.186 J.
5. For an ideal gas, the molar specific heat capacities at constant pressure and volume
satisfy the relation
Cp – Cv = R
where R is the universal gas constant.
6. Equilibrium states of a thermodynamic system are described by state variables. The
value of a state variable depends only on the particular state, not on the path used to
arrive at that state. Examples of state variables are pressure (P ), volume (V ), temperature
(T ), and mass (m ). Heat and work are not state variables. An Equation of State (like
the ideal gas equation PV = µ RT ) is a relation connecting different state variables.
7. A quasi-static process is an infinitely slow process such that the system remains in
thermal and mechanical equilibrium with the surroundings throughout. In a
quasi-static process, the pressure and temperature of the environment can differ from
those of the system only infinitesimally.
8. In an isothermal expansion of an ideal gas from volume V1 to V2 at temperature T the
heat absorbed (Q) equals the work done (W ) by the gas, each given by
 V2 
Q = W = µRT ln  V 
 1
9. In an adiabatic process of an ideal gas
γ
PV = constant
Cp
where γ =
Cv
Work done by an ideal gas in an adiabatic change of state from (P1, V1, T1) to (P2, V2, T2)
is
µ R ( T1 − T2 )
W =
γ –1
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THERMODYNAMICS 241
10. The second law of thermodynamics disallows some processes consistent with the First
Law of Thermodynamics. It states
Kelvin-Planck statement
No process is possible whose sole result is the absorption of heat from a reservoir and
complete conversion of the heat into work.
Clausius statement
No process is possible whose sole result is the transfer of heat from a colder object to a
hotter object.
Put simply, the Second Law implies that no heat engine can have efficiency η equal to
1 or no refrigerator can have co-efficient of performance α equal to infinity.
11. A process is reversible if it can be reversed such that both the system and the surroundings
return to their original states, with no other change anywhere else in the universe.
Spontaneous processes of nature are irreversible. The idealised reversible process is a
quasi-static process with no dissipative factors such as friction, viscosity, etc.
12. Carnot engine is a reversible engine operating between two temperatures T1 (source) and
T2 (sink). The Carnot cycle consists of two isothermal processes connected by two
adiabatic processes. The efficiency of a Carnot engine is given by
T2
η =1 − (Carnot engine)
T1
No engine operating between two temperatures can have efficiency greater than that of
the Carnot engine.
13. If Q > 0, heat is added to the system
If Q < 0, heat is removed to the system
If W > 0, Work is done by the system
If W < 0, Work is done on the system
Quantity Symbol Dimensions Unit Remark
Co-efficienty of volume αv [K–1] K–1 αv = 3 α1

expansion
Heat supplied to a system ∆Q [ML2 T–2] J Q is not a state

variable
Specific heat capacity s [L2 T–2 K–1] J kg–1 K–1
dt
Thermal Conductivity K [MLT–3 K–1] J s–1 K–1 H = – KA
dx
POINTS TO PONDER
1. Temperature of a body is related to its average internal energy, not to the kinetic energy
of motion of its centre of mass. A bullet fired from a gun is not at a higher temperature
because of its high speed.
2. Equilibrium in thermodynamics refers to the situation when macroscopic variables
describing the thermodynamic state of a system do not depend on time. Equilibrium of
a system in mechanics means the net external force and torque on the system are zero.
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242 PHYSICS
3. In a state of thermodynamic equilibrium, the microscopic constituents of a system are

not in equilibrium (in the sense of mechanics).
4. Heat capacity, in general, depends on the process the system goes through when heat is
supplied.
5. In isothermal quasi-static processes, heat is absorbed or given out by the system even
though at every stage the gas has the same temperature as that of the surrounding
reservoir. This is possible because of the infinitesimal difference in temperature between
the system and the reservoir.
EXERCISES
11.1 A geyser heats water flowing at the rate of 3.0 litres per minute from 27 °C to 77 °C.
If the geyser operates on a gas burner, what is the rate of consumption of the fuel if
its heat of combustion is 4.0 × 104 J/g ?
11.2 What amount of heat must be supplied to 2.0 × 10–2 kg of nitrogen (at room
temperature) to raise its temperature by 45 °C at constant pressure ? (Molecular
mass of N2 = 28; R = 8.3 J mol–1 K–1.)
11.3 Explain why
(a) Two bodies at different temperatures T1 and T2 if brought in thermal contact do
not necessarily settle to the mean temperature (T1 + T2 )/2.
(b) The coolant in a chemical or a nuclear plant (i.e., the liquid used to prevent
the different parts of a plant from getting too hot) should have high
specific heat.
(c) Air pressure in a car tyre increases during driving.
(d) The climate of a harbour town is more temperate than that of a town in a desert
at the same latitude.
11.4 A cylinder with a movable piston contains 3 moles of hydrogen at standard temperature
and pressure. The walls of the cylinder are made of a heat insulator, and the piston
is insulated by having a pile of sand on it. By what factor does the pressure of the
gas increase if the gas is compressed to half its original volume ?
11.5 In changing the state of a gas adiabatically from an equilibrium state A to another
equilibrium state B, an amount of work equal to 22.3 J is done on the system. If the
gas is taken from state A to B via a process in which the net heat absorbed by the
system is 9.35 cal, how much is the net work done by the system in the latter case ?
(Take 1 cal = 4.19 J)
11.6 Two cylinders A and B of equal capacity are connected to each other via a stopcock.
A contains a gas at standard temperature and pressure. B is completely evacuated.
The entire system is thermally insulated. The stopcock is suddenly opened. Answer
the following :
(a) What is the final pressure of the gas in A and B ?
(b) What is the change in internal energy of the gas ?
(c) What is the change in the temperature of the gas ?
(d) Do the intermediate states of the system (before settling to the final equilibrium
state) lie on its P-V-T surface ?
11.7 An electric heater supplies heat to a system at a rate of 100W. If system performs
work at a rate of 75 joules per second. At what rate is the internal
energy increasing?
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THERMODYNAMICS 243
11.8 A thermodynamic system is taken from an original state to an intermediate state by

the linear process shown in Fig. (11.13)
Fig. 11.11
Its volume is then reduced to the original value from E to F by an isobaric process.
Calculate the total work done by the gas from D to E to F
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CHAPTER TWELVE
KINETIC THEORY
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Boyle discovered the law named after him in 1661. Boyle,
Newton and several others tried to explain the behaviour of
12.1 Introduction gases by considering that gases are made up of tiny atomic
12.2 Molecular nature of matter particles. The actual atomic theory got established more than
12.3 Behaviour of gases 150 years later. Kinetic theory explains the behaviour of gases
12.4 Kinetic theory of an ideal gas based on the idea that the gas consists of rapidly moving
12.5 Law of equipartition of energy atoms or molecules. This is possible as the inter-atomic forces,
12.6 Specific heat capacity which are short range forces that are important for solids
12.7 Mean free path and liquids, can be neglected for gases. The kinetic theory
was developed in the nineteenth century by Maxwell,
Summary Boltzmann and others. It has been remarkably successful. It
Points to ponder gives a molecular interpretation of pressure and temperature
Exercises of a gas, and is consistent with gas laws and Avogadro’s
hypothesis. It correctly explains specific heat capacities of
many gases. It also relates measurable properties of gases
such as viscosity, conduction and diffusion with molecular
parameters, yielding estimates of molecular sizes and masses.
This chapter gives an introduction to kinetic theory.
12.2 MOLECULAR NATURE OF MATTER

Richard Feynman, one of the great physicists of 20th century
considers the discovery that “Matter is made up of atoms” to
be a very significant one. Humanity may suffer annihilation
(due to nuclear catastrophe) or extinction (due to
environmental disasters) if we do not act wisely. If that
happens, and all of scientific knowledge were to be destroyed
then Feynman would like the ‘Atomic Hypothesis’ to be
communicated to the next generation of creatures in the
universe. Atomic Hypothesis: All things are made of atoms -
little particles that move around in perpetual motion,
attracting each other when they are a little distance apart,
but repelling upon being squeezed into one another.
Speculation that matter may not be continuous, existed in
many places and cultures. Kanada in India and Democritus
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KINETIC THEORY 245
Atomic Hypothesis in Ancient India and Greece

Though John Dalton is credited with the introduction of atomic viewpoint in modern science, scholars in
ancient India and Greece conjectured long before the existence of atoms and molecules. In the Vaiseshika
school of thought in India founded by Kanada (Sixth century B.C.) the atomic picture was developed in
considerable detail. Atoms were thought to be eternal, indivisible, infinitesimal and ultimate parts of matter.
It was argued that if matter could be subdivided without an end, there would be no difference between a
mustard seed and the Meru mountain. The four kinds of atoms (Paramanu — Sanskrit word for the
smallest particle) postulated were Bhoomi (Earth), Ap (water), Tejas (fire) and Vayu (air) that have characteristic
mass and other attributes, were propounded. Akasa (space) was thought to have no atomic structure and
was continuous and inert. Atoms combine to form different molecules (e.g. two atoms combine to form a
diatomic molecule dvyanuka, three atoms form a tryanuka or a triatomic molecule), their properties depending
upon the nature and ratio of the constituent atoms. The size of the atoms was also estimated, by conjecture
or by methods that are not known to us. The estimates vary. In Lalitavistara, a famous biography of the
Buddha written mainly in the second century B.C., the estimate is close to the modern estimate of atomic
size, of the order of 10 –10 m.
In ancient Greece, Democritus (Fourth century B.C.) is best known for his atomic hypothesis. The
word ‘atom’ means ‘indivisible’ in Greek. According to him, atoms differ from each other physically, in
shape, size and other properties and this resulted in the different properties of the substances formed
by their combination. The atoms of water were smooth and round and unable to ‘hook’ on to each
other, which is why liquid /water flows easily. The atoms of earth were rough and jagged, so they held
together to form hard substances. The atoms of fire were thorny which is why it caused painful burns.
These fascinating ideas, despite their ingenuity, could not evolve much further, perhaps because they
were intuitive conjectures and speculations not tested and modified by quantitative experiments - the
hallmark of modern science.
in Greece had suggested that matter may consist of matter. The theory is now well accepted by
of indivisible constituents. The scientific ‘Atomic scientists. However even at the end of the
Theory’ is usually credited to John Dalton. He nineteenth century there were famous scientists
proposed the atomic theory to explain the laws who did not believe in atomic theory !
of definite and multiple proportions obeyed by From many observations, in recent times we
elements when they combine into compounds. now know that molecules (made up of one or
The first law says that any given compound has, more atoms) constitute matter. Electron
a fixed proportion by mass of its constituents. microscopes and scanning tunnelling
The second law says that when two elements microscopes enable us to even see them. The
form more than one compound, for a fixed mass size of an atom is about an angstrom (10 -10 m).
of one element, the masses of the other elements In solids, which are tightly packed, atoms are
are in ratio of small integers. spaced about a few angstroms (2 Å) apart. In
To explain the laws Dalton suggested, about liquids the separation between atoms is also
200 years ago, that the smallest constituents about the same. In liquids the atoms are not
of an element are atoms. Atoms of one element as rigidly fixed as in solids, and can move
are identical but differ from those of other around. This enables a liquid to flow. In gases
elements. A small number of atoms of each the interatomic distances are in tens of
element combine to form a molecule of the angstroms. The average distance a molecule
compound. Gay Lussac’s law, also given in early can travel without colliding is called the mean
19th century, states: When gases combine free path. The mean free path, in gases, is of
chemically to yield another gas, their volumes the order of thousands of angstroms. The atoms
are in the ratios of small integers. Avogadro’s are much freer in gases and can travel long
law (or hypothesis) says: Equal volumes of all distances without colliding. If they are not
gases at equal temperature and pressure have enclosed, gases disperse away. In solids and
the same number of molecules. Avogadro’s law, liquids the closeness makes the interatomic force
when combined with Dalton’s theory explains important. The force has a long range attraction
Gay Lussac’s law. Since the elements are often and a short range repulsion. The atoms attract
in the form of molecules, Dalton’s atomic theory when they are at a few angstroms but repel when
can also be referred to as the molecular theory they come closer. The static appearance of a gas
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246 PHYSICS
is misleading. The gas is full of activity and the is 6.02 × 1023. This is known as Avogadro number
equilibrium is a dynamic one. In dynamic and is denoted by NA. The mass of 22.4 litres of
equilibrium, molecules collide and change their any gas is equal to its molecular weight in grams
speeds during the collision. Only the average at S.T.P (standard temperature 273 K and
properties are constant. pressure 1 atm). This amount of substance is
Atomic theory is not the end of our quest, but called a mole (see Chapter 1 for a more precise
the beginning. We now know that atoms are not definition). Avogadro had guessed the equality of
indivisible or elementary. They consist of a numbers in equal volumes of gas at a fixed
nucleus and electrons. The nucleus itself is made temperature and pressure from chemical
up of protons and neutrons. The protons and reactions. Kinetic theory justifies this hypothesis.
neutrons are again made up of quarks. Even The perfect gas equation can be written as
quarks may not be the end of the story. There
may be string like elementary entities. Nature PV = µ RT (12.3)
always has surprises for us, but the search for where µ is the number of moles and R = NA
truth is often enjoyable and the discoveries kB is a universal constant. The temperature T is
beautiful. In this chapter, we shall limit ourselves absolute temperature. Choosing kelvin scale for
to understanding the behaviour of gases (and a absolute temperature, R = 8.314 J mol–1K–1.
little bit of solids), as a collection of moving Here
molecules in incessant motion. M N
µ = = (12.4)
M0 NA
12.3 BEHAVIOUR OF GASES
where M is the mass of the gas containing N
Properties of gases are easier to understand than molecules, M0 is the molar mass and NA the
those of solids and liquids. This is mainly Avogadro’s number. Using Eqs. (12.4) and (12.3)
because in a gas, molecules are far from each can also be written as
other and their mutual interactions are PV = kB NT or P = kB nT
negligible except when two molecules collide.
Gases at low pressures and high temperatures
much above that at which they liquefy (or
solidify) approximately satisfy a simple relation
( J mol –1K –1)
between their pressure, temperature and volume

given by (see Chapter 10)
PV = KT (12.1)
for a given sample of the gas. Here T is the
temperature in kelvin or (absolute) scale. K is a
pV
µT
constant for the given sample but varies with

the volume of the gas. If we now bring in the
idea of atoms or molecules, then K is proportional
to the number of molecules, (say) N in the
sample. We can write K = N k . Observation tells P (atm)
us that this k is same for all gases. It is called Fig.12.1 Real gases approach ideal gas behaviour at
Boltzmann constant and is denoted by k . low pressures and high temperatures.
B
P1V1 PV where n is the number density, i.e. number of
As = 2 2 = constant = kB (12.2)
N1T1 N 2 T2 molecules per unit volume. kB is the Boltzmann
if P, V and T are same, then N is also same for all constant introduced above. Its value in SI units
gases. This is Avogadro’s hypothesis, that the is 1.38 × 10–23 J K–1.
Another useful form of Eq. (12.3) is
number of molecules per unit volume is
the same for all gases at a fixed temperature and ρRT
P = (12.5)
pressure. The number in 22.4 litres of any gas M0
2024-25
KINETIC THEORY 247
where ρ is the mass density of the gas. etc. in a vessel of volume V at temperature T and
A gas that satisfies Eq. (12.3) exactly at all pressure P. It is then found that the equation of
pressures and temperatures is defined to be an state of the mixture is :
ideal gas. An ideal gas is a simple theoretical PV = ( µ1 + µ2 +… ) RT (12.7)
model of a gas. No real gas is truly ideal.
Fig. 12.1 shows departures from ideal gas RT RT
behaviour for a real gas at three different i.e. P = µ1 + µ2 + ... (12.8)
V V
temperatures. Notice that all curves approach
= P1 + P2 + … (12.9)
the ideal gas behaviour for low pressures and
high temperatures. Clearly P1 = µ1 R T/V is the pressure that
At low pressures or high temperatures the gas 1 would exert at the same conditions of
molecules are far apart and molecular volume and temperature if no other gases were
interactions are negligible. Without interactions present. This is called the partial pressure of the
the gas behaves like an ideal one. gas. Thus, the total pressure of a mixture of ideal
If we fix µ and T in Eq. (12.3), we get gases is the sum of partial pressures. This is
PV = constant (12.6) Dalton’s law of partial pressures.
i.e., keeping temperature constant, pressure of
a given mass of gas varies inversely with volume.
This is the famous Boyle’s law. Fig. 12.2 shows
comparison between experimental P-V curves
and the theoretical curves predicted by Boyle’s
law. Once again you see that the agreement is
good at high temperatures and low pressures.
Next, if you fix P, Eq. (12.1) shows that V ∝ T i.e.,
for a fixed pressure, the volume of a gas is
proportional to its absolute temperature T
(Charles’ law). See Fig. 12.3.
Fig. 12.3 Experimental T-V curves (solid lines) for CO2

at three pressures compared with Charles’
law (dotted lines). T is in units of 300 K and
V in units of 0.13 litres.
We next consider some examples which give

us information about the volume occupied by
the molecules and the volume of a single
molecule.
Example 12.1 The density of water is 1000

⊳
kg m–3. The density of water vapour at 100 °C
and 1 atm pressure is 0.6 kg m–3. The
volume of a molecule multiplied by the total
Fig.12.2 Experimental P-V curves (solid lines) for number gives ,what is called, molecular
steam at three temperatures compared with
volume. Estimate the ratio (or fraction) of
Boyle’s law (dotted lines). P is in units of 22
atm and V in units of 0.09 litres.
the molecular volume to the total volume
occupied by the water vapour under the
Finally, consider a mixture of non-interacting above conditions of temperature and
ideal gases: µ moles of gas 1, µ moles of gas 2, pressure.
1 2
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248 PHYSICS
Answer For a given mass of water molecules, number of molecules and (ii) mass density
the density is less if volume is large. So the of neon and oxygen in the vessel. Atomic
volume of the vapour is 1000/0.6 = 1/(6 × 10 -4 ) mass of Ne = 20.2 u, molecular mass of O2
times larger. If densities of bulk water and water = 32.0 u.
molecules are same, then the fraction of
molecular volume to the total volume in liquid Answer Partial pressure of a gas in a mixture is
state is 1. As volume in vapour state has the pressure it would have for the same volume
increased, the fractional volume is less by the and temperature if it alone occupied the vessel.
same amount, i.e. 6×10-4. ⊳ (The total pressure of a mixture of non-reactive
gases is the sum of partial pressures due to its
Example 12.2 Estimate the volume of a
⊳
constituent gases.) Each gas (assumed ideal)
water molecule using the data in Example obeys the gas law. Since V and T are common to
12.1. the two gases, we have P1V = µ 1 RT and P2V =
Answer In the liquid (or solid) phase, the µ2 RT, i.e. (P1/P2) = (µ1 / µ2). Here 1 and 2 refer
molecules of water are quite closely packed. The to neon and oxygen respectively. Since (P1/P2) =
density of water molecule may therefore, be (3/2) (given), (µ1/ µ2) = 3/2.
regarded as roughly equal to the density of bulk (i) By definition µ1 = (N1/NA ) and µ2 = (N2/NA)
water = 1000 kg m–3. To estimate the volume of where N1 and N2 are the number of molecules
a water molecule, we need to know the mass of of 1 and 2, and NA is the Avogadro’s number.
a single water molecule. We know that 1 mole Therefore, (N1/N2) = (µ1 / µ2) = 3/2.
of water has a mass approximately equal to (ii) We can also write µ1 = (m1/M1) and µ2 =
(2 + 16)g = 18 g = 0.018 kg. (m2/M2) where m1 and m2 are the masses of
Since 1 mole contains about 6 × 1023 1 and 2; and M1 and M2 are their molecular
molecules (Avogadro’s number), the mass of masses. (Both m1 and M1; as well as m2 and
a molecule of water is (0.018)/(6 × 1023) kg = M2 should be expressed in the same units).
3 × 10–26 kg. Therefore, a rough estimate of the If ρ1 and ρ2 are the mass densities of 1 and
volume of a water molecule is as follows : 2 respectively, we have
Volume of a water molecule ρ1 m /V m µ M 
= (3 × 10–26 kg)/ (1000 kg m–3) = 1 = 1 = 1 × 1
ρ2 m2 /V m 2 µ2  M 2 
= 3 × 10–29 m3
= (4/3) π (Radius)3 3 20.2
Hence, Radius ≈ 2 ×10-10 m = 2 Å ⊳ = × = 0.947
2 32.0
⊳
Example 12.3 What is the average ⊳
distance between atoms (interatomic
distance) in water? Use the data given in 12.4 KINETIC THEORY OF AN IDEAL GAS
Examples 12.1 and 12.2. Kinetic theory of gases is based on the molecular
picture of matter. A given amount of gas is a
Answer : A given mass of water in vapour state collection of a large number of molecules
has 1.67×103 times the volume of the same mass (typically of the order of Avogadro’s number) that
of water in liquid state (Ex. 12.1). This is also are in incessant random motion. At ordinary
the increase in the amount of volume available pressure and temperature, the average distance
for each molecule of water. When volume between molecules is a factor of 10 or more than
increases by 103 times the radius increases by the typical size of a molecule (2 Å). Thus,
V1/3 or 10 times, i.e., 10 × 2 Å = 20 Å. So the interaction between molecules is negligible and
average distance is 2 × 20 = 40 Å. ⊳ we can assume that they move freely in straight
lines according to Newton’s first law. However,
Example 12.4 A vessel contains two non- occasionally, they come close to each other,
⊳
reactive gases : neon (monatomic) and experience intermolecular forces and their
oxygen (diatomic). The ratio of their partial velocities change. These interactions are called
pressures is 3:2. Estimate the ratio of (i) collisions. The molecules collide incessantly
against each other or with the walls and change
2024-25
KINETIC THEORY 249
their velocities. The collisions are considered to the wall. Thus, the number of molecules with
be elastic. We can derive an expression for the velocity (vx, vy, vz ) hitting the wall in time ∆t is
pressure of a gas based on the kinetic theory. ½A vx ∆t n, where n is the number of molecules
We begin with the idea that molecules of a per unit volume. The total momentum
gas are in incessant random motion, colliding transferred to the wall by these molecules in
against one another and with the walls of the time ∆t is :
container. All collisions between molecules Q = (2mvx) (½ n A vx ∆t ) (12.10)
among themselves or between molecules and the The force on the wall is the rate of momentum
walls are elastic. This implies that total kinetic transfer Q/∆t and pressure is force per unit
energy is conserved. The total momentum is area :
conserved as usual. P = Q /(A ∆t) = n m vx2 (12.11)
Actually, all molecules in a gas do not have
12.4.1 Pressure of an Ideal Gas the same velocity; there is a distribution in
Consider a gas enclosed in a cube of side l. Take velocities. The above equation, therefore, stands
the axes to be parallel to the sides of the cube, for pressure due to the group of molecules with
as shown in Fig. 12.4. A molecule with velocity speed vx in the x-direction and n stands for the
(vx, vy, vz ) hits the planar wall parallel to yz- number density of that group of molecules. The
plane of area A (= l 2). Since the collision is elastic, total pressure is obtained by summing over the
the molecule rebounds with the same velocity; contribution due to all groups:
its y and z components of velocity do not change P = n m v x2 (12.12)
in the collision but the x-component reverses where v 2x is the average of vx2 . Now the gas
sign. That is, the velocity after collision is is isotropic, i.e. there is no preferred direction
(-vx, vy, vz ) . The change in momentum of the of velocity of the molecules in the vessel.
molecule is: –mvx – (mvx) = – 2mvx . By the Therefore, by symmetry,
principle of conservation of momentum, the
v 2x = vy = v z2
2
momentum imparted to the wall in the collision
= 2mvx .
= (1/3) [ v 2x + v y2 + v z2 ] = (1/3) v 2 (12.13)
where v is the speed and v 2 denotes the mean
of the squared speed. Thus
P = (1/3) n m v 2 (12.14)
Some remarks on this derivation. First,
though we choose the container to be a cube,
the shape of the vessel really is immaterial. For
a vessel of arbitrary shape, we can always choose
a small infinitesimal (planar) area and carry
through the steps above. Notice that both A and
∆t do not appear in the final result. By Pascal’s
law, given in Ch. 9, pressure in one portion of
Fig. 12.4 Elastic collision of a gas molecule with the
the gas in equilibrium is the same as anywhere
wall of the container.
else. Second, we have ignored any collisions in
To calculate the force (and pressure) on the the derivation. Though this assumption is
wall, we need to calculate momentum imparted difficult to justify rigorously, we can qualitatively
to the wall per unit time. In a small time interval see that it will not lead to erroneous results. The
∆t, a molecule with x-component of velocity vx number of molecules hitting the wall in time ∆t
will hit the wall if it is within the distance vx ∆t was found to be ½ n Avx ∆t. Now the collisions
from the wall. That is, all molecules within the are random and the gas is in a steady state.
volume Avx ∆t only can hit the wall in time ∆t. Thus, if a molecule with velocity (vx, vy, vz )
But, on the average, half of these are moving acquires a different velocity due to collision with
towards the wall and the other half away from some molecule, there will always be some other
2024-25
250 PHYSICS
molecule with a different initial velocity which P = (1/3) [n1m1 v12 + n2 m2 v 22 +… ] (12.20)
after a collision acquires the velocity (vx, vy, vz ). In equilibrium, the average kinetic energy of
If this were not so, the distribution of velocities the molecules of different gases will be equal.
would not remain steady. In any case we are That is,
finding v x2 . Thus, on the whole, molecular
½ m1 v12 = ½ m2 v 22 = (3/2) kB T
collisions (if they are not too frequent and the
time spent in a collision is negligible compared so that
to time between collisions) will not affect the P = (n1 + n2 +… ) kB T (12.21)
calculation above. which is Dalton’s law of partial pressures.
12.4.2 Kinetic Interpretation of Temperature From Eq. (12.19), we can get an idea of the
typical speed of molecules in a gas. At a
Equation (13.14) can be written as temperature T = 300 K, the mean square speed
PV = (1/3) nV m v 2 (12.15a) of a molecule in nitrogen gas is :
PV = (2/3) N x ½ m v 2
(12.15b) M N2 28
where N (= nV ) is the number of molecules in m = = = 4.65 × 10 –26 kg.
NA 6.02 × 1026
the sample.
The quantity in the bracket is the average v 2 = 3 kB T / m = (516)2 m2s-2
translational kinetic energy of the molecules in The square root of v 2 is known as root mean
the gas. Since the internal energy E of an ideal
square (rms) speed and is denoted by vrms,
gas is purely kinetic*,
( We can also write v 2 as < v2 >.)
E = N × (1/2) m v 2 (12.16)
vrms = 516 m s-1
Equation (12.15) then gives : The speed is of the order of the speed of sound
PV = (2/3) E (12.17) in air. It follows from Eq. (12.19) that at the same
We are now ready for a kinetic interpretation temperature, lighter molecules have greater rms
of temperature. Combining Eq. (12.17) with the speed.
ideal gas Eq. (12.3), we get
Example 12.5 A flask contains argon and
⊳
E = (3/2) kB NT (12.18)
chlorine in the ratio of 2:1 by mass. The
or E/ N = ½ m v 2
= (3/2) kBT (12.19) temperature of the mixture is 27 °C. Obtain
i.e., the average kinetic energy of a molecule is the ratio of (i) average kinetic energy per
proportional to the absolute temperature of the molecule, and (ii) root mean square speed
gas; it is independent of pressure, volume or v rms of the molecules of the two gases.
the nature of the ideal gas. This is a fundamental Atomic mass of argon = 39.9 u; Molecular
result relating temperature, a macroscopic mass of chlorine = 70.9 u.
measurable parameter of a gas
(a thermodynamic variable as it is called) to a
Answer The important point to remember is that
molecular quantity, namely the average kinetic
energy of a molecule. The two domains are the average kinetic energy (per molecule) of any
connected by the Boltzmann constant. We note (ideal) gas (be it monatomic like argon, diatomic
in passing that Eq. (12.18) tells us that internal like chlorine or polyatomic) is always equal to
energy of an ideal gas depends only on (3/2) kBT. It depends only on temperature, and
temperature, not on pressure or volume. With is independent of the nature of the gas.
this interpretation of temperature, kinetic theory (i) Since argon and chlorine both have the same
of an ideal gas is completely consistent with the
temperature in the flask, the ratio of average
ideal gas equation and the various gas laws
based on it. kinetic energy (per molecule) of the two gases
For a mixture of non-reactive ideal gases, the is 1:1.
total pressure gets contribution from each gas (ii) Now ½ m vrms2 = average kinetic energy per
in the mixture. Equation (12.14) becomes molecule = (3/2) ) kBT where m is the mass
* E denotes the translational part of the internal energy U that may include energies due to other degrees of
freedom also. See section 12.5.
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KINETIC THEORY 251
of a molecule of the gas. Therefore,
(v )
2
rms Ar
=
(m )Cl
=
(M )Cl 70.9
(v )
2
rms Cl (m )Ar ( M ) Ar =
39.9
=1.77
where M denotes the molecular mass of the gas.

(For argon, a molecule is just an atom of argon.)
Taking square root of both sides,
(v )
rms Ar
(v )
rms Cl
= 1.33
You should note that the composition of the

mixture by mass is quite irrelevant to the above
calculation. Any other proportion by mass of
argon and chlorine would give the same answers
to (i) and (ii), provided the temperature remains Fig. 12.5 Molecules going through a porous wall.
unaltered. ⊳
Example 12.7 (a) When a molecule (or an
⊳
⊳
Example 12.6 Uranium has two isotopes elastic ball) hits a ( massive) wall, it
of masses 235 and 238 units. If both are rebounds with the same speed. When a ball
present in Uranium hexafluoride gas which hits a massive bat held firmly, the same
would have the larger average speed ? If thing happens. However, when the bat is
atomic mass of fluorine is 19 units, moving towards the ball, the ball rebounds
estimate the percentage difference in with a different speed. Does the ball move
speeds at any temperature. faster or slower? (Ch.5 will refresh your
Answer At a fixed temperature the average memory on elastic collisions.)
energy = ½ m <v2 > is constant. So smaller the (b) When gas in a cylinder is compressed
mass of the molecule, faster will be the speed. by pushing in a piston, its temperature
The ratio of speeds is inversely proportional to rises. Guess at an explanation of this in
the square root of the ratio of the masses. The terms of kinetic theory using (a) above.
masses are 349 and 352 units. So (c) What happens when a compressed gas
v349 / v352 = ( 352/ 349)1/2 = 1.0044 . pushes a piston out and expands. What
∆V would you observe ?
Hence difference = 0.44 %. (d) Sachin Tendulkar used a heavy cricket
V
[235U is the isotope needed for nuclear fission. bat while playing. Did it help him in
To separate it from the more abundant isotope anyway ?
238
U, the mixture is surrounded by a porous
cylinder. The porous cylinder must be thick and Answer (a) Let the speed of the ball be u relative
narrow, so that the molecule wanders through to the wicket behind the bat. If the bat is moving
individually, colliding with the walls of the long towards the ball with a speed V relative to the
pore. The faster molecule will leak out more than wicket, then the relative speed of the ball to bat
the slower one and so there is more of the lighter is V + u towards the bat. When the ball rebounds
molecule (enrichment) outside the porous (after hitting the massive bat) its speed, relative
cylinder (Fig. 12.5). The method is not very to bat, is V + u moving away from the bat. So
efficient and has to be repeated several times relative to the wicket the speed of the rebounding
for sufficient enrichment.]. ⊳ ball is V + (V + u) = 2V + u, moving away from the
When gases diffuse, their rate of diffusion is wicket. So the ball speeds up after the collision
inversely proportional to square root of the with the bat. The rebound speed will be less than
masses (see Exercise 12.12 ). Can you guess the u if the bat is not massive. For a molecule this
explanation from the above answer? would imply an increase in temperature.
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252 PHYSICS
You should be able to answer (b) (c) and (d) to the axis joining the two oxygen atoms about
based on the answer to (a). which the molecule can rotate*. The molecule
(Hint: Note the correspondence, pistonà bat, thus has two rotational degrees of freedom, each
cylinder à wicket, molecule à ball.) ⊳ of which contributes a term to the total energy
consisting of translational energy εt and
rotational energy ε r.
12.5 LAW OF EQUIPARTITION OF ENERGY
1 1 1 1 1
The kinetic energy of a single molecule is εt + εr = mvx2 + mvy2 + mv z2 + I1ω12 + I 2 ω 22 (12.25)
2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1
εt = mv x2 + mvy2 + mv z2 (12.22)
2 2 2
For a gas in thermal equilibrium at
temperature T the average value of energy
denoted by < ε t > is
1 1 1 3
εt = mv x2 + mvy2 + mv z2 = k B T (12.23)
2 2 2 2
Since there is no preferred direction, Eq. (12.23)
implies
1 1 1 1
mv x2 = kBT , mvy2 = kB T ,
2 2 2 2 Fig. 12.6 The two independent axes of rotation of
a diatomic molecule
1 1
mv z2 = kB T (12.24)
2 2 where ω1 and ω2 are the angular speeds about
A molecule free to move in space needs three the axes 1 and 2 and I1, I2 are the corresponding
coordinates to specify its location. If it is moments of inertia. Note that each rotational
constrained to move in a plane it needs two; and degree of freedom contributes a term to the
if constrained to move along a line, it needs just energy that contains square of a rotational
one coordinate to locate it. This can also be variable of motion.
expressed in another way. We say that it has We have assumed above that the O2 molecule
one degree of freedom for motion in a line, two is a ‘rigid rotator’, i.e., the molecule does not
for motion in a plane and three for motion in vibrate. This assumption, though found to be
space. Motion of a body as a whole from one true (at moderate temperatures) for O2, is not
point to another is called translation. Thus, a always valid. Molecules, like CO, even at
molecule free to move in space has three
moderate temperatures have a mode of
translational degrees of freedom. Each
vibration, i.e., its atoms oscillate along the
translational degree of freedom contributes a
interatomic axis like a one-dimensional
term that contains square of some variable of
oscillator, and contribute a vibrational energy
motion, e.g., ½ mvx2 and similar terms in
term εv to the total energy:
vy and vz. In, Eq. (12.24) we see that in thermal
equilibrium, the average of each such term is 1  dy 
2
1 2
εv = m  + ky
½ kBT . 2  dt 2
Molecules of a monatomic gas like argon have
only translational degrees of freedom. But what ε = εt + εr + εv (12.26)
about a diatomic gas such as O2 or N 2? A where k is the force constant of the oscillator
molecule of O2 has three translational degrees and y the vibrational co-ordinate.
of freedom. But in addition it can also rotate Once again the vibrational energy terms in
about its centre of mass. Figure 12.6 shows the Eq. (12.26) contain squared terms of vibrational
two independent axes of rotation 1 and 2, normal variables of motion y and dy/dt .
* Rotation along the line joining the atoms has very small moment of inertia and does not come into play for
quantum mechanical reasons. See end of section 12.6.
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KINETIC THEORY 253
At this point, notice an important feature in where Cp is the molar specific heat at constant
Eq.(12.26). While each translational and pressure. Thus,
rotational degree of freedom has contributed only 5
one ‘squared term’ in Eq.(12.26), one vibrational Cp = R (12.30)
mode contributes two ‘squared terms’ : kinetic 2
and potential energies. Cp 5
The ratio of specific heats γ = = (12.31)
Each quadratic term occurring in the Cv 3
expression for energy is a mode of absorption of
energy by the molecule. We have seen that in 12.6.2 Diatomic Gases
thermal equilibrium at absolute temperature T,
As explained earlier, a diatomic molecule treated
for each translational mode of motion, the as a rigid rotator, like a dumbbell, has 5 degrees
average energy is ½ kBT. The most elegant of freedom: 3 translational and 2 rotational.
principle of classical statistical mechanics (first Using the law of equipartition of energy, the total
proved by Maxwell) states that this is so for each internal energy of a mole of such a gas is
mode of energy: translational, rotational and
5 5
vibrational. That is, in equilibrium, the total U = kBT × N A = RT (12.32)
2 2
energy is equally distributed in all possible
The molar specific heats are then given by
energy modes, with each mode having an average
energy equal to ½ kBT. This is known as the law 5 7
Cv (rigid diatomic) = R, Cp = R (12.33)
of equipartition of energy. Accordingly, each 2 2
translational and rotational degree of freedom
7
of a molecule contributes ½ kBT to the energy, γ (rigid diatomic) = (12.34)
while each vibrational frequency contributes 5
If the diatomic molecule is not rigid but has
2 × ½ kBT = kBT , since a vibrational mode has in addition a vibrational mode
both kinetic and potential energy modes.
5  7
The proof of the law of equipartition of energy U =  k BT + k B T  N A = RT

is beyond the scope of this book. Here, we shall 2  2
apply the law to predict the specific heats of gases 7 9 9
theoretically. Later, we shall also discuss briefly, Cv = R , C p = R, γ = R (12.35)
2 2 7
the application to specific heat of solids.
12.6.3 Polyatomic Gases
12.6 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
In general a polyatomic molecule has 3
12.6.1 Monatomic Gases translational, 3 rotational degrees of freedom
and a certain number ( f ) of vibrational modes.
The molecule of a monatomic gas has only three
translational degrees of freedom. Thus, the According to the law of equipartition of energy,
average energy of a molecule at temperature it is easily seen that one mole of such a gas has
T is (3/2)kBT . The total internal energy of a mole 
U =  kBT +
3 3
kBT + f kBT NA
of such a gas is 2

2
3 3
U = k B T × N A = RT (12.27) i.e.,Cv = (3 + f ) R, Cp = (4 + f ) R,
2 2
(4 + f )
γ = (12.36)
The molar specific heat at constant volume, (3 + f )
Cv, is
Note that Cp – Cv = R is true for any ideal
dU 3 gas, whether mono, di or polyatomic.
Cv (monatomic gas) = = RT (12.28)
dT 2 Table 12.1 summarises the theoretical
For an ideal gas, predictions for specific heats of gases ignoring
Cp – Cv = R (12.29) any vibrational modes of motion. The values are
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254 PHYSICS
in good agreement with experimental values of Answer Using the gas law PV = µRT, you can
specific heats of several gases given in Table 12.2. easily show that 1 mol of any (ideal) gas at
Of course, there are discrepancies between standard temperature (273 K) and pressure
predicted and actual values of specific heats of (1 atm = 1.01 × 105 Pa) occupies a volume of 22.4
several other gases (not shown in the table), such litres. This universal volume is called molar
as Cl2, C2H6 and many other polyatomic gases. volume. Thus the cylinder in this example
Usually, the experimental values for specific contains 2 mol of helium. Further, since helium
is monatomic, its predicted (and observed) molar
heats of these gases are greater than the
specific heat at constant volume, Cv = (3/2) R,
predicted values as given in Table12.1 suggesting and molar specific heat at constant pressure,
that the agreement can be improved by including Cp = (3/2) R + R = (5/2) R . Since the volume of
vibrational modes of motion in the calculation. the cylinder is fixed, the heat required is
The law of equipartition of energy is, thus, well determined by Cv. Therefore,
verified experimentally at ordinary temperatures. Heat required = no. of moles × molar specific heat
× rise in temperature
Table 12.1 Predicted values of specific heat
capacities of gases (ignoring
= 2 × 1.5 R × 15.0 = 45 R
vibrational modes) = 45 × 8.31 = 374 J. ⊳
Nature of Cv Cp Cp - Cv g 12.6.4 Specific Heat Capacity of Solids
Gas
(J mol -1 -1
K ) (J mol -1 -1
K ) (J mol -1 -1
K ) We can use the law of equipartition of energy to
determine specific heats of solids. Consider a
Monatomic 12.5 20.8 8.31 1.67
solid of N atoms, each vibrating about its mean
Diatomic 20.8 29.1 8.31 1.40 position. An oscillation in one dimension has
average energy of 2 × ½ kBT = kBT . In three
Triatomic 24.93 33.24 8.31 1.33
dimensions, the average energy is 3 kBT. For a
mole of solid, N = N A , and the total
energy is
Table12.2 Measured values of specific heat
U = 3 kBT × NA = 3 RT
capacities of some gases
Now at constant pressure ∆Q = ∆U + P∆V
= ∆U, since for a solid ∆V is negligible. Hence,
∆Q ∆U
C = = = 3R (12.37)
∆T ∆T
Table 12.3 Specific Heat Capacity of some
solids at room temperature and
atmospheric pressure
As Table 12.3 shows the prediction generally

⊳ Example 12.8 A cylinder of fixed capacity agrees with experimental values at ordinary
44.8 litres contains helium gas at standard temperature (Carbon is an exception).
temperature and pressure. What is the
amount of heat needed to raise the 12.7 MEAN FREE PATH
temperature of the gas in the cylinder by Molecules in a gas have rather large speeds of
15.0 °C ? (R = 8.31 J mo1–1 K–1). the order of the speed of sound. Yet a gas leaking
2024-25
KINETIC THEORY 255
from a cylinder in a kitchen takes considerable are moving and the collision rate is determined
time to diffuse to the other corners of the room. by the average relative velocity of the molecules.
The top of a cloud of smoke holds together for Thus we need to replace <v> by <v > in Eq.
r
hours. This happens because molecules in a gas (12.38). A more exact treatment gives
have a finite though small size, so they are bound
to undergo collisions. As a result, they cannot l = 1/ ( 2 nπ d 2 ) (12.40)
move straight unhindered; their paths keep Let us estimate l and τ for air molecules with
getting incessantly deflected. average speeds <v> = ( 485m/s). At STP
(0.02 × 10 ) 23
n=
(22.4 × 10 ) –3
= 2.7 × 10 25 m -3.
Taking, d = 2 × 10–10 m,
τ = 6.1 × 10–10 s
t and l = 2.9 × 10–7 m ≈ 1500 d (12.41)
v As expected, the mean free path given by
d Eq. (12.40) depends inversely on the number
density and the size of the molecules. In a highly
evacuated tube n is rather small and the mean
d free path can be as large as the length of the
tube.
⊳
Example 12.9 Estimate the mean free path
for a water molecule in water vapour at 373 K.
Use information from Exercises 12.1 and Eq.
Fig. 12.7 The volume swept by a molecule in time ∆t
(12.41) above.
in which any molecule will collide with it.
Suppose the molecules of a gas are spheres of Answer The d for water vapour is same as that
diameter d. Focus on a single molecule with the of air. The number density is inversely
average speed <v>. It will suffer collision with proportional to absolute temperature.
any molecule that comes within a distance d 273
So n = 2.7 × 10 × = 2 × 1025 m –3
25
between the centres. In time ∆t, it sweeps a 373
volume πd2 <v> ∆t wherein any other molecule
Hence, mean free path l = 4 × 10 –7 m ⊳
will collide with it (see Fig. 12.7). If n is the
number of molecules per unit volume, the Note that the mean free path is 100 times the
molecule suffers nπd2 <v> ∆t collisions in time interatomic distance ~ 40 Å = 4 × 10-9 m calculated
∆t. Thus the rate of collisions is nπd2 <v> or the earlier. It is this large value of mean free path that
time between two successive collisions is on the leads to the typical gaseous behaviour. Gases can
average, not be confined without a container.
τ = 1/(nπ <v> d2 ) (12.38) Using, the kinetic theory of gases, the bulk
The average distance between two successive measurable properties like viscosity, heat
collisions, called the mean free path l, is : conductivity and diffusion can be related to the
l = <v> τ = 1/(nπd2) (12.39) microscopic parameters like molecular size. It is
In this derivation, we imagined the other through such relations that the molecular sizes
molecules to be at rest. But actually all molecules were first estimated.
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256 PHYSICS
SUMMARY
1. The ideal gas equation connecting pressure (P ), volume (V ) and absolute temperature
(T ) is
PV = µ RT = kB NT
where µ is the number of moles and N is the number of molecules. R and kB are universal
constants.
R
R = 8.314 J mol–1 K–1, kB = = 1.38 × 10–23 J K–1
NA
Real gases satisfy the ideal gas equation only approximately, more so at low pressures
and high temperatures.
2. Kinetic theory of an ideal gas gives the relation
1
P= n m v2
3
where n is number density of molecules, m the mass of the molecule and v 2 is the
mean of squared speed. Combined with the ideal gas equation it yields a kinetic
interpretation of temperature.
1 3
( ) 3k B T
1/ 2
m v 2 = k B T , vrms = v 2 =
2 2 m
This tells us that the temperature of a gas is a measure of the average kinetic energy of
a molecule, independent of the nature of the gas or molecule. In a mixture of gases at a
fixed temperature the heavier molecule has the lower average speed.
3. The translational kinetic energy
E= 3 kB NT.
2
This leads to a relation
2
PV = E
3
4. The law of equipartition of energy states that if a system is in equilibrium at absolute
temperature T, the total energy is distributed equally in different energy modes of
absorption, the energy in each mode being equal to ½ kB T. Each translational and
rotational degree of freedom corresponds to one energy mode of absorption and has
energy ½ kB T. Each vibrational frequency has two modes of energy (kinetic and potential)
with corresponding energy equal to
2 × ½ kB T = kB T.
5. Using the law of equipartition of energy, the molar specific heats of gases can be
determined and the values are in agreement with the experimental values of specific
heats of several gases. The agreement can be improved by including vibrational modes
of motion.
6. The mean free path l is the average distance covered by a molecule between two successive
collisions :
1
l=
2 n π d2
where n is the number density and d the diameter of the molecule.
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KINETIC THEORY 257
POINTS TO PONDER
1. Pressure of a fluid is not only exerted on the wall. Pressure exists everywhere in a fluid.
Any layer of gas inside the volume of a container is in equilibrium because the pressure
is the same on both sides of the layer.
2. We should not have an exaggerated idea of the intermolecular distance in a gas. At

ordinary pressures and temperatures, this is only 10 times or so the interatomic distance
in solids and liquids. What is different is the mean free path which in a gas is 100 times
the interatomic distance and 1000 times the size of the molecule.
3. The law of equipartition of energy is stated thus: the energy for each degree of freedom
in thermal equilibrium is ½ k T. Each quadratic term in the total energy expression of
B
a molecule is to be counted as a degree of freedom. Thus, each vibrational mode gives 2
(not 1) degrees of freedom (kinetic and potential energy modes), corresponding to the
energy 2 × ½ k T = k T.
B B
4. Molecules of air in a room do not all fall and settle on the ground (due to gravity)
because of their high speeds and incessant collisions. In equilibrium, there is a very
slight increase in density at lower heights (like in the atmosphere). The effect is small
since the potential energy (mgh) for ordinary heights is much less than the average
kinetic energy ½ mv2 of the molecules.
5. < v2 > is not always equal to ( < v >)2. The average of a squared quantity is not necessarily
the square of the average. Can you find examples for this statement.
EXERCISES
12.1 Estimate the fraction of molecular volume to the actual volume occupied by oxygen
gas at STP. Take the diameter of an oxygen molecule to be 3 Å.
12.2 Molar volume is the volume occupied by 1 mol of any (ideal) gas at standard
temperature and pressure (STP : 1 atmospheric pressure, 0 °C). Show that it is 22.4
litres.
12.3 Figure 12.8 shows plot of PV/T versus P for 1.00× 10–3 kg of oxygen gas at two
different temperatures.
T1
PV (J K–1) T2
T
P x
Fig. 12.8
(a) What does the dotted plot signify?
(b) Which is true: T1 > T2 or T1 < T2?
(c) What is the value of PV/T where the curves meet on the y-axis?
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258 PHYSICS
(d) If we obtained similar plots for 1.00×

×10–3 kg of hydrogen, would we get the same
value of PV/T at the point where the curves meet on the y-axis? If not, what mass
of hydrogen yields the same value of PV/T (for low pressure high temperature
region of the plot) ? (Molecular mass of H 2 = 2.02 u, of O 2 = 32.0 u,
R = 8.31 J mo1–1 K–1.)
12.4 An oxygen cylinder of volume 30 litre has an initial gauge pressure of 15 atm and a
temperature of 27 °C. After some oxygen is withdrawn from the cylinder, the gauge
pressure drops to 11 atm and its temperature drops to 17 °C. Estimate the mass of
oxygen taken out of the cylinder (R = 8.31 J mol–1 K–1, molecular mass of O2 = 32 u).
12.5 An air bubble of volume 1.0 cm3 rises from the bottom of a lake 40 m deep at a
temperature of 12 °C. To what volume does it grow when it reaches the surface,
which is at a temperature of 35 °C ?
12.6 Estimate the total number of air molecules (inclusive of oxygen, nitrogen, water
vapour and other constituents) in a room of capacity 25.0 m3 at a temperature of
27 °C and 1 atm pressure.
12.7 Estimate the average thermal energy of a helium atom at (i) room temperature
(27 °C), (ii) the temperature on the surface of the Sun (6000 K), (iii) the temperature
of 10 million kelvin (the typical core temperature in the case of a star).
12.8 Three vessels of equal capacity have gases at the same temperature and pressure. The
first vessel contains neon (monatomic), the second contains chlorine (diatomic),
and the third contains uranium hexafluoride (polyatomic). Do the vessels contain
equal number of respective molecules ? Is the root mean square speed of molecules
the same in the three cases? If not, in which case is vrms the largest ?
12.9 At what temperature is the root mean square speed of an atom in an argon gas
cylinder equal to the rms speed of a helium gas atom at – 20 °C ? (atomic mass of Ar
= 39.9 u, of He = 4.0 u).
1 2 . 1 0 Estimate the mean free path and collision frequency of a nitrogen molecule in a
cylinder containing nitrogen at 2.0 atm and temperature 17 0C. Take the radius of a
nitrogen molecule to be roughly 1.0 Å. Compare the collision time with the time the
molecule moves freely between two successive collisions (Molecular mass of
N2 = 28.0 u).
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CHAPTER THIRTEEN
OSCILLATIONS
13.1 INTRODUCTION
In our daily life we come across various kinds of motions.
You have already learnt about some of them, e.g., rectilinear
13.1 Introduction motion and motion of a projectile. Both these motions are
13.2 Periodic and oscillatory non-repetitive. We have also learnt about uniform circular
motions motion and orbital motion of planets in the solar system. In
13.3 Simple harmonic motion these cases, the motion is repeated after a certain interval of
13.4 Simple harmonic motion time, that is, it is periodic. In your childhood, you must have
and uniform circular enjoyed rocking in a cradle or swinging on a swing. Both
motion these motions are repetitive in nature but different from the
13.5 Velocity and acceleration periodic motion of a planet. Here, the object moves to and fro
in simple harmonic motion about a mean position. The pendulum of a wall clock executes
13.6 Force law for simple a similar motion. Examples of such periodic to and fro
harmonic motion
motion abound: a boat tossing up and down in a river, the
13.7 Energy in simple harmonic
piston in a steam engine going back and forth, etc. Such a
motion
motion is termed as oscillatory motion. In this chapter we
13.8 The simple pendulum
study this motion.
Summary
The study of oscillatory motion is basic to physics; its
Points to ponder
Exercises concepts are required for the understanding of many physical
phenomena. In musical instruments, like the sitar, the guitar
or the violin, we come across vibrating strings that produce
pleasing sounds. The membranes in drums and diaphragms
in telephone and speaker systems vibrate to and fro about
their mean positions. The vibrations of air molecules make
the propagation of sound possible. In a solid, the atoms vibrate
about their equilibrium positions, the average energy of
vibrations being proportional to temperature. AC power
supply give voltage that oscillates alternately going positive
and negative about the mean value (zero).
The description of a periodic motion, in general, and
oscillatory motion, in particular, requires some fundamental
concepts, like period, frequency, displacement, amplitude
and phase. These concepts are developed in the next section.
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260 PHYSICS
13.2 PERIODIC AND OSCILLATORY MOTIONS Very often, the body undergoing periodic
Fig. 13.1 shows some periodic motions. Suppose motion has an equilibrium position somewhere
an insect climbs up a ramp and falls down, it inside its path. When the body is at this position
comes back to the initial point and repeats the no net external force acts on it. Therefore, if it is
left there at rest, it remains there forever. If the
process identically. If you draw a graph of its
body is given a small displacement from the
height above the ground versus time, it would
position, a force comes into play which tries to
look something like Fig. 13.1 (a). If a child climbs
bring the body back to the equilibrium point,
up a step, comes down, and repeats the process
giving rise to oscillations or vibrations. For
identically, its height above the ground would
example, a ball placed in a bowl will be in
look like that in Fig. 13.1 (b). When you play the
equilibrium at the bottom. If displaced a little
game of bouncing a ball off the ground, between
from the point, it will perform oscillations in the
your palm and the ground, its height versus time
bowl. Every oscillatory motion is periodic, but
graph would look like the one in Fig. 13.1 (c).
every periodic motion need not be oscillatory.
Note that both the curved parts in Fig. 13.1 (c)
Circular motion is a periodic motion, but it is
are sections of a parabola given by the Newton’s not oscillatory.
equation of motion (see section 2.6), There is no significant difference between
1 2 oscillations and vibrations. It seems that when
h = ut + gt for downward motion, and
the frequency is small, we call it oscillation (like,
2
the oscillation of a branch of a tree), while when
1 2 the frequency is high, we call it vibration (like,
h = ut – gt for upward motion,
2 the vibration of a string of a musical instrument).
with different values of u in each case. These Simple harmonic motion is the simplest form
are examples of periodic motion. Thus, a motion of oscillatory motion. This motion arises when
that repeats itself at regular intervals of time is the force on the oscillating body is directly
called periodic motion. proportional to its displacement from the mean
position, which is also the equilibrium position.
Further, at any point in its oscillation, this force
is directed towards the mean position.
In practice, oscillating bodies eventually
(a) come to rest at their equilibrium positions
because of the damping due to friction and other
dissipative causes. However, they can be forced
to remain oscillating by means of some external
periodic agency. We discuss the phenomena of
damped and forced oscillations later in the
chapter.
Any material medium can be pictured as a
(b) collection of a large number of coupled
oscillators. The collective oscillations of the
constituents of a medium manifest themselves
as waves. Examples of waves include water
waves, seismic waves, electromagnetic waves.
We shall study the wave phenomenon in the next
chapter.
(c) 13.2.1 Period and frequency
We have seen that any motion that repeats itself
at regular intervals of time is called periodic
motion. The smallest interval of time after
which the motion is repeated is called its
Fig. 13.1 Examples of periodic motion. The period T period. Let us denote the period by the symbol
is shown in each case. T. Its SI unit is second. For periodic motions,
2024-25
OSCILLATIONS 261
which are either too fast or too slow on the scale as a displacement variable [see Fig.13.2(b)]. The
of seconds, other convenient units of time are term displacement is not always to be referred
used. The period of vibrations of a quartz crystal
is expressed in units of microseconds (10–6 s)
abbreviated as µs. On the other hand, the orbital
period of the planet Mercury is 88 earth days.
The Halley’s comet appears after every 76 years.
The reciprocal of T gives the number of
repetitions that occur per unit time. This
quantity is called the frequency of the periodic
motion. It is represented by the symbol ν. The
relation between ν and T is
Fig. 13.2(a) A block attached to a spring, the other
ν = 1/T (13.1) end of which is fixed to a rigid wall. The
block moves on a frictionless surface. The
The unit of ν is thus s–1. After the discoverer of
motion of the block can be described in
radio waves, Heinrich Rudolph Hertz (1857–1894), terms of its distance or displacement x
a special name has been given to the unit of from the equilibrium position.
frequency. It is called hertz (abbreviated as Hz).
Thus,
1 hertz = 1 Hz =1 oscillation per second =1 s–1
(13.2)
Note, that the frequency, ν, is not necessarily
an integer.
u Example 13.1 On an average, a human

heart is found to beat 75 times in a minute.
Calculate its frequency and period.
Fig.13.2(b) An oscillating simple pendulum; its
Answer The beat frequency of heart = 75/(1 min) motion can be described in terms of
= 75/(60 s) angular displacement θ from the vertical.
= 1.25 s–1
= 1.25 Hz in the context of position only. There can be
The time period T = 1/(1.25 s–1) many other kinds of displacement variables. The
= 0.8 s ⊳ voltage across a capacitor, changing with time
13.2.2 Displacement in an A C circuit, is also a displacement variable.
In section 3.2, we defined displacement of a In the same way, pressure variations in time in
particle as the change in its position vector. In the propagation of sound wave, the changing
this chapter, we use the term displacement electric and magnetic fields in a light wave are
in a more general sense. It refers to change examples of displacement in different contexts.
with time of any physical property under The displacement variable may take both
consideration. For example, in case of rectilinear positive and negative values. In experiments on
motion of a steel ball on a surface, the distance oscillations, the displacement is measured for
from the starting point as a function of time is different times.
The displacement can be represented by a
its position displacement. The choice of origin
mathematical function of time. In case of periodic
is a matter of convenience. Consider a block
motion, this function is periodic in time. One of
attached to a spring, the other end of the spring
the simplest periodic functions is given by
is fixed to a rigid wall [see Fig.13.2(a)]. Generally,
it is convenient to measure displacement of the f (t) = A cos ωt (13.3a)
body from its equilibrium position. For an If the argument of this function, ωt, is
oscillating simple pendulum, the angle from the increased by an integral multiple of 2π radians,
vertical as a function of time may be regarded the value of the function remains the same. The
2024-25
262 PHYSICS
function f (t ) is then periodic and its period, T, (ii) This is an example of a periodic motion. It
is given by can be noted that each term represents a
2π periodic function with a different angular
T= (13.3b) frequency. Since period is the least interval
ω of time after which a function repeats its
Thus, the function f (t) is periodic with period T, value, sin ωt has a period T0= 2π/ω ; cos 2 ωt
f (t) = f (t+T ) has a period π/ω =T0/2; and sin 4 ωt has a
The same result is obviously correct if we period 2π/4ω = T0/4. The period of the first
consider a sine function, f (t ) = A sin ωt. Further, term is a multiple of the periods of the last
a linear combination of sine and cosine functions two terms. Therefore, the smallest interval
like, of time after which the sum of the three
terms repeats is T0, and thus, the sum is a
f (t) = A sin ωt + B cos ωt (13.3c) periodic function with a period 2π/ω.
is also a periodic function with the same period
T. Taking, (iii) The function e – ω t is not periodic, it
decreases monotonically with increasing
A = D cos φ and B = D sin φ time and tends to zero as t → ∞ and thus,
Eq. (13.3c) can be written as, never repeats its value.
f (t) = D sin (ωt + φ ) , (13.3d) (iv) The function log ( ω t) increases

monotonically with time t. It, therefore,
Here D and φ are constant given by never repeats its value and is a non-
periodic function. It may be noted that as
 B t → ∞, log(ωt) diverges to ∞. It, therefore,
D = A 2 + B 2 and φ = tan –1  A 
cannot represent any kind of physical
displacement. ⊳
The great importance of periodic sine and
cosine functions is due to a remarkable result 13.3 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
proved by the French mathematician, Jean
Consider a particle oscillating back and forth
Baptiste Joseph Fourier (1768–1830): Any
about the origin of an x-axis between the limits
periodic function can be expressed as a
+A and –A as shown in Fig. 13.3. This oscillatory
superposition of sine and cosine functions
motion is said to be simple harmonic if the
of different time periods with suitable
displacement x of the particle from the origin
coefficients.
varies with time as :
x (t) = A cos (ω t + φ ) (13.4)
u Example 13.2 Which of the following
functions of time represent (a) periodic and
(b) non-periodic motion? Give the period for
each case of periodic motion [ω is any
positive constant].
(i) sin ωt + cos ωt Fig. 13.3 A particle vibrating back and forth about
the origin of x-axis, between the limits +A
(ii) sin ωt + cos 2 ωt + sin 4 ωt
and –A.
(iii) e – ωt
(iv) log (ωt) where A, ω and φ are constants.
Thus, simple harmonic motion (SHM) is not
Answer any periodic motion but one in which
(i) sin ωt + cos ωt is a periodic function, it can displacement is a sinusoidal function of time.
Fig. 13.4 shows the positions of a particle
also be written as 2 sin (ωt + π/4).
executing SHM at discrete value of time, each
Now 2 sin (ωt + π/4)= 2 sin (ωt + π/4+2π) interval of time being T/4, where T is the period
of motion. Fig. 13.5 plots the graph of x versus t,
= 2 sin [ω (t + 2π/ω) + π/4]
which gives the values of displacement as a
The periodic time of the function is 2π/ω. continuous function of time. The quantities A,
2024-25
OSCILLATIONS 263
any loss of generality]. As the cosine function

of time varies from +1 to –1, the displacement
varies between the extremes A and – A. Two
simple harmonic motions may have same ω
and φ but different amplitudes A and B, as
shown in Fig. 13.7 (a).
While the amplitude A is fixed for a given
SHM, the state of motion (position and velocity)
of the particle at any time t is determined by the
Fig. 13.4 The location of the particle in SHM at the

discrete values t = 0, T/4, T/2, 3T/4, T,
5T/4. The time after which motion repeats
itself is T. T will remain fixed, no matter
what location you choose as the initial (t =
Fig. 13.7 (a) A plot of displacement as a function of
0) location. The speed is maximum for zero
time as obtained from Eq. (14.4) with
displacement (at x = 0) and zero at the
φ = 0. The curves 1 and 2 are for two
extremes of motion.
different amplitudes A and B.
ω and φ which characterize a given SHM have
standard names, as summarised in Fig. 13.6. argument (ωt + φ) in the cosine function. This
Let us understand these quantities. time-dependent quantity, (ωt + φ) is called the
The amplitutde A of SHM is the magnitude phase of the motion. The value of plase at t = 0
of maximum displacement of the particle. is φ and is called the phase constant (or phase
[Note, A can be taken to be positive without angle). If the amplitude is known, φ can be
determined from the displacement at t = 0. Two
simple harmonic motions may have the same A
and ω but different phase angle φ, as shown in
Fig. 13.7 (b).
Finally, the quantity ω can be seen to be
related to the period of motion T. Taking, for
simplicity, φ = 0 in Eq. (13.4), we have
Fig. 13.5 Displacement as a continuous function of

time for simple harmonic motion.
x (t) : displacement x as a function of time t

A : amplitude
ω : angular frequency
ωt + φ : phase (time-dependent)
φ : phase constant Fig. 13.7 (b) A plot obtained from Eq. (13.4). The
curves 3 and 4 are for φ = 0 and -π/4
Fig. 13.6 The meaning of standard symbols respectively. The amplitude A is same for
in Eq. (13.4) both the plots.
2024-25
264 PHYSICS
x(t ) = A cos ωt (13.5) This function represents a simple harmonic

motion having a period T = 2π/ω and a
Since the motion has a period T, x (t) is equal to phase angle (–π/4) or (7π/4)
x (t + T ). That is, (b) sin2 ωt
= ½ – ½ cos 2 ωt
A cos ωt = A cos ω (t + T ) (13.6)
The function is periodic having a period
Now the cosine function is periodic with period T = π/ω. It also represents a harmonic
2π, i.e., it first repeats itself when the argument motion with the point of equilibrium
changes by 2π. Therefore, occurring at ½ instead of zero. ⊳
ω(t + T ) = ωt + 2π 13.4 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION AND

UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
that is ω = 2π/ T (13.7) In this section, we show that the projection of
uniform circular motion on a diameter of the
ω is called the angular frequency of SHM. Its circle follows simple harmonic motion. A
S.I. unit is radians per second. Since the simple experiment (Fig. 13.9) helps us visualise
frequency of oscillations is simply 1/T, ω is 2π this connection. Tie a ball to the end of a string
times the frequency of oscillation. Two simple and make it move in a horizontal plane about
harmonic motions may have the same A and φ, a fixed point with a constant angular speed.
but different ω, as seen in Fig. 13.8. In this plot The ball would then perform a uniform circular
the curve (b) has half the period and twice the motion in the horizontal plane. Observe the
frequency of the curve (a). ball sideways or from the front, fixing your
attention in the plane of motion. The ball will
appear to execute to and fro motion along a
horizontal line with the point of rotation as
the midpoint. You could alternatively observe
the shadow of the ball on a wall which is
perpendicular to the plane of the circle. In this
process what we are observing is the motion
of the ball on a diameter of the circle normal
to the direction of viewing.
Fig. 13.8 Plots of Eq. (13.4) for φ = 0 for two different

periods.
u Example 13.3 Which of the following

functions of time represent (a) simple
Fig. 13.9 Circular motion of a ball in a plane viewed
harmonic motion and (b) periodic but not edge-on is SHM.
simple harmonic? Give the period for each
case.
Fig. 13.10 describes the same situation
(1) sin ωt – cos ωt
(2) sin2 ωt mathematically. Suppose a particle P is moving
uniformly on a circle of radius A with angular
Answer speed ω. The sense of rotation is anticlockwise.
(a) sin ωt – cos ωt The initial position vector of the particle, i.e.,
= sin ωt – sin (π/2 – ωt) the vector OP at t = 0 makes an angle of φ with
= 2 cos (π/4) sin (ωt – π/4) the positive direction of x-axis. In time t, it will
= √2 sin (ωt – π/4) cover a further angle ωt and its position vector
2024-25
OSCILLATIONS 265
u Example 13.4 The figure given below

depicts two circular motions. The radius
of the circle, the period of revolution, the
initial position and the sense of revolution
are indicated in the figures. Obtain the
simple harmonic motions of the
x-projection of the radius vector of the
rotating particle P in each case.
Fig. 13.10
will make an angle of ω t + φ with the +ve
x-axis. Next, consider the projection of the
position vector OP on the x-axis. This will be Answer
OP′. The position of P′ on the x-axis, as the (a) At t = 0, OP makes an angle of 45o = π/4 rad
particle P moves on the circle, is given by with the (positive direction of ) x-axis. After
x(t ) = A cos ( ωt + φ )
which is the defining equation of SHM. This time t, it covers an angle 2πt in the
T
shows that if P moves uniformly on a circle, anticlockwise sense, and makes an angle
its projection P′ on a diameter of the circle
executes SHM. The particle P and the circle of 2πt + π with the x-axis.
on which it moves are sometimes referred to T 4
as the reference particle and the reference circle, The projection of OP on the x-axis at time t
respectively. is given by,
We can take projection of the motion of P on
any diameter, say the y-axis. In that case, the
x (t) = A cos 
2π π
displacement y(t) of P′ on the y-axis is given by t+ 
 T 4
y = A sin (ωt + φ ) For T = 4 s,
which is also an SHM of the same amplitude
x(t) = A cos 
as that of the projection on x-axis, but differing 2π π
by a phase of π/2. t+ 
 4 4
In spite of this connection between circular
motion and SHM, the force acting on a particle which is a SHM of amplitude A, period 4 s,
in linear simple harmonic motion is very
different from the centripetal force needed to and an initial phase* = π .
keep a particle in uniform circular motion. 4
* The natural unit of angle is radian, defined through the ratio of arc to radius. Angle is a dimensionless
quantity. Therefore it is not always necessary to mention the unit ‘radian’ when we use π , its multiples
or submultiples. The conversion between radian and degree is not similar to that between metre and
centimetre or mile. If the argument of a trigonometric function is stated without units, it is understood
that the unit is radian. On the other hand, if degree is to be used as the unit of angle, then it must be
shown explicitly. For example, sin(150) means sine of 15 degree, but sin(15) means sine of 15 radians.
Hereafter, we will often drop ‘rad’ as the unit, and it should be understood that whenever angle is
mentioned as a numerical value, without units, it is to be taken as radians.
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266 PHYSICS
(b) In this case at t = 0, OP makes an angle of where the negative sign shows that v (t) has a
90o = π with the x-axis. After a time t, it
direction opposite to the positive direction of
2 x-axis. Eq. (13.9) gives the instantaneous
covers an angle of 2π t in the clockwise velocity of a particle executing SHM, where
T displacement is given by Eq. (13.4). We can, of
course, obtain this equation without using
sense and makes an angle of  −
π 2π 
 2 T 
t geometrical argument, directly by differentiating
(Eq. 13.4) with respect of t:
with the x-axis. The projection of OP on the
x-axis at time t is given by d
v(t) = x (t ) (13.10)
dt
x(t) = B cos  −
π 2π 
 2 T 
t The method of reference circle can be similarly
used for obtaining instantaneous acceleration
= B sin  t 
2π of a particle undergoing SHM. We know that the
 T  centripetal acceleration of a particle P in uniform
For T = 30 s, circular motion has a magnitude v2/A or ω2A,
and it is directed towards the centre i.e., the
x(t) = B sin  t  direction is along PO. The instantaneous
π
 15  acceleration of the projection particle P′ is then
(See Fig. 13.12)
Writing this as x (t) = B cos  t −  , and
π π
 15 a (t) = –ω2A cos (ωt + φ)
2
comparing with Eq. (13.4). We find that this = –ω2x (t) (13.11)
represents a SHM of amplitude B, period 30 s,
π
and an initial phase of − . ⊳
2
13.5 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION IN

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
The speed of a particle v in uniform circular
motion is its angular speed ω times the radius
of the circle A.
v = ωA (13.8)
The direction of velocity v at a time t is along
the tangent to the circle at the point where the
particle is located at that instant. From the
geometry of Fig. 13.11, it is clear that the velocity Fig. 13.12 The acceleration, a(t), of the particle P′ is
the projection of the acceleration a of the
of the projection particle P′ at time t is
reference particle P.
v(t ) = –ωA sin (ωt + φ ) (13.9)
Eq. (13.11) gives the acceleration of a particle
in SHM. The same equation can again be
obtained directly by differentiating velocity v(t)
given by Eq. (13.9) with respect to time:
d (13.12)
a (t ) = v (t )
dt
We note from Eq. (13.11) the important
Fig. 13.11 The velocity, v (t), of the particle P′ is property that acceleration of a particle in SHM
the projection of the velocity v of the is proportional to displacement. For x(t) > 0,
reference particle, P. a(t) < 0 and for x(t) < 0, a(t) > 0. Thus, whatever
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OSCILLATIONS 267
the value of x between –A and A, the acceleration (b) Using Eq. (13.9), the speed of the body
a(t) is always directed towards the centre. = – (5.0 m)(2π s –1) sin [(2 π s –1 ) ×1.5 s
For simplicity, let us put φ = 0 and write the + π/4]
expression for x (t), v (t) and a(t) = – (5.0 m)(2π s–1) sin [(3π + π/4)]
x(t) = A cos ωt, v(t) = – ω Asin ωt, a(t)=–ω2 A cos ωt = 10 π × 0.707 m s–1
The corresponding plots are shown in Fig. 13.13. = 22 m s–1
All quantities vary sinusoidally with time; only (c) Using Eq.(13.10), the acceleration of the
their maxima differ and the different plots differ body
in phase. x varies between –A to A; v(t) varies = –(2π s–1)2 × displacement
from –ωA to ωA and a(t) from –ω2A to ω2A. With = – (2π s–1)2 × (–3.535 m)
respect to displacement plot, velocity plot has a = 140 m s–2 ⊳
phase difference of π/2 and acceleration plot has
a phase difference of π. 13.6 FORCE LAW FOR SIMPLE HARMONIC
MOTION
Using Newton’s second law of motion, and the
expression for acceleration of a particle
undergoing SHM (Eq. 13.11), the force acting
on a particle of mass m in SHM is
F (t ) = ma
= –mω2 x (t )
i.e., F (t ) = –k x (t ) (13.13)
where k = mω2 (13.14a)
k
or ω = (13.14b)
m
Like acceleration, force is always directed
towards the mean position—hence it is sometimes
called the restoring force in SHM. To summarise
the discussion so far, simple harmonic motion can
be defined in two equivalent ways, either by Eq.
(13.4) for displacement or by Eq. (13.13) that gives
Fig. 13.13 Displacement, velocity and acceleration of its force law. Going from Eq. (13.4) to Eq. (13.13)
a particle in simple harmonic motion have required us to differentiate two times. Likewise,
the same period T, but they differ in phase by integrating the force law Eq. (13.13) two times,
we can get back Eq. (13.4).
u Example 13.5 A body oscillates with SHM Note that the force in Eq. (13.13) is linearly
according to the equation (in SI units), proportional to x(t). A particle oscillating under
x = 5 cos [2π t + π/4]. such a force is, therefore, calling a linear
harmonic oscillator. In the real world, the force
At t = 1.5 s, calculate the (a) displacement,
may contain small additional terms proportional
(b) speed and (c) acceleration of the body.
to x2, x3, etc. These then are called non-linear
oscillators.
Answer The angular frequency ω of the body
= 2π s–1 and its time period T = 1 s. u Example 13.6 Two identical springs of
At t = 1.5 s spring constant k are attached to a block
(a) displacement = (5.0 m) cos [(2 π s –1)× of mass m and to fixed supports as shown
1.5 s + π/4] in Fig. 13.14. Show that when the mass is
= (5.0 m) cos [(3π + π/4)] displaced from its equilibrium position on
= –5.0 × 0.707 m either side, it executes a simple harmonic
= –3.535 m motion. Find the period of oscillations.
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268 PHYSICS
13.7 ENERGY IN SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
Both kinetic and potential energies of a particle

in SHM vary between zero and their maximum
values.
In section 13.5 we have seen that the velocity
of a particle executing SHM, is a periodic
Fig. 13.14 function of time. It is zero at the extreme positions
of displacement. Therefore, the kinetic energy (K)
Answer Let the mass be displaced by a small of such a particle, which is defined as
distance x to the right side of the equilibrium
position, as shown in Fig. 13.15. Under this 1
situation the spring on the left side gets K= mv 2
2
1
= m ω 2 A 2 sin 2 (ωt + φ )
2
1
= k A 2 sin2 (ωt + φ ) (13.15)
2
is also a periodic function of time, being zero
when the displacement is maximum and
maximum when the particle is at the mean
Fig. 13.15 position. Note, since the sign of v is immaterial
in K, the period of K is T/2.
elongated by a length equal to x and that on What is the potential energy (U) of a particle
the right side gets compressed by the same executing simple harmonic motion? In
length. The forces acting on the mass are Chapter 6, we have seen that the concept of
then, potential energy is possible only for conservative
forces. The spring force F = –kx is a conservative
F1 = –k x (force exerted by the spring on
force, with associated potential energy
the left side, trying to pull the
mass towards the mean 1
position) U= k x2 (13.16)
2
F2 = –k x (force exerted by the spring on
Hence the potential energy of a particle
the right side, trying to push the
executing simple harmonic motion is,
mass towards the mean
position)
The net force, F, acting on the mass is then 1
U(x) = k x2
given by, 2
F = –2kx
1
Hence the force acting on the mass is = k A 2 cos2 (ωt + φ ) (13.17)
proportional to the displacement and is directed 2
towards the mean position; therefore, the motion Thus, the potential energy of a particle
executed by the mass is simple harmonic. The executing simple harmonic motion is also
time period of oscillations is, periodic, with period T/2, being zero at the mean
m position and maximum at the extreme
T = 2π displacements.
2k ⊳
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OSCILLATIONS 269
It follows from Eqs. (13.15) and (13.17) that Observe that both kinetic energy and
the total energy, E, of the system is, potential energy in SHM are seen to be always
E =U+K positive in Fig. 13.16. Kinetic energy can, of
course, be never negative, since it is
proportional to the square of speed. Potential
1 1 energy is positive by choice of the undermined
= k A 2 cos2 (ωt + φ ) + k A 2 sin2 (ωt + φ )
2 2 constant in potential energy. Both kinetic
energy and potential energy peak twice during
each period of SHM. For x = 0, the energy is
1
= k A 2 cos2 (ωt + φ ) + sin 2 (ωt + φ ) kinetic; at the extremes x = ±A, it is all
2
potential energy. In the course of motion
Using the familiar trigonometric identity, the between these limits, kinetic energy increases
value of the expression in the brackets is unity. at the expense of potential energy or
Thus, vice-versa.
1
E= k A2 (13.18) u Example 13.7 A block whose mass is 1 kg
2 is fastened to a spring. The spring has a
The total mechanical energy of a harmonic spring constant of 50 N m–1. The block is
oscillator is thus independent of time as pulled to a distance x = 10 cm from its
expected for motion under any conservative equilibrium position at x = 0 on a frictionless
surface from rest at t = 0. Calculate the
force. The time and displacement dependence
kinetic, potential and total energies of the
of the potential and kinetic energies of a
block when it is 5 cm away from the mean
linear simple harmonic oscillator are shown position.
in Fig. 13.16.
Answer The block executes SHM, its angular

frequency, as given by Eq. (13.14b), is
k
ω =
m
–1
50 N m
=
1kg
= 7.07 rad s–1
Its displacement at any time t is then given by,
x(t) = 0.1 cos (7.07t)

Fig. 13.16 Kinetic energy, potential energy and total
energy as a function of time [shown in (a)] Therefore, when the particle is 5 cm away from
and displacement [shown in (b)] of a particle
in SHM. The kinetic energy and potential the mean position, we have
energy both repeat after a period T/2. The
total energy remains constant at all t or x. 0.05 = 0.1 cos (7.07t)
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270 PHYSICS
Or cos (7.07t) = 0.5 and hence let it go. The stone executes a to and fro motion,
it is periodic with a period of about two seconds.
3 We shall show that this periodic motion is
sin (7.07t) = = 0.866
2 simple harmonic for small displacements from
Then, the velocity of the block at x = 5 cm is
= 0.1 × 7.07 × 0.866 m s–1
= 0.61 m s–1
Hence the K.E. of the block,

1
= m v2
2
= ½[1kg × (0.6123 m s–1 )2 ]
= 0.19 J
(a)
The P.E. of the block,
1
= k x2
2
= ½(50 N m–1 × 0.05 m × 0.05 m)
= 0.0625 J
The total energy of the block at x = 5 cm,
= K.E. + P.E.
= 0.25 J
we also know that at maximum displacement,

K.E. is zero and hence the total energy of the (b)
system is equal to the P.E. Therefore, the total Fig. 13.17 (a) A bob oscillating about its mean
position. (b) The radial force T-mg cosθ
energy of the system, provides centripetal force but no torque
about the support. The tangential force
= ½(50 N m–1 × 0.1 m × 0.1 m )
mg sinθ provides the restoring torque.
= 0.25 J
which is same as the sum of the two energies at the mean position. Consider simple pendulum
a displacement of 5 cm. This is in conformity — a small bob of mass m tied to an inextensible
with the principle of conservation of energy. ⊳ massless string of length L. The other end of
13.8 The Simple Pendulum the string is fixed to a rigid support. The bob
It is said that Galileo measured the periods of a oscillates in a plane about the vertical line
swinging chandelier in a church by his pulse through the support. Fig. 13.17(a) shows this
beats. He observed that the motion of the system. Fig. 13.17(b) is a kind of ‘free-body’
chandelier was periodic. The system is a kind diagram of the simple pendulum showing the
of pendulum. You can also make your own forces acting on the bob.
pendulum by tying a piece of stone to a long Let θ be the angle made by the string with
unstretchable thread, approximately 100 cm the vertical. When the bob is at the mean
long. Suspend your pendulum from a suitable position, θ = 0
support so that it is free to oscillate. Displace There are only two forces acting on the bob;
the stone to one side by a small distance and the tension T along the string and the vertical
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OSCILLATIONS 271
force due to gravity (=mg). The force mg can be Table 13.1 sin θ as ma function of angle θ
resolved into the component mg cosθ along the
string and mg sinθ perpendicular to it. Since (degrees) (radians) sin
the motion of the bob is along a circle of length
L and centre at the support point, the bob has
a radial acceleration (ω2L) and also a tangental
acceleration; the latter arises since motion along
the arc of the circle is not uniform. The radial
acceleration is provided by the net radial force
T –mg cosθ, while the tangential acceleration is
provided by mg sinθ. It is more convenient to
work with torque about the support since the Equation (13.24) is mathematically, identical to
radial force gives zero torque. Torque τ about Eq. (13.11) except that the variable is angular
the support is entirely provided by the tangental displacement. Hence we have proved that for
component of force small q, the motion of the bob is simple harmonic.
From Eqs. (13.24) and (13.11),
τ = –L (mg sinθ ) (13.19)
This is the restoring torque that tends to reduce mgL
angular displacement — hence the negative ω =
sign. By Newton’s law of rotational motion, I
τ = Iα (13.20) and
where I is the moment of inertia of the system
about the support and α is the angular I
T = 2π (13.25)
acceleration. Thus, mgL
I α = –m g sin θ L (13.21)
Now since the string of the simple pendulum
is massless, the moment of inertia I is simply
mL2. Eq. (13.25) then gives the well-known
Or,
formula for time period of a simple pendulum.
m gL
α = − sin θ (13.22) L
I T = 2π (13.26)
We can simplify Eq. (13.22) if we assume that g
the displacement θ is small. We know that sin θ u Example 13.8 What is the length of a
can be expressed as, simple pendulum, which ticks seconds ?
θ3 θ5 Answer From Eq. (13.26), the time period of a

sin θ = θ − + ± ... (13.23)
3! 5! simple pendulum is given by,
L
where θ is in radians. T = 2π
Now if θ is small, sin θ can be approximated g
by θ and Eq. (13.22) can then be written as, From this relation one gets,
gT 2
α = −
mgL
θ L =
(13.24) 4π 2
I
The time period of a simple pendulum, which
In Table 13.1, we have listed the angle θ in ticks seconds, is 2 s. Therefore, for g = 9.8 m s–2
degrees, its equivalent in radians, and the
value of the function sin θ . From this table it and T = 2 s, L is
can be seen that for θ as large as 20 degrees, 9.8(m s –2 ) × 4(s2 )
=
sin θ is nearly the same as θ expressed 4π 2
in radians. =1m ⊳
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272 PHYSICS
SUMMARY
1. The motion that repeats itself is called periodlic motion.

2. The period T is the time reequired for one complete oscillation, or cycle. It is related to
the frequency v by,
1
T =
v
The frequency ν of periodic or oscillatory motion is the number of oscillations per
unit time. In the SI, it is measured in hertz :
1 hertz = 1 Hz = 1 oscillation per second = 1s–1
3. In simple harmonic motion (SHM), the displacement x (t) of a particle from its
equilibrium position is given by,
x (t) = A cos (ωt + φ ) (displacement),
in which A is the amplitude of the displacement, the quantity (ωt + φ ) is the phase of
the motion, and φ is the phase constant. The angular frequency ω is related to the
period and frequency of the motion by,
2π
ω= = 2πν (angular frequency).
T
4. Simple harmonic motion can also be viewed as the projection of uniform circular
motion on the diameter of the circle in which the latter motion occurs.
5. The particle velocity and acceleration during SHM as functions of time are given by,
v (t) = –ωA sin (ωt + φ ) (velocity),
a (t) = –ω2A cos (ωt + φ )
= –ω2x (t) (acceleration),

Thus we see that both velocity and acceleration of a body executing simple harmonic
motion are periodic functions, having the velocity amplitude vm=ω A and acceleration
amplitude am =ω 2A, respectively.
6. The force acting in a simple harmonic motion is proportional to the displacement and
is always directed towards the centre of motion.
7. A particle executing simple harmonic motion has, at any time, kinetic energy
K = ½ mv2 and potential energy U = ½ kx2. If no friction is present the mechanical
energy of the system, E = K + U always remains constant even though K and U change
with time.
8. A particle of mass m oscillating under the influence of Hooke’s law restoring force
given by F = – k x exhibits simple harmonic motion with
k
ω = (angular frequency)
m
m
T = 2π (period)
k
Such a system is also called a linear oscillator.
9. The motion of a simple pendulum swinging through small angles is approximately
simple harmonic. The period of oscillation is given by,
L
T = 2π
g
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OSCILLATIONS 273
POINTS TO PONDER
1. The period T is the least time after which motion repeats itself. Thus, motion repeats
itself after nT where n is an integer.
2. Every periodic motion is not simple harmonic motion. Only that periodic motion
governed by the force law F = – k x is simple harmonic.
3. Circular motion can arise due to an inverse-square law force (as in planetary motion)
as well as due to simple harmonic force in two dimensions equal to: –mω2r. In the
latter case, the phases of motion, in two perpendicular directions (x and y) must differ
by π/2. Thus, for example, a particle subject to a force –mω2r with initial position (0,
A) and velocity (ωA, 0) will move uniformly in a circle of radius A.
4. For linear simple harmonic motion with a given ω, two initial conditions are necessary
and sufficient to determine the motion completely. The initial conditions may be (i)
initial position and initial velocity or (ii) amplitude and phase or (iii) energy
and phase.
5. From point 4 above, given amplitude or energy, phase of motion is determined by the
initial position or initial velocity.
6. A combination of two simple harmonic motions with arbitrary amplitudes and phases
is not necessarily periodic. It is periodic only if frequency of one motion is an integral
multiple of the other’s frequency. However, a periodic motion can always be expressed
as a sum of infinite number of harmonic motions with appropriate amplitudes.
7. The period of SHM does not depend on amplitude or energy or the phase constant.
Contrast this with the periods of planetary orbits under gravitation (Kepler’s third law).
8. The motion of a simple pendulum is simple harmonic for small angular displacement.
9. For motion of a particle to be simple harmonic, its displacement x must be expressible

in either of the following forms :
x = A cos ωt + B sin ωt
x = A cos (ωt + α ), x = B sin (ωt + β )
The three forms are completely equivalent (any one can be expressed in terms of any
other two forms).
Thus, damped simple harmonic motion is not strictly simple harmonic. It is

approximately so only for time intervals much less than 2m/b where b is the damping
constant.
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274 PHYSICS
Exercises
13.1 Which of the following examples represent periodic motion?

(a) A swimmer completing one (return) trip from one bank of a river to the other
and back.
(b) A freely suspended bar magnet displaced from its N-S direction and released.
(c) A hydrogen molecule rotating about its centre of mass.
(d) An arrow released from a bow.
13.2 Which of the following examples represent (nearly) simple harmonic motion and
which represent periodic but not simple harmonic motion?
(a) the rotation of earth about its axis.
(b) motion of an oscillating mercury column in a U-tube.
(c) motion of a ball bearing inside a smooth curved bowl, when released from a
point slightly above the lower most point.
(d) general vibrations of a polyatomic molecule about its equilibrium position.
13.3 Fig. 13.18 depicts four x-t plots for linear motion of a particle. Which of the plots
represent periodic motion? What is the period of motion (in case of periodic motion) ?
Fig. 18.18
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OSCILLATIONS 275
13.4 Which of the following functions of time represent (a) simple harmonic, (b) periodic
but not simple harmonic, and (c) non-periodic motion? Give period for each case of
periodic motion (ω is any positive constant):
(a) sin ωt – cos ωt
(b) sin3 ωt
(c) 3 cos (π/4 – 2ωt)
(d) cos ωt + cos 3ωt + cos 5ωt
(e) exp (–ω2t2)
(f) 1 + ωt + ω2t2
13.5 A particle is in linear simple harmonic motion between two points, A and B, 10 cm
apart. Take the direction from A to B as the positive direction and give the signs of
velocity, acceleration and force on the particle when it is
(a) at the end A,
(b) at the end B,
(c) at the mid-point of AB going towards A,
(d) at 2 cm away from B going towards A,
(e) at 3 cm away from A going towards B, and
(f) at 4 cm away from B going towards A.
13.6 Which of the following relationships between the acceleration a and the displacement
x of a particle involve simple harmonic motion?
(a) a = 0.7x
(b) a = –200x2
(c) a = –10x
(d) a = 100x3
13.7 The motion of a particle executing simple harmonic motion is described by the
displacement function,
x(t) = A cos (ωt + φ ).
If the initial (t = 0) position of the particle is 1 cm and its initial velocity is ω cm/s,
what are its amplitude and initial phase angle ? The angular frequency of the particle
is π s–1. If instead of the cosine function, we choose the sine function to describe the
SHM : x = B sin (ωt + α), what are the amplitude and initial phase of the particle
with the above initial conditions.
13.8 A spring balance has a scale that reads from 0 to 50 kg. The length of the scale is 20
cm. A body suspended from this balance, when displaced and released, oscillates
with a period of 0.6 s. What is the weight of the body ?
13.9 A spring having with a spring constant 1200 N m–1 is mounted on a horizontal table
as shown in Fig. 13.19. A mass of 3 kg is attached to the free end of the spring. The
mass is then pulled sideways to a distance of 2.0 cm and released.
Fig. 13.19
Determine (i) the frequency of oscillations, (ii) maximum acceleration of the mass,
and (iii) the maximum speed of the mass.
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276 PHYSICS
13.10 In Exercise 13.9, let us take the position of mass when the spring is unstreched as
x = 0, and the direction from left to right as the positive direction of
x-axis. Give x as a function of time t for the oscillating mass if at the moment we
start the stopwatch (t = 0), the mass is
(a) at the mean position,
(b) at the maximum stretched position, and
(c) at the maximum compressed position.
In what way do these functions for SHM differ from each other, in frequency, in
amplitude or the initial phase?
13.11 Figures 13.20 correspond to two circular motions. The radius of the circle, the
period of revolution, the initial position, and the sense of revolution (i.e. clockwise
or anti-clockwise) are indicated on each figure.
Fig. 13.20
Obtain the corresponding simple harmonic motions of the x-projection of the radius
vector of the revolving particle P, in each case.
13.12 Plot the corresponding reference circle for each of the following simple harmonic
motions. Indicate the initial (t =0) position of the particle, the radius of the circle,
and the angular speed of the rotating particle. For simplicity, the sense of rotation
may be fixed to be anticlockwise in every case: (x is in cm and t is in s).
(a) x = –2 sin (3t + π/3)
(b) x = cos (π/6 – t)
(c) x = 3 sin (2πt + π/4)
(d) x = 2 cos πt
13.13 Figure 13.21(a) shows a spring of force constant k clamped rigidly at one end and a
mass m attached to its free end. A force F applied at the free end stretches the
spring. Figure 13.21 (b) shows the same spring with both ends free and attached to
a mass m at either end. Each end of the spring in Fig. 13.21(b) is stretched by the
same force F.
Fig. 13.21
(a) What is the maximum extension of the spring in the two cases ?
(b) If the mass in Fig. (a) and the two masses in Fig. (b) are released, what is the
period of oscillation in each case ?
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OSCILLATIONS 277
13.14 The piston in the cylinder head of a locomotive has a stroke (twice the amplitude)
of 1.0 m. If the piston moves with simple harmonic motion with an angular frequency
of 200 rad/min, what is its maximum speed ?
13.15 The acceleration due to gravity on the surface of moon is 1.7 m s–2. What is the time
period of a simple pendulum on the surface of moon if its time period on the surface
of earth is 3.5 s ? (g on the surface of earth is 9.8 m s–2)
13.16 A simple pendulum of length l and having a bob of mass M is suspended in a car.
The car is moving on a circular track of radius R with a uniform speed v. If the
pendulum makes small oscillations in a radial direction about its equilibrium
position, what will be its time period ?
13.17 A cylindrical piece of cork of density of base area A and height h floats in a liquid of
density ρl. The cork is depressed slightly and then released. Show that the cork
oscillates up and down simple harmonically with a period
hρ
T = 2π
ρ1g
where ρ is the density of cork. (Ignore damping due to viscosity of the liquid).
13.18 One end of a U-tube containing mercury is connected to a suction pump and the
other end to atmosphere. A small pressure difference is maintained between the
two columns. Show that, when the suction pump is removed, the column of mercury
in the U-tube executes simple harmonic motion.
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CHAPTER FOURTEEN
WAVES
14.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous Chapter, we studied the motion of objects
oscillating in isolation. What happens in a system, which is
a collection of such objects? A material medium provides
14.1 Introduction
such an example. Here, elastic forces bind the constituents
14.2 Transverse and to each other and, therefore, the motion of one affects that of
longitudinal waves
the other. If you drop a little pebble in a pond of still water,
14.3 Displacement relation in a
the water surface gets disturbed. The disturbance does not
progressive wave
remain confined to one place, but propagates outward along
14.4 The speed of a travelling
a circle. If you continue dropping pebbles in the pond, you
wave
see circles rapidly moving outward from the point where the
14.5 The principle of
water surface is disturbed. It gives a feeling as if the water is
superposition of waves
moving outward from the point of disturbance. If you put
14.6 Reflection of waves
some cork pieces on the disturbed surface, it is seen that
14.7 Beats
the cork pieces move up and down but do not move away
Summary
from the centre of disturbance. This shows that the water
Points to ponder
mass does not flow outward with the circles, but rather a
Exercises
moving disturbance is created. Similarly, when we speak,
the sound moves outward from us, without any flow of air
from one part of the medium to another. The disturbances
produced in air are much less obvious and only our ears or
a microphone can detect them. These patterns, which move
without the actual physical transfer or flow of matter as a
whole, are called waves. In this Chapter, we will study such
waves.
Waves transport energy and the pattern of disturbance has
information that propagate from one point to another. All our
communications essentially depend on transmission of sig-
nals through waves. Speech means production of sound
waves in air and hearing amounts to their detection. Often,
communication involves different kinds of waves. For exam-
ple, sound waves may be first converted into an electric cur-
rent signal which in turn may generate an electromagnetic
wave that may be transmitted by an optical cable or via a
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WAVES 279
satellite. Detection of the original signal will usu- We shall illustrate this connection through
ally involve these steps in reverse order. simple examples.
Not all waves require a medium for their Consider a collection of springs connected to
propagation. We know that light waves can one another as shown in Fig. 14.1. If the spring
travel through vacuum. The light emitted by at one end is pulled suddenly and released, the
stars, which are hundreds of light years away, disturbance travels to the other end. What has
reaches us through inter-stellar space, which
is practically a vacuum.
The most familiar type of waves such as waves
on a string, water waves, sound waves, seismic
waves, etc. is the so-called mechanical waves. Fig. 14.1 A collection of springs connected to each
These waves require a medium for propagation, other. The end A is pulled suddenly
they cannot propagate through vacuum. They generating a disturbance, which then
involve oscillations of constituent particles and propagates to the other end.
depend on the elastic properties of the medium.
The electromagnetic waves that you will learn happened? The first spring is disturbed from its
in Class XII are a different type of wave. equilibrium length. Since the second spring is
Electromagnetic waves do not necessarily require connected to the first, it is also stretched or
a medium - they can travel through vacuum. compressed, and so on. The disturbance moves
Light, radiowaves, X-rays, are all electromagnetic from one end to the other; but each spring only
waves. In vacuum, all electromagnetic waves executes small oscillations about its equilibrium
have the same speed c, whose value is : position. As a practical example of this situation,
consider a stationary train at a railway station.
c = 299, 792, 458 ms–1. (14.1)
Different bogies of the train are coupled to each
A third kind of wave is the so-called Matter other through a spring coupling. When an
waves. They are associated with constituents of engine is attached at one end, it gives a push to
matter : electrons, protons, neutrons, atoms and the bogie next to it; this push is transmitted from
molecules. They arise in quantum mechanical one bogie to another without the entire train
description of nature that you will learn in your being bodily displaced.
later studies. Though conceptually more abstract Now let us consider the propagation of sound
than mechanical or electro-magnetic waves, they waves in air. As the wave passes through air, it
have already found applications in several compresses or expands a small region of air. This
devices basic to modern technology; matter causes a change in the density of that region,
waves associated with electrons are employed say δρ, this change induces a change in pressure,
in electron microscopes. δp, in that region. Pressure is force per unit area,
In this chapter we will study mechanical so there is a restoring force proportional to
waves, which require a material medium for the disturbance, just like in a spring. In this
their propagation. case, the quantity similar to extension or
The aesthetic influence of waves on art and compression of the spring is the change in
literature is seen from very early times; yet the density. If a region is compressed, the molecules
first scientific analysis of wave motion dates back in that region are packed together, and they tend
to the seventeenth century. Some of the famous to move out to the adjoining region, thereby
scientists associated with the physics of wave increasing the density or creating compression
motion are Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695), in the adjoining region. Consequently, the air
Robert Hooke and Isaac Newton. The in the first region undergoes rarefaction. If a
understanding of physics of waves followed the region is comparatively rarefied the surrounding
physics of oscillations of masses tied to springs air will rush in making the rarefaction move to
and physics of the simple pendulum. Waves in the adjoining region. Thus, the compression or
elastic media are intimately connected with rarefaction moves from one region to another,
harmonic oscillations. (Stretched strings, coiled making the propagation of a disturbance
springs, air, etc., are examples of elastic media). possible in air.
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280 PHYSICS
In solids, similar arguments can be made. In

a crystalline solid, atoms or group of atoms are
arranged in a periodic lattice. In these, each
atom or group of atoms is in equilibrium, due to
forces from the surrounding atoms. Displacing
one atom, keeping the others fixed, leads to
restoring forces, exactly as in a spring. So we
can think of atoms in a lattice as end points,
with springs between pairs of them.
In the subsequent sections of this chapter
we are going to discuss various characteristic Fig. 14.3 A harmonic (sinusoidal) wave travelling
properties of waves. along a stretched string is an example of a
transverse wave. An element of the string
14.2 TRANSVERSE AND LONGITUDINAL in the region of the wave oscillates about
WAVES its equilibrium position perpendicular to the
direction of wave propagation.
We have seen that motion of mechanical waves
involves oscillations of constituents of the position as the pulse or wave passes through
medium. If the constituents of the medium them. The oscillations are normal to the
oscillate perpendicular to the direction of wave direction of wave motion along the string, so this
propagation, we call the wave a transverse wave. is an example of transverse wave.
If they oscillate along the direction of wave We can look at a wave in two ways. We can fix
propagation, we call the wave a longitudinal an instant of time and picture the wave in space.
wave. This will give us the shape of the wave as a
Fig.14.2 shows the propagation of a single whole in space at a given instant. Another way
pulse along a string, resulting from a single up is to fix a location i.e. fix our attention on a
and down jerk. If the string is very long compared particular element of string and see its
oscillatory motion in time.
Fig. 14.4 describes the situation for
longitudinal waves in the most familiar example
of the propagation of sound waves. A long pipe
filled with air has a piston at one end. A single
sudden push forward and pull back of the piston
will generate a pulse of condensations (higher
density) and rarefactions (lower density) in the
medium (air). If the push-pull of the piston is
continuous and periodic (sinusoidal), a
Fig. 14.2 When a pulse travels along the length of a

stretched string (x-direction), the elements
of the string oscillate up and down (y-
direction)
to the size of the pulse, the pulse will damp out

before it reaches the other end and reflection
from that end may be ignored. Fig. 14.3 shows a
similar situation, but this time the external
agent gives a continuous periodic sinusoidal up
Fig. 14.4 Longitudinal waves (sound) generated in a
and down jerk to one end of the string. The pipe filled with air by moving the piston up
resulting disturbance on the string is then a and down. A volume element of air oscillates
sinusoidal wave. In either case the elements of in the direction parallel to the direction of
the string oscillate about their equilibrium mean wave propagation.
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WAVES 281
sinusoidal wave will be generated propagating

u Example 14.1 Given below are some
in air along the length of the pipe. This is clearly
examples of wave motion. State in each case
an example of longitudinal waves.
if the wave motion is transverse, longitudinal
The waves considered above, transverse or or a combination of both:
longitudinal, are travelling or progressive waves (a) Motion of a kink in a longitudinal spring
since they travel from one part of the medium produced by displacing one end of the
to another. The material medium as a whole spring sideways.
does not move, as already noted. A stream, for (b) Waves produced in a cylinder
example, constitutes motion of water as a whole. containing a liquid by moving its piston
In a water wave, it is the disturbance that moves, back and forth.
(c) Waves produced by a motorboat sailing
not water as a whole. Likewise a wind (motion
in water.
of air as a whole) should not be confused with a
(d) Ultrasonic waves in air produced by a
sound wave which is a propagation of vibrating quartz crystal.
disturbance (in pressure density) in air, without
the motion of air medium as a whole.
Answer
In transverse waves, the particle motion is (a) Transverse and longitudinal
normal to the direction of propagation of the (b) Longitudinal
wave. Therefore, as the wave propagates, each (c) Transverse and longitudinal
element of the medium undergoes a shearing (d) Longitudinal ⊳
strain. Transverse waves can, therefore, be
propagated only in those media, which can 14.3 DISPLACEMENT RELATION IN
A PROGRESSIVE WAVE
sustain shearing stress, such as solids and not
in fluids. Fluids, as well as, solids can sustain For mathematical description of a travelling
compressive strain; therefore, longitudinal wave, we need a function of both position x and
waves can be propagated in all elastic media. time t. Such a function at every instant should
For example, in medium like steel, both give the shape of the wave at that instant. Also,
transverse and longitudinal waves can at every given location, it should describe the
propagate, while air can sustain only motion of the constituent of the medium at that
location. If we wish to describe a sinusoidal
longitudinal waves. The waves on the surface
travelling wave (such as the one shown in Fig.
of water are of two kinds: capillary waves and
14.3) the corresponding function must also be
gravity waves. The former are ripples of fairly
sinusoidal. For convenience, we shall take the
short wavelength—not more than a few
wave to be transverse so that if the position of
centimetre—and the restoring force that the constituents of the medium is denoted by x,
produces them is the surface tension of water. the displacement from the equilibrium position
Gravity waves have wavelengths typically may be denoted by y. A sinusoidal travelling
ranging from several metres to several hundred wave is then described by:
meters. The restoring force that produces these
waves is the pull of gravity, which tends to keep
y( x, t ) = a sin( kx − ωt + φ) (14.2)
the water surface at its lowest level. The The term φ in the argument of sine function
oscillations of the particles in these waves are means equivalently that we are considering a
not confined to the surface only, but extend with linear combination of sine and cosine functions:
diminishing amplitude to the very bottom. The y ( x ,t ) = A sin(kx − ωt ) + B cos(kx − ωt ) (14.3)
particle motion in water waves involves a From Equations (14.2) and (14.3),
complicated motion—they not only move up and
−1  B 
down but also back and forth. The waves in an
a = A2 + B2 and φ = tan  A 
ocean are the combination of both longitudinal
and transverse waves. To understand why Equation (14.2)
It is found that, generally, transverse and represents a sinusoidal travelling wave, take a
longitudinal waves travel with different speed fixed instant, say t = t0. Then, the argument of
in the same medium. the sine function in Equation (14.2) is simply
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282 PHYSICS
kx + constant. Thus, the shape of the wave (at

any fixed instant) as a function of x is a sine
wave. Similarly, take a fixed location, say x = x0.
Then, the argument of the sine function in
Equation (14.2) is constant -ωt. The
displacement y, at a fixed location, thus, varies
sinusoidally with time. That is, the constituents
of the medium at different positions execute
simple harmonic motion. Finally, as t increases,
x must increase in the positive direction to keep
kx – ωt + φ constant. Thus, Eq. (14.2) represents
a sinusiodal (harmonic) wave travelling along
the positive direction of the x-axis. On the other
hand, a function
y ( x, t ) = a sin( kx + ω t + φ ) (14.4)
represents a wave travelling in the negative
direction of x-axis. Fig. (14.5) gives the names of
the various physical quantities appearing in Eq.
(14.2) that we now interpret.
y(x,t) : displacement as a function of

position x and time t
a : amplitude of a wave
ω : angular frequency of the wave Fig. 14.6 A harmonic wave progressing along the
k : angular wave number positive direction of x-axis at different times.
kx–ωt+φ : initial phase angle (a+x = 0, t = 0)
Using the plots of Fig. 14.6, we now define
Fig. 14.5 The meaning of standard symbols in the various quantities of Eq. (14.2).
Eq. (14.2)
14.3.1 Amplitude and Phase
Fig. 14.6 shows the plots of Eq. (14.2) for In Eq. (14.2), since the sine function varies
different values of time differing by equal between 1 and –1, the displacement y (x,t) varies
intervals of time. In a wave, the crest is the between a and –a. We can take a to be a positive
point of maximum positive displacement, the constant, without any loss of generality. Then,
trough is the point of maximum negative a represents the maximum displacement of the
displacement. To see how a wave travels, we constituents of the medium from their
can fix attention on a crest and see how it
equilibrium position. Note that the displacement
progresses with time. In the figure, this is
y may be positive or negative, but a is positive.
shown by a cross (×) on the crest. In the same
It is called the amplitude of the wave.
manner, we can see the motion of a particular
The quantity (kx – ωt + φ) appearing as the
constituent of the medium at a fixed location,
say at the origin of the x-axis. This is shown argument of the sine function in Eq. (14.2) is
by a solid dot (•). The plots of Fig. 14.6 show called the phase of the wave. Given the
that with time, the solid dot (•) at the origin amplitude a, the phase determines the
moves periodically, i.e., the particle at the displacement of the wave at any position and
origin oscillates about its mean position as at any instant. Clearly φ is the phase at x = 0
the wave progresses. This is true for any other and t = 0. Hence, φ is called the initial phase
location also. We also see that during the time angle. By suitable choice of origin on the x-axis
the solid dot (•) has completed one full and the intial time, it is possible to have φ = 0.
oscillation, the crest has moved further by a Thus there is no loss of generality in dropping
certain distance. φ, i.e., in taking Eq. (14.2) with φ = 0.
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WAVES 283
14.3.2 Wavelength and Angular Wave

Number
The minimum distance between two points
having the same phase is called the wavelength
of the wave, usually denoted by λ. For simplicity,
we can choose points of the same phase to be
crests or troughs. The wavelength is then the
distance between two consecutive crests or
troughs in a wave. Taking φ = 0 in Eq. (14.2),
Fig. 14.7 An element of a string at a fixed location
the displacement at t = 0 is given by oscillates in time with amplitude a and
period T, as the wave passes over it.
y ( x, 0) = a sin kx (14.5)
Since the sine function repeats its value after Now, the period of oscillation of the wave is the
every 2π change in angle, time it takes for an element to complete one full
oscillation. That is
−a sin ωt = −a sin ω (t + T )
= −a sin(ωt + ω T )
That is the displacements at points x and at Since sine function repeats after every 2π ,
2n π
x+ 2π
k ω T = 2π or ω = (14.7)
T
are the same, where n=1,2,3,... The 1east
distance between points with the same ω is called the angular frequency of the wave.
displacement (at any given instant of time) is Its SI unit is rad s –1. The frequency ν is the
obtained by taking n = 1. λ is then given by number of oscillations per second. Therefore,
2π 2π 1 ω
λ= ν= =
or k =
(14.8)
k λ
(14.6) T 2π
ν is usually measured in hertz.
k is the angular wave number or propagation
In the discussion above, reference has always
constant; its SI unit is radian per metre or
been made to a wave travelling along a string or
rad m−1 * a transverse wave. In a longitudinal wave, the
displacement of an element of the medium is
14.3.3 Period, Angular Frequency and parallel to the direction of propagation of the
Frequency wave. In Eq. (14.2), the displacement function
Fig. 14.7 shows again a sinusoidal plot. It for a longitudinal wave is written as,
describes not the shape of the wave at a certain
s(x, t) = a sin (kx – ω t + φ ) (14.9)
instant but the displacement of an element (at
any fixed location) of the medium as a function where s(x, t) is the displacement of an element
of time. We may for, simplicity, take Eq. (14.2) of the medium in the direction of propagation
with φ = 0 and monitor the motion of the element of the wave at position x and time t. In Eq. (14.9),
say at x = 0 . We then get a is the displacement amplitude; other
quantities have the same meaning as in case
y(0,t ) = a sin( −ωt ) of a transverse wave except that the
displacement function y (x, t ) is to be replaced
= −a sin ωt by the function s (x, t).
* Here again, ‘radian’ could be dropped and the units could be written merely as m–1. Thus, k represents 2π
times the number of waves (or the total phase difference) that can be accommodated per unit length, with SI
units m–1.
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284 PHYSICS
the shape of the wave at two instants of time,

u Example 14.2 A wave travelling along a which differ by a small time internal ∆t. The
string is described by, entire wave pattern is seen to shift to the right
y(x, t) = 0.005 sin (80.0 x – 3.0 t), (positive direction of x-axis) by a distance ∆x. In
particular, the crest shown by a dot ( • ) moves a
in which the numerical constants are in
SI units (0.005 m, 80.0 rad m –1, and
3.0 rad s–1). Calculate (a) the amplitude,
(b) the wavelength, and (c) the period and
frequency of the wave. Also, calculate the
displacement y of the wave at a distance
x = 30.0 cm and time t = 20 s ?
Answer On comparing this displacement

equation with Eq. (14.2), Fig. 14.8 Progression of a harmonic wave from time
y (x, t ) = a sin (kx – ω t ), t to t + ∆t. where ∆t is a small interval.
The wave pattern as a whole shifts to the
we find right. The crest of the wave (or a point with
(a) the amplitude of the wave is 0.005 m = 5 mm. any fixed phase) moves right by the distance
(b) the angular wave number k and angular ∆x in time ∆t.
frequency ω are
distance ∆x in time ∆t. The speed of the wave is
k = 80.0 m–1 and ω = 3.0 s–1 then ∆x/∆t. We can put the dot ( • ) on a point
We, then, relate the wavelength λ to k through with any other phase. It will move with the same
Eq. (14.6), speed v (otherwise the wave pattern will not
λ = 2π/k remain fixed). The motion of a fixed phase point
on the wave is given by
2π
=
80.0 m −1 kx – ω t = constant (14.10)
= 7.85 cm Thus, as time t changes, the position x of the

fixed phase point must change so that the phase
(c) Now, we relate T to ω by the relation remains constant. Thus,
T = 2π/ω
kx – ω t = k(x+∆x) – ω(t+∆t)
2π or k ∆x – ω ∆t =0
= −1
3.0 s Taking ∆x, ∆t vanishingly small, this gives
= 2.09 s
dx ω (14.11)
and frequency, v = 1/T = 0.48 Hz = =v
dt k
The displacement y at x = 30.0 cm and Relating ω to T and k to λ, we get
time t = 20 s is given by
2πν λ
y = (0.005 m) sin (80.0 × 0.3 – 3.0 × 20) v= = λν = (14.12)
2π /λ T
= (0.005 m) sin (–36 + 12π)
= (0.005 m) sin (1.699) Eq. (14.12), a general relation for all progressive
= (0.005 m) sin (970) j 5 mm ⊳ waves, shows that in the time required for one full
oscillation by any constituent of the medium, the
14.4 THE SPEED OF A TRAVELLING WAVE wave pattern travels a distance equal to the
To determine the speed of propagation of a wavelength of the wave. It should be noted that
travelling wave, we can fix our attention on any the speed of a mechanical wave is determined by
particular point on the wave (characterised by the inertial (linear mass density for strings, mass
some value of the phase) and see how that point density in general) and elastic properties (Young’s
moves in time. It is convenient to look at the modulus for linear media/ shear modulus, bulk
motion of the crest of the wave. Fig. 14.8 gives modulus) of the medium. The medium determines
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WAVES 285
the speed; Eq. (14.12) then relates wavelength to arising due to an external force). It does not
frequency for the given speed. Of course, as depend on wavelength or frequency of the wave
remarked earlier, the medium can support both itself. In higher studies, you will come across
transverse and longitudinal waves, which will have waves whose speed is not independent of
different speeds in the same medium. Later in this frequency of the wave. Of the two parameters λ
chapter, we shall obtain specific expressions for and ν the source of disturbance determines the
the speed of mechanical waves in some media. frequency of the wave generated. Given the
speed of the wave in the medium and the
14.4.1 Speed of a Transverse Wave on
frequency Eq. (14.12) then fixes the wavelength
Stretched String
v
The speed of a mechanical wave is determined λ = (14.15)
by the restoring force setup in the medium when ν
it is disturbed and the inertial properties (mass
density) of the medium. The speed is expected to u Example 14.3 A steel wire 0.72 m long
be directly related to the former and inversely to has a mass of 5.0 ×10–3 kg. If the wire is
the latter. For waves on a string, the restoring under a tension of 60 N, what is the speed
force is provided by the tension T in the string. of transverse waves on the wire ?
The inertial property will in this case be linear
mass density µ, which is mass m of the string Answer Mass per unit length of the wire,
divided by its length L. Using Newton’s Laws of
5.0 × 10−3 kg
Motion, an exact formula for the wave speed on µ=
0.72 m
a string can be derived, but this derivation is
outside the scope of this book. We shall,
= 6.9 ×10–3 kg m–1
therefore, use dimensional analysis. We already
know that dimensional analysis alone can never Tension, T = 60 N
yield the exact formula. The overall The speed of wave on the wire is given by
dimensionless constant is always left
T 60 N
undetermined by dimensional analysis. v= = = 93 m s −1 ⊳
µ 6.9 × 10−3 kg m −1
The dimension of µ is [ML–1] and that of T is
like force, namely [MLT–2]. We need to combine
these dimensions to get the dimension of speed 14.4.2 Speed of a Longitudinal Wave
v [LT –1]. Simple inspection shows that the (Speed of Sound)
quantity T/µ has the relevant dimension In a longitudinal wave, the constituents of the
medium oscillate forward and backward in the
 MLT −2 
=  L2 T −2  direction of propagation of the wave. We have
[ ML ] already seen that the sound waves travel in the
Thus if T and µ are assumed to be the only form of compressions and rarefactions of small
relevant physical quantities, volume elements of air. The elastic property that
determines the stress under compressional
T strain is the bulk modulus of the medium defined
v =C (14.13) by (see Chapter 8)
µ
where C is the undetermined constant of ∆P
B=− (14.16)
dimensional analysis. In the exact formula, it ∆V/V
turms out, C=1. The speed of transverse waves Here, the change in pressure ∆P produces a
on a stretched string is given by ∆V
volumetric strain . B has the same dimension
T
V
v = (14.14) as pressure and given in SI units in terms of
µ pascal (Pa). The inertial property relevant for the
Note the important point that the speed v propagation of wave is the mass density ρ, with
depends only on the properties of the medium T dimensions [ML–3]. Simple inspection reveals
and µ (T is a property of the stretched string that quantity B/ρ has the relevant dimension:
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286 PHYSICS
 ML −2 T −2  Liquids and solids generally have higher speed

=  L2 T −2  (14.17) of sound than gases. [Note for solids, the speed
 ML −3  being referred to is the speed of longitudinal
Thus, if B and ρ are considered to be the only waves in the solid]. This happens because they
relevant physical quantities, are much more difficult to compress than gases
and so have much higher values of bulk modulus.
B Now, see Eq. (14.19). Solids and liquids have
v =C (14.18)
ρ higher mass densities ( ρ ) than gases. But the
where, as before, C is the undetermined constant corresponding increase in both the modulus (B)
from dimensional analysis. The exact derivation of solids and liquids is much higher. This is the
shows that C=1. Thus, the general formula for reason why the sound waves travel faster in
longitudinal waves in a medium is: solids and liquids.
We can estimate the speed of sound in a gas
B in the ideal gas approximation. For an ideal gas,
v = (14.19)
ρ the pressure P, volume V and temperature T are
For a linear medium, like a solid bar, the related by (see Chapter 10).
lateral expansion of the bar is negligible and we PV = NkBT (14.21)
may consider it to be only under longitudinal
strain. In that case, the relevant modulus of where N is the number of molecules in volume
elasticity is Young’s modulus, which has the V, kB is the Boltzmann constant and T the
same dimension as the Bulk modulus. temperature of the gas (in Kelvin). Therefore, for
an isothermal change it follows from Eq.(14.21)
Dimensional analysis for this case is the same
that
as before and yields a relation like Eq. (14.18),
V∆P + P∆V = 0
with an undetermined C, which the exact
derivation shows to be unity. Thus, the speed of ∆P
or − =P
longitudinal waves in a solid bar is given by ∆V/V
Hence, substituting in Eq. (14.16), we have
v = Y (14.20) B=P
ρ
Therefore, from Eq. (14.19) the speed of a
where Y is the Young’s modulus of the material longitudinal wave in an ideal gas is given by,
of the bar. Table 14.1 gives the speed of sound
in some media. v = P (14.22)
Table 14.1 Speed of Sound in some Media ρ
This relation was first given by Newton and
is known as Newton’s formula.
u Example 14.4 Estimate the speed of

sound in air at standard temperature and
pressure. The mass of 1 mole of air is
29.0 ×10–3 kg.
Answer We know that 1 mole of any gas occupies

22.4 litres at STP. Therefore, density of air at
STP is:
ρo = (mass of one mole of air)/ (volume of one
mole of air at STP)
29.0 × 10 −3 kg
=
22.4 × 10 −3 m 3
= 1.29 kg m–3
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WAVES 287
According to Newton’s formula for the speed

of sound in a medium, we get for the speed of
sound in air at STP,
= 280 m s–1 (14.23)

⊳
The result shown in Eq.(14.23) is about 15%
smaller as compared to the experimental value
of 331 m s–1 as given in Table 14.1. Where
did we go wrong ? If we examine the basic
assumption made by Newton that the pressure
variations in a medium during propagation of
sound are isothermal, we find that this is not
correct. It was pointed out by Laplace that the
pressure variations in the propagation of sound
waves are so fast that there is little time for the
heat flow to maintain constant temperature.
These variations, therefore, are adiabatic and
not isothermal. For adiabatic processes the ideal
Fig. 14.9 Two pulses having equal and opposite
gas satisfies the relation (see Section 11.8),
displacements moving in opposite
PV γ = constant
directions. The overlapping pulses add up
i.e. ∆(PV γ ) = 0 to zero displacement in curve (c).
or P γ V γ –1 ∆V + V γ ∆P = 0
pulses. Figure 14.9 shows the situation when
where γ is the ratio of two specific heats,
two pulses of equal and opposite shapes move
Cp/Cv.
towards each other. When the pulses overlap,
Thus, for an ideal gas the adiabatic bulk
modulus is given by, the resultant displacement is the algebraic sum
of the displacement due to each pulse. This is
Bad = − ∆P known as the principle of superposition of waves.
∆V/V According to this principle, each pulse moves
= γP as if others are not present. The constituents of
The speed of sound is, therefore, from Eq. the medium, therefore, suffer displacments due
(14.19), given by, to both and since the displacements can be
positive and negative, the net displacement is
v= γP (14.24) an algebraic sum of the two. Fig. 14.9 gives
ρ graphs of the wave shape at different times. Note
the dramatic effect in the graph (c); the
This modification of Newton’s formula is referred
displacements due to the two pulses have exactly
to as the Laplace correction. For air
cancelled each other and there is zero
γ = 7/5. Now using Eq. (14.24) to estimate the speed
displacement throughout.
of sound in air at STP, we get a value 331.3 m s–1, To put the principle of superposition
which agrees with the measured speed. mathematically, let y1 (x,t) and y2 (x,t) be the
displacements due to two wave disturbances in
14.5 THE PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION the medium. If the waves arrive in a region
OF WAVES simultaneously, and therefore, overlap, the net
displacement y (x,t) is given by
What happens when two wave pulses travelling
in opposite directions cross each other y (x, t) = y1(x, t) + y2(x, t) (14.25)
(Fig. 14.9)? It turns out that wave pulses If we have two or more waves moving in the
continue to retain their identities after they have medium the resultant waveform is the sum of
crossed. However, during the time they overlap, wave functions of individual waves. That is, if
the wave pattern is different from either of the the wave functions of the moving waves are
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288 PHYSICS
y1 = f1(x–vt),
y2 = f2(x–vt),
..........
..........
yn = fn (x–vt)
then the wave function describing the

disturbance in the medium is
y = f1(x – vt)+ f2(x – vt)+ ...+ fn(x – vt)
n
= ∑ f ( x − vt ) (14.26)
i
i =1
The principle of superposition is basic to the

phenomenon of interference.
For simplicity, consider two harmonic
travelling waves on a stretched string, both with
the same ω (angular frequency) and k (wave
number), and, therefore, the same wavelength Fig. 14.10 The resultant of two harmonic waves of
λ. Their wave speed will be identical. Let us equal amplitude and wavelength
further assume that their amplitudes are equal according to the principle of superposition.
and they are both travelling in the positive The amplitude of the resultant wave
direction of x-axis. The waves only differ in their depends on the phase difference φ, which
initial phase. According to Eq. (14.2), the two is zero for (a) and π for (b)
waves are described by the functions:
φ between the constituent two waves:
y1(x, t) = a sin (kx – ω t) (14.27) A(φ) = 2a cos ½φ (14.32)
For φ = 0, when the waves are in phase,
and y2(x, t) = a sin (kx – ω t + φ ) (14.28)
y ( x, t ) = 2a sin ( kx − ωt ) (14.33)
The net displacement is then, by the principle
of superposition, given by i.e., the resultant wave has amplitude 2a, the
largest possible value for A. For φ = π , the
y (x, t ) = a sin (kx – ω t) + a sin (kx – ω t + φ )
(14.29) waves are completely, out of phase and the
resultant wave has zero displacement
  ( kx − ωt ) + ( kx − ωt + φ )  φ everywhere at all times
= a  2sin   cos  y (x, t ) = 0 (14.34)
  2  2  Eq. (14.33) refers to the so-called constructive
(14.30) interference of the two waves where the
where we have used the familiar trignometric amplitudes add up in the resultant wave. Eq.
identity for sin A + sin B . We then have (14.34) is the case of destructive intereference
where the amplitudes subtract out in the
φ  φ
y ( x, t ) = 2a cos sin  kx − ωt +  (14.31) resultant wave. Fig. 14.10 shows these two cases
2  2 of interference of waves arising from the
Eq. (14.31) is also a harmonic travelling wave in principle of superposition.
the positive direction of x-axis, with the same 14.6 REFLECTION OF WAVES
frequency and wavelength. However, its initial
So far we considered waves propagating in an
φ unbounded medium. What happens if a pulse
phase angle is . The significant thing is that
2 or a wave meets a boundary? If the boundary is
its amplitude is a function of the phase difference rigid, the pulse or wave gets reflected. The
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WAVES 289
phenomenon of echo is an example of reflection If on the other hand, the boundary point is
by a rigid boundary. If the boundary is not not rigid but completely free to move (such as in
completely rigid or is an interface between two the case of a string tied to a freely moving ring
different elastic media, the situation is some on a rod), the reflected pulse has the same phase
what complicated. A part of the incident wave is and amplitude (assuming no energy dissipation)
reflected and a part is transmitted into the as the incident pulse. The net maximum
second medium. If a wave is incident obliquely displacement at the boundary is then twice the
on the boundary between two different media amplitude of each pulse. An example of non- rigid
the transmitted wave is called the refracted boundary is the open end of an organ pipe.
wave. The incident and refracted waves obey To summarise, a travelling wave or pulse
Snell’s law of refraction, and the incident and suffers a phase change of π on reflection at a
reflected waves obey the usual laws of rigid boundary and no phase change on
reflection. reflection at an open boundary. To put this
Fig. 14.11 shows a pulse travelling along a mathematically, let the incident travelling
stretched string and being reflected by the wave be
boundary. Assuming there is no absorption of
energy by the boundary, the reflected wave has y2 ( x, t ) = a sin ( kx − ωt )
the same shape as the incident pulse but it At a rigid boundary, the reflected wave is given
suffers a phase change of π or 1800 on reflection. by
This is because the boundary is rigid and the yr(x, t) = a sin (kx – ω t + π ).
disturbance must have zero displacement at all = – a sin (kx – ω t) (14.35)
times at the boundary. By the principle of At an open boundary, the reflected wave is given
superposition, this is possible only if the reflected by
and incident waves differ by a phase of π, so that yr(x, t) = a sin (kx – ω t + 0).
the resultant displacement is zero. This = a sin (kx – ω t) (14.36)
reasoning is based on boundary condition on a
rigid wall. We can arrive at the same conclusion
Clearly, at the rigid boundary, y = y2 + yr = 0
dynamically also. As the pulse arrives at the wall, at all times.
it exerts a force on the wall. By Newton’s Third 14.6.1 Standing Waves and Normal Modes
Law, the wall exerts an equal and opposite force We considered above reflection at one boundary.
on the string generating a reflected pulse that But there are familiar situations (a string fixed
differs by a phase of π. at either end or an air column in a pipe with
either end closed) in which reflection takes place
at two or more boundaries. In a string, for
example, a wave travelling in one direction will
get reflected at one end, which in turn will travel
and get reflected from the other end. This will
go on until there is a steady wave pattern set
up on the string. Such wave patterns are called
standing waves or stationary waves. To see this
mathematically, consider a wave travelling
along the positive direction of x-axis and a
reflected wave of the same amplitude and
wavelength in the negative direction of x-axis.
From Eqs. (14.2) and (14.4), with φ = 0, we get:
y1(x, t) = a sin (kx – ω t)
y2(x, t) = a sin (kx + ω t)
The resultant wave on the string is, according
to the principle of superposition:
Fig. 14.11 Reflection of a pulse meeting a rigid
boundary. y (x, t) = y1(x, t) + y2(x, t)
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290 PHYSICS
= a [sin (kx – ω t) + sin (k x + ω t)] nodes; the points at which the amplitude is the
Using the familiar trignometric identity largest are called antinodes. Fig. 14.12 shows
Sin (A+B) + Sin (A–B) = 2 sin A cosB we get, a stationary wave pattern resulting from
superposition of two travelling waves in
y (x, t) = 2a sin kx cos ω t (14.37) opposite directions.
Note the important difference in the wave The most significant feature of stationary
pattern described by Eq. (14.37) from that waves is that the boundary conditions constrain
described by Eq. (14.2) or Eq. (14.4). The terms the possible wavelengths or frequencies of
kx and ω t appear separately, not in the vibration of the system. The system cannot
combination kx - ωt. The amplitude of this wave oscillate with any arbitrary frequency (contrast
is 2a sin kx. Thus, in this wave pattern, the this with a harmonic travelling wave), but is
amplitude varies from point-to-point, but each characterised by a set of natural frequencies or
element of the string oscillates with the same normal modes of oscillation. Let us determine
angular frequency ω or time period. There is no these normal modes for a stretched string fixed
phase difference between oscillations of different at both ends.
elements of the wave. The string as a whole First, from Eq. (14.37), the positions of nodes
vibrates in phase with differing amplitudes at (where the amplitude is zero) are given by
different points. The wave pattern is neither sin kx = 0 .
moving to the right nor to the left. Hence, they which implies
are called standing or stationary waves. The kx = n π; n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
amplitude is fixed at a given location but, as
Since, k = 2π/λ , we get
remarked earlier, it is different at different
locations. The points at which the amplitude is nλ
zero (i.e., where there is no motion at all) are x= ; n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... (14.38)
2
Fig. 14.12 Stationary waves arising from superposition of two harmonic waves travelling in opposite directions.
Note that the positions of zero displacement (nodes) remain fixed at all times.
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WAVES 291
Clearly, the distance between any two speed of wave determined by the properties of
λ the medium. The n = 2 frequency is called the
successive nodes is In the same way, the second harmonic; n = 3 is the third harmonic
2.
positions of antinodes (where the amplitude is and so on. We can label the various harmonics by
the largest) are given by the largest value of sin the symbol νn ( n = 1, 2, ...).
kx : Fig. 14.13 shows the first six harmonics of a
sin k x = 1 stretched string fixed at either end. A string
which implies need not vibrate in one of these modes only.
Generally, the vibration of a string will be a
kx = (n + ½) π ; n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... superposition of different modes; some modes
With k = 2π/λ, we get may be more strongly excited and some less.
Musical instruments like sitar or violin are
λ based on this principle. Where the string is
x = (n + ½) ; n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... (14.39)
2 plucked or bowed, determines which modes are
Again the distance between any two consecutive more prominent than others.
Let us next consider normal modes of
λ oscillation of an air column with one end closed
antinodes is . Eq. (14.38) can be applied to
2
the case of a stretched string of
length L fixed at both ends. Taking
one end to be at x = 0, the boundary
conditions are that x = 0 and x = L
are positions of nodes. The x = 0
condition is already satisfied. The
x = L node condition requires that
the length L is related to λ by
λ
L=n ; n = 1, 2, 3, ... (14.40)
2
Thus, the possible wavelengths of
stationary waves are constrained
by the relation
2L
λ = ; n = 1, 2, 3, … (14.41)
n
with corresponding frequencies
v=
nv , for n = 1, 2, 3, (14.42)
2L
We have thus obtained the natural
frequencies - the normal modes of
oscillation of the system. The lowest
possible natural frequency of a
system is called its fundamental
mode or the first harmonic. For the
stretched string fixed at either end
v
it is given by v = , corresponding
2L
Fig. 14.13 The first six harmonics of vibrations of a stretched
to n = 1 of Eq. (14.42). Here v is the string fixed at both ends.
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292 PHYSICS
and the other open. A glass tube partially filled modes of this system is more complex. This
with water illustrates this system. The end in problem involves wave propagation in two
contact with water is a node, while the open end dimensions. However, the underlying physics is
is an antinode. At the node the pressure the same.
changes are the largest, while the displacement
is minimum (zero). At the open end - the u Example 14.5 A pipe, 30.0 cm long, is open
antinode, it is just the other way - least pressure at both ends. Which harmonic mode of the
change and maximum amplitude of pipe resonates a 1.1 kHz source? Will
displacement. Taking the end in contact with resonance with the same source be
water to be x = 0, the node condition (Eq. 14.38) observed if one end of the pipe is closed ?
is already satisfied. If the other end x = L is an Take the speed of sound in air as
antinode, Eq. (14.39) gives 330 m s–1.
 1 λ
L=  n +  , for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, … Answer The first harmonic frequency is given
2 2 by
The possible wavelengths are then restricted by v v
the relation : ν1 = = (open pipe)
λ1 2L
where L is the length of the pipe. The frequency
2L of its nth harmonic is:
λ = , for n = 0, 1, 2, 3,... (14.43)
(n + 1 / 2)
nv
νn = , for n = 1, 2, 3, ... (open pipe)
2L
The normal modes – the natural frequencies –
of the system are First few modes of an open pipe are shown in
Fig. 14.15.
 1 v For L = 30.0 cm, v = 330 m s–1,
ν =  n +  ; n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... (14.44)
2 2L
n 3 30 (m s − 1 )
νn = = 550 n s–1
The fundamental frequency corresponds to n = 0, 0.6 (m )
v Clearly, a source of frequency 1.1 kHz will
and is given by . The higher frequencies resonate at v2, i.e. the second harmonic.
4L
are odd harmonics, i.e., odd multiples of the
v v
fundamental frequency : 3 , 5
, etc.
4L 4L
Fig. 14.14 shows the first six odd harmonics of
air column with one end closed and the other
open. For a pipe open at both ends, each end is
an antinode. It is then easily seen that an open
air column at both ends generates all harmonics
(See Fig. 14.15).
The systems above, strings and air columns,
can also undergo forced oscillations (Chapter
13). If the external frequency is close to one of
the natural frequencies, the system shows
resonance.
Normal modes of a circular membrane rigidly
clamped to the circumference as in a tabla are
determined by the boundary condition that no Fundamental
point on the circumference of the membrane or third fifth
vibrates. Estimation of the frequencies of normal first harmonic harmonic harmonic
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WAVES 293
Fig. 14.15 Standing waves in an open pipe, first four

harmonics are depicted.
while tuning their instruments with each other.
They go on tuning until their sensitive ears do
seventh ninth eleventh not detect any beats.
harmonic harmonic harmonic
To see this mathematically, let us consider
two harmonic sound waves of nearly equal
Fig. 14.14 Normal modes of an air column open at angular frequency ω1 and ω2 and fix the location
one end and closed at the other end. Only to be x = 0 for convenience. Eq. (14.2) with a
the odd harmonics are seen to be possible.
suitable choice of phase (φ = π/2 for each) and,
Now if one end of the pipe is closed (Fig. 14.15), assuming equal amplitudes, gives
it follows from Eq. (14.15) that the fundamental s1 = a cos ω1t and s2 = a cos ω2t (14.45)
frequency is Here we have replaced the symbol y by s,
v v since we are referring to longitudinal not
ν1 = λ = 4L (pipe closed at one end) transverse displacement. Let ω1 be the (slightly)
1
greater of the two frequencies. The resultant
and only the odd numbered harmonics are displacement is, by the principle of
present : superposition,
s = s1 + s2 = a (cos ω1 t + cos ω2 t)
3v 5v
ν3 = , ν5 = , and so on. Using the familiar trignometric identity for
4L 4L cos A + cosB, we get
For L = 30 cm and v = 330 m s –1 , the
fundamental frequency of the pipe closed at one = 2 a cos
(ω1 - ω2 )t cos
( ω1 + ω2 ) t
(14.46)
end is 275 Hz and the source frequency 2 2
corresponds to its fourth harmonic. Since this which may be written as :
harmonic is not a possible mode, no resonance s = [ 2 a cos ωb t ] cos ωat (14.47)
will be observed with the source, the moment If |ω1 – ω2| <<ω1, ω2, ωa >> ωb, th
one end is closed. ⊳ where
ωb = ( ω1 − ω2 ) and ωa = ( 1
14.7 BEATS ω + ω2 )
‘Beats’ is an interesting phenomenon arising 2 2
from interference of waves. When two harmonic Now if we assume |ω1 – ω2| <<ω1, which means
sound waves of close (but not equal) frequencies ωa >> ωb, we can interpret Eq. (14.47) as follows.
are heard at the same time, we hear a sound of The resultant wave is oscillating with the average
similar frequency (the average of two close angular frequency ωa; however its amplitude is
frequencies), but we hear something else also. not constant in time, unlike a pure harmonic
We hear audibly distinct waxing and waning of wave. The amplitude is the largest when the
the intensity of the sound, with a frequency term cos ωb t takes its limit +1 or –1. In other
equal to the difference in the two close words, the intensity of the resultant wave waxes
frequencies. Artists use this phenomenon often and wanes with a frequency which is 2ωb = ω1 –
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294 PHYSICS
ω2. Since ω = 2πν, the beat frequency νbeat, is

given by
νbeat = ν1 – ν2 (14.48)
Fig. 14.16 illustrates the phenomenon of
beats for two harmonic waves of frequencies 11
Hz and 9 Hz. The amplitude of the resultant wave
shows beats at a frequency of 2 Hz.
Musical Pillars
Temples often have some pillars portraying
human figures playing musical instru-
ments, but seldom do these pillars
themselves produce music. At the
Nellaiappar temple in Tamil Nadu, gentle
taps on a cluster of pillars carved out of a
single piece of rock produce the basic notes
of Indian classical music, viz. Sa, Re, Ga,
Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa. Vibrations of these
pillars depend on elasticity of the stone used, Fig. 14.16 Superposition of two harmonic waves, one
its density and shape. of frequency 11 Hz (a), and the other of
Musical pillars are categorised into three frequency 9Hz (b), giving rise to beats of
frequency 2 Hz, as shown in (c).
types: The first is called the Shruti Pillar,
as it can produce the basic notes — the
“swaras”. The second type is the Gana
u Example 14.6 Two sitar strings A and B
Thoongal, which generates the basic tunes
playing the note ‘Dha’ are slightly out of
that make up the “ragas”. The third variety
tune and produce beats of frequency 5 Hz.
is the Laya Thoongal pillars that produce
The tension of the string B is slightly
“taal” (beats) when tapped. The pillars at the
increased and the beat frequency is found
Nellaiappar temple are a combination of the
to decrease to 3 Hz. What is the original
Shruti and Laya types.
frequency of B if the frequency of A is
Archaeologists date the Nelliappar
427 Hz ?
temple to the 7th century and claim it was
built by successive rulers of the Pandyan Answer Increase in the tension of a string
dynasty. increases its frequency. If the original frequency
The musical pillars of Nelliappar and of B (νB) were greater than that of A (νA ), further
several other temples in southern India like increase in ν B should have resulted in an
those at Hampi (picture), Kanyakumari, and increase in the beat frequency. But the beat
Thiruvananthapuram are unique to the frequency is found to decrease. This shows that
country and have no parallel in any other νB < νA. Since νA – νB = 5 Hz, and νA = 427 Hz, we
part of the world. get νB = 422 Hz. ⊳
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WAVES 295
SUMMARY
1. Mechanical waves can exist in material media and are governed by Newton’s Laws.
2. Transverse waves are waves in which the particles of the medium oscillate perpendicular
to the direction of wave propagation.
3. Longitudinal waves are waves in which the particles of the medium oscillate along the
direction of wave propagation.
4. Progressive wave is a wave that moves from one point of medium to another.
5. The displacement in a sinusoidal wave propagating in the positive x direction is given

by
y (x, t) = a sin (kx – ω t + φ )
where a is the amplitude of the wave, k is the angular wave number, ω is the angular
frequency, (kx – ω t + φ ) is the phase, and φ is the phase constant or phase angle.
6. Wavelength λ of a progressive wave is the distance between two consecutive points of
the same phase at a given time. In a stationary wave, it is twice the distance between
two consecutive nodes or antinodes.
7. Period T of oscillation of a wave is defined as the time any element of the medium
takes to move through one complete oscillation. It is related to the angular frequency ω
through the relation
2π
T =
ω
8. Frequency v of a wave is defined as 1/T and is related to angular frequency by
ω
ν=
2π
9. Speed of a progressive wave is given by v = ω = λ = λν

k T
10. The speed of a transverse wave on a stretched string is set by the properties of the
string. The speed on a string with tension T and linear mass density µ is
T
v=
µ
11. Sound waves are longitudinal mechanical waves that can travel through solids, liquids,
or gases. The speed v of sound wave in a fluid having bulk modulus B and density ρ is
B
v=
ρ
The speed of longitudinal waves in a metallic bar is
Y
v=
ρ
For gases, since B = γP, the speed of sound is
γP
v=
ρ
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296 PHYSICS
12. When two or more waves traverse simultaneously in the same medium, the
displacement of any element of the medium is the algebraic sum of the displacements
due to each wave. This is known as the principle of superposition of waves
n
y = ∑ f i ( x − vt )
i =1
13. Two sinusoidal waves on the same string exhibit interference, adding or cancelling
according to the principle of superposition. If the two are travelling in the same
direction and have the same amplitude a and frequency but differ in phase by a phase
constant φ, the result is a single wave with the same frequency ω :
y (x, t) = 2a cos φ  sin  kx − ω t + φ 

1 1
 2   2 
If φ = 0 or an integral multiple of 2π, the waves are exactly in phase and the interference
is constructive; if φ = π, they are exactly out of phase and the interference is destructive.
14. A travelling wave, at a rigid boundary or a closed end, is reflected with a phase
reversal but the reflection at an open boundary takes place without any phase change.
For an incident wave
yi (x, t) = a sin (kx – ωt )
the reflected wave at a rigid boundary is
yr (x, t) = – a sin (kx + ωt )
For reflection at an open boundary
yr (x,t ) = a sin (kx + ωt)
15. The interference of two identical waves moving in opposite directions produces standing
waves. For a string with fixed ends, the standing wave is given by
y (x, t) = [2a sin kx ] cos ωt
Standing waves are characterised by fixed locations of zero displacement called nodes
and fixed locations of maximum displacements called antinodes. The separation
between two consecutive nodes or antinodes is λ/2.
A stretched string of length L fixed at both the ends vibrates with frequencies given by
nv
v = , n = 1, 2, 3, ...
2L
The set of frequencies given by the above relation are called the normal modes of
oscillation of the system. The oscillation mode with lowest frequency is called the
fundamental mode or the first harmonic. The second harmonic is the oscillation mode
with n = 2 and so on.
A pipe of length L with one end closed and other end open (such as air columns)
vibrates with frequencies given by
v
v = ( n + ½) , n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
2L
The set of frequencies represented by the above relation are the normal modes of
oscillation of such a system. The lowest frequency given by v/4L is the fundamental
mode or the first harmonic.
16. A string of length L fixed at both ends or an air column closed at one end and open
at the other end or open at both the ends, vibrates with certain frequencies called
their normal modes. Each of these frequencies is a resonant frequency of the system.
17. Beats arise when two waves having slightly different frequencies, ν1 and ν2 and
comparable amplitudes, are superposed. The beat frequency is
νbeat = ν1 ~ ν2
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WAVES 297
POINTS TO PONDER
1. A wave is not motion of matter as a whole in a medium. A wind is different from the
sound wave in air. The former involves motion of air from one place to the other. The
latter involves compressions and rarefactions of layers of air.
2. In a wave, energy and not the matter is transferred from one point to the other.
3. In a mechanical wave, energy transfer takes place because of the coupling through
elastic forces between neighbouring oscillating parts of the medium.
4. Transverse waves can propagate only in medium with shear modulus of elasticity,
Longitudinal waves need bulk modulus of elasticity and are therefore, possible in all
media, solids, liquids and gases.
5. In a harmonic progressive wave of a given frequency, all particles have the same
amplitude but different phases at a given instant of time. In a stationary wave, all
particles between two nodes have the same phase at a given instant but have different
amplitudes.
6. Relative to an observer at rest in a medium the speed of a mechanical wave in that
medium (v) depends only on elastic and other properties (such as mass density) of
the medium. It does not depend on the velocity of the source.
EXERCISES
14.1 A string of mass 2.50 kg is under a tension of 200 N. The length of the stretched
string is 20.0 m. If the transverse jerk is struck at one end of the string, how long
does the disturbance take to reach the other end?
14.2 A stone dropped from the top of a tower of height 300 m splashes into the water of
a pond near the base of the tower. When is the splash heard at the top given that
the speed of sound in air is 340 m s–1 ? (g = 9.8 m s–2)
14.3 A steel wire has a length of 12.0 m and a mass of 2.10 kg. What should be the
tension in the wire so that speed of a transverse wave on the wire equals the speed
of sound in dry air at 20 °C = 343 m s–1.
γP
14.4 Use the formula v = to explain why the speed of sound in air
ρ
(a) is independent of pressure,
(b) increases with temperature,
(c) increases with humidity.
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298 PHYSICS
14.5 You have learnt that a travelling wave in one dimension is represented by a function
y = f (x, t) where x and t must appear in the combination x – v t or x + v t, i.e.
y = f (x ± v t). Is the converse true? Examine if the following functions for y can
possibly represent a travelling wave :
(a) (x – vt )2
(b) log [(x + vt)/x0]
(c) 1/(x + vt)
14.6 A bat emits ultrasonic sound of frequency 1000 kHz in air. If the sound meets a
water surface, what is the wavelength of (a) the reflected sound, (b) the transmitted
sound? Speed of sound in air is 340 m s –1 and in water 1486 m s–1.
14.7 A hospital uses an ultrasonic scanner to locate tumours in a tissue. What is the
wavelength of sound in the tissue in which the speed of sound is 1.7 km s–1 ? The
operating frequency of the scanner is 4.2 MHz.
14.8 A transverse harmonic wave on a string is described by
y(x, t) = 3.0 sin (36 t + 0.018 x + π/4)
where x and y are in cm and t in s. The positive direction of x is from left to right.
(a) Is this a travelling wave or a stationary wave ?
If it is travelling, what are the speed and direction of its propagation ?
(b) What are its amplitude and frequency ?
(c) What is the initial phase at the origin ?
(d) What is the least distance between two successive crests in the wave ?
14.9 For the wave described in Exercise 14.8, plot the displacement (y) versus (t) graphs
for x = 0, 2 and 4 cm. What are the shapes of these graphs? In which aspects does
the oscillatory motion in travelling wave differ from one point to another: amplitude,
frequency or phase ?
14.10 For the travelling harmonic wave
y(x, t) = 2.0 cos 2π (10t – 0.0080 x + 0.35)
where x and y are in cm and t in s. Calculate the phase difference between oscillatory
motion of two points separated by a distance of
(a) 4 m,
(b) 0.5 m,
(c) λ/2,
(d) 3λ/4
14.11 The transverse displacement of a string (clamped at its both ends) is given by
 2π 
y(x, t) = 0.06 sin  x  cos (120 πt)
3
where x and y are in m and t in s. The length of the string is 1.5 m and its mass is
3.0 ×10–2 kg.
Answer the following :
(a) Does the function represent a travelling wave or a stationary wave?
(b) Interpret the wave as a superposition of two waves travelling in opposite
directions. What is the wavelength, frequency, and speed of each wave ?
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WAVES 299
(c) Determine the tension in the string.

14.12 (i) For the wave on a string described in Exercise 15.11, do all the points on the
string oscillate with the same (a) frequency, (b) phase, (c) amplitude? Explain
your answers. (ii) What is the amplitude of a point 0.375 m away from one end?
14.13 Given below are some functions of x and t to represent the displacement (transverse
or longitudinal) of an elastic wave. State which of these represent (i) a travelling
wave, (ii) a stationary wave or (iii) none at all:
(a) y = 2 cos (3x) sin (10t)
(b) y = 2 x − vt
(c) y = 3 sin (5x – 0.5t) + 4 cos (5x – 0.5t)
(d) y = cos x sin t + cos 2x sin 2t
14.14 A wire stretched between two rigid supports vibrates in its fundamental mode with
a frequency of 45 Hz. The mass of the wire is 3.5 × 10–2 kg and its linear mass density
is 4.0 × 10–2 kg m–1. What is (a) the speed of a transverse wave on the string, and
(b) the tension in the string?
14.15 A metre-long tube open at one end, with a movable piston at the other end, shows
resonance with a fixed frequency source (a tuning fork of frequency 340 Hz) when
the tube length is 25.5 cm or 79.3 cm. Estimate the speed of sound in air at the
temperature of the experiment. The edge effects may be neglected.
14.16 A steel rod 100 cm long is clamped at its middle. The fundamental frequency of
longitudinal vibrations of the rod are given to be 2.53 kHz. What is the speed of
sound in steel?
14.17 A pipe 20 cm long is closed at one end. Which harmonic mode of the pipe is
resonantly excited by a 430 Hz source ? Will the same source be in resonance with
the pipe if both ends are open? (speed of sound in air is 340 m s–1).
14.18 Two sitar strings A and B playing the note ‘Ga’ are slightly out of tune and produce
beats of frequency 6 Hz. The tension in the string A is slightly reduced and the
beat frequency is found to reduce to 3 Hz. If the original frequency of A is 324 Hz,
what is the frequency of B?
14.19 Explain why (or how):
(a) in a sound wave, a displacement node is a pressure antinode and vice versa,
(b) bats can ascertain distances, directions, nature, and sizes of the obstacles
without any “eyes”,
(c) a violin note and sitar note may have the same frequency, yet we can
distinguish between the two notes,
(d) solids can support both longitudinal and transverse waves, but only
longitudinal waves can propagate in gases, and
(e) the shape of a pulse gets distorted during propagation in a dispersive medium.
2024-25

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CHAPTER EIGHT

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

elastic behaviour and mechanical properties of

(a) (b) (c) (d)

8.3 HOOKE’S LAW

8.5 ELASTIC MODULI

8.5.1 Young’s Modulus

Table 8.1 Young’s moduli and yield strenghs of some material

# Substance tested under compression

The total elongation is given to be

u Example 8.2 A copper wire of length 2.2 m

Table 8.4 Stress, strain and various elastic moduli

Type of Stress Strain Change in Elastic Name of State of

Tensile Two equal and Elongation or Yes No Y = (F×L)/ Young’s Solid

shearing stress to the rocks under which they

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

If F is the magnitude of this normal force on the

⊳ this element of area corresponding to the normal

9.2.2 Variation of Pressure with Depth

Fig 9.4 Illustration of hydrostatic paradox. The

Example 9.2 What is the pressure on a

Fig.9.3 Fluid under gravity. The effect of gravity is Answer Here

In the experiment it is found that the mercury

Answer We use Eq. (9.7)

9.2.4 Hydraulic Machines is the mechanical advantage of the device. The

Fig 9.6 (b) Schematic diagram illustrating the principle

( ) important advantage of the system is that the

This is almost double the atmospheric

9.4.1 Speed of Efflux: Torricelli’s Law

from its parabolic trajectory as it moves through

(a) (b) (c)

vav = (v2 + v1)/2 = 960 km/h = 267 m s-1,

Fig. 9.13 Measurement of the coefficient of viscosity

Fig. 9.16 Measuring Surface Tension.

any surface. On the other hand, if the molecules so that

glass is acute. Thus the surface of water in the ⊳

3. The expression for pressure

9.1 Explain why

(c) Surface tension of a liquid is independent of the area of the surface

THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

the glass tumbler, whereas in the case of hot

Fig. 10.3 A plot of pressure versus temperature and

Fig. 10.5 Thermal Expansion.

If the substance is in the form of a long rod,

where α1 is known as the coefficient of linear

Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

much as order(s) of magnitude larger than the Answer

The amount of heat lost by the aluminium

100 °C when it again becomes steady. The heat

10.8.1 Latent Heat

Substance Melting Lf Boiling Lv

temperature difference. What are the different

Now, Q = heat required to convert 3 kg of 10.9.1 Conduction

prohibited and keeps the room cooler. In some

Table 10.6 Thermal conductivities of some

Example 10.7 An iron bar (L1 = 0.1 m, A1 = K ′ A (T1 – T2 )

the compound bar, and (iii) the heat

of water do. This occurs both because water has

Fig. 10.17 Convection cycles.

10.9.3 Radiation contents of the bottle. The outer wall similarly