Day et al 2013

Functionality of Protein-Fortified Extrudates
Li Day and Barry G. Swanson
Abstract: Fortification of extrusion feed formulations with proteins from selected sources will improve the health-
promoting quality of snack and breakfast foods. Molecular interactions among proteins, starch, lipids, water, and other
constituents in the extrusion “melt” are the basis for extrudate appearance as well as textural, sensory, and physical
properties. Covalent disulfide and sulfhydryl bonding as well as electrostatic, hydrogen, and hydrophobic affinity de-
veloping among molecules during extrusion determine extrudate sensory quality, digestibility, and nutrient availability.
Extrudate quality is dependent on the physical profile of the feed material from particle size to moisture concentration,
the mechanical profile of the twin-screw extruder from screw speed to die aperture, and the temperature, pressure, and
shear leading to specific mechanical energy delivered in the extruder. Methods to assess extrudate physical and sensory
quality are presented. Protein concentration, feed moisture, and extrusion temperatures are most important to expansion,
density, and texture of extrudates. Fortification with whey and wheat proteins results in acceptable extrusion of snack
and breakfast foods. Extrusion generally improves protein quality and digestibility while retaining active nutrients.
Introduction Therefore, the objective of this article is to review the literature

Broad differences among protein structure and constituent assessing the chemical, physical, sensory, and quality changes that
amino acids during extrusion result in molecular restructuring and accompany protein fortification of extruded snack and breakfast
transformation difficult to elucidate (Mitchell and Areas 1992). foods.
Extrusion provides conditioning, shear, heat, and pressure that
promote cross-linking and polymerization among proteins and Molecular Interactions of Proteins during Extrusion
starches to form expanded matrices (Rossi and Peri 1980). A cen- Extrusion of soy protein concentrates was initially a restructur-
tral factor that determines protein interactions and restructuring ing approach to “fabricate” foods commonly designated as meat
during extrusion is the extent to which a continuous “molten” analogs or extenders (Stanley 1989). Thermal extrusion of cereal
phase is formed within the extruder (Mitchell and Areas 1992). and dairy protein concentrates exposes the proteins to high tem-
During extrusion, proteins are unfolded, realigned, hydrolyzed, peratures (120 to 200 ◦ C), high pressures (1.6 to 6.1 MPa), and
and denatured, the resulting complexes forming matrices with the mechanical shear that combine to convert the feed material into
degree of expansion dependent on protein concentration. The a continuous plastic melt that is restructured into an oriented ex-
sites for cross-linking among proteins and starches increase with trudate (Areas 1986; Harper 1986; Stanley 1989). Mitchell and
an increase in protein concentration, which subsequently will af- Areas (1992) presented a general description of changes in pro-
fect the textural quality of extrudates (Aboagye and Stanley 1987; tein structure and protein association occurring during extrusion
Onwulata and others 2001). Protein concentration, moisture con- (Figure 1). The secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures of
tent, and the physical and mechanical parameters of the extruder proteins undergo transformations during extrusion (Shukla 1996).
significantly affect the physical and sensory qualities of extrudates. Using a combination of a buffer, urea, and disulfide (S–S)-reducing
Typically, snack and breakfast food extrudates contain significant agents, Hager (1984) identified 4 states of protein in extrudates in-
concentrations of starch from corn, wheat, rice, potato, tapioca, or ferred from solubilities in selected buffer systems. The structural
other sources. Protein concentrations in expanded extrudates are transformations of proteins during extrusion lead to association,
generally lower than starch concentrations to promote expansion, aggregation, coagulation, and denaturation involving reduction or
crispness, and increase bulk density. Hypothetically, successful in- oxidation. Furthermore, proteins can be hydrolyzed to varying
corporation of high concentrations of protein greater than 20% degrees in the extrusion process to modify the rheology of the
and as high as 80% will increase utilization of proteins and im- transformed melts (Shukla 1996).
prove the nutrient density of extruded snack and breakfast foods.
Covalent closs-linking
Initially, soy meal was the most important protein resource se-
lected for extrusion, and molecular protein-restructuring during
MS 20130409 Submitted 03/21/2013, Accepted 05/12/2013. Author Day is
with CSIRO Animal, Food and Health Sciences, Werribee, VIC 3030, Australia and extrusion was attributed to intermolecular disulfide bonding (Kel-
author Swanson is with School of Food Science, Washington State Univ., Pullman, ley and Pressey 1966; Wolf 1970; Cumming and others 1972;
WA 00164–6376, USA. Direct inquiries to author Day (E-mail: li.day@csiro.au). Conway and Anderson 1973; Chiang and Sternber 1974; Areas
1986; Camire and others 1990; Areas 1992; Camire 2000). Hansen
No claim to original US government works
C 2013 Institute of Food Technologists®
546 Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety r Vol. 12, 2013 doi: 10.1111/1541-4337.12023
Functionality of extrudates . . .
resonance to study free radical production observed that the field

Denaturation positions of sulfur resonance in cysteine and proteins suggested a
sulfur–oxygen complex rather than thiol radicals.
Schaich and Rebello (1999) observed that protein-free radicals
Association are produced during extrusion by thermal and mechanical forces,
and that reactions and rearrangements of the radicals are criti-
cally involved in protein cross-linking and textural characteristics
Disruption of some or all associates by heat and shear to of extruded wheat flour. Nitrogen-centered and sulfur radicals
form a concentrated solution or melt phase are produced in wheat flour during extrusion, and extrusion die
temperature and moisture as well as flour protein concentration
interact to influence production and subsequent reactions of the
Possible formation of some covalent bonds at
free radicals. The fact that the addition of free radical scavengers
high temperatures
such as cysteine (Koh and others 1996) during extrusion of wheat
flour prevents protein cross-linking and markedly alters extrudate
Formation of non-covalent and disupfidebonds upon cooling structures further substantiates the critical function of free radi-
cals in extrusion. Changes in the wheat protein, free SH contents
with accompanying decreases or increases in disulfide (S–S) con-
tents, as well as fragmentation and cross-linking of proteins, reflect
Transition of amporphousregions to the glassy state
that the free radical production in the extrudates is closely linked
if moisture content is low enough
to die temperature and moisture contents during extrusion. The
lack of correspondence between sulfhydryl–disulfide concentra-
Figure 1–Protein structural changes occurring during the extrusion
process (adopted from Mitchell and Areas 1992).
tions suggests that sulfur linkages may be less involved than peptide
cross-links in overall protein cross-linking and associated extrudate
texture (Schaich and Rebello 1999).
and others (1975) attributed the thermally produced protein ag- Nondisulfide covalent bonds that may function to associate pro-
gregates to the formation of peptide bonds between carboxyl and teins during extrusion include intermolecular cross-linking of lysi-
free amino acid groups resulting from dehydration of the pro- noalanine and lanthionine types, Maillard reaction products, and
teins and/or the production of disulfide bonds from thiol groups. isopeptides (Burgess and Stanley 1976; Smith and others 1982;
Prudencio-Ferreira and Areas (1993) concluded the potential for Stanley 1989). Deamidation of gluten proteins occurs during ex-
peptide bonds being predominant in the structural stabilization of trusion of wheat flour (Izzo and others 1993). The extent of
soya extrudate is negligible. Peptide bonds formed during the high deamidation is dependent on moisture content, temperature, and
temperature and high-pressure conditions of extrusion are more pH of the feed material. The loss of amide functions affects charge
likely to contribute to the insoluble phase within the melt and not density and may promote different or more macromolecular com-
to structural stabilization (Pelembe and others 2002). Rhee and plexations and interactions in complex systems during extrusion
others (1981) provided evidence that the role of disulfide bonding (Izzo and others 1993).
in texture formation based on the addition of disulfide-reducing
agents cysteine–HCl and Na2 SO3 increased texture and a disul- Noncovalent molecular interaction
fide bond enhancer KIO3 decreased texture. Simonsky and Stanley Proteins in selected environments carry either a net positive
(1982) commented that if disulfide bonding is important in ex- or negative charge, and at their isoelectric point will carry a net
trusion, disulfide-reducing agents would be expected to weaken charge of zero. In dilute solutions where the molecules are fully
textural bonds, while oxidizing agents would be expected to en- hydrated, attractive and repulsive electrostatic forces between pro-
hance textural bonding. This conclusion (Rhee and others 1981) tein molecules, although of significance, provide only one of many
that “the change of disulfide linkages is an essential reaction for possible interactions. At the high temperatures and low-moisture
texture formation” is difficult for Simonsky and Stanley (1982) to contents in extrusion processes many of the forces usually of im-
reconcile with previously reported experimental results. portance in protein–protein interactions such as hydrogen bond-
Hansen and others (1975), Kinsella and Franzen (1978), and ing and hydrophobic affinity do not apply (Ledward and Mitchell
Stanley (1989) concluded the formation of primary, covalent disul- 1988). Electrostatic forces remain strong and within the barrel and
fide bonds, and disulfide interchange among thiol groups of al- die of the extruder may become the dominant forces in control-
bumins, globulins, and gliadins in flour proteins are primarily re- ling the mode of interaction between protein molecules. Spec-
sponsible for linking proteins into large aggregates. Shimada and ulating on the pK values of the heterogeneous protein melt at
Cheftel (1988) concluded intermolecular bonds resulting from the temperatures and pressures in the extruder, and the pH of
sulfhydryl (SH)/S–S interchange reactions and hydrophobic inter- the heterogeneous melt during extrusion, the overall net charge
actions predominate in heat induced whey protein isolate (WPI) of the protein molecules in the extruder will be minimal. If the
gel networks, and are responsible for (1) firmer gel structure with overall net charge is minimal, the attractive forces between the
increasing protein concentrations and (2) heat resistance at high proteins will be maximized permitting close proximity and pro-
temperatures (135 ◦ C). Elasticity of whey protein gels exhibited mote interaction among proteins (Ledward and Mitchell 1988).
at neutral and alkaline pH may result from intermolecular S–S This hypothesis also supports the contention that increasing the
bonds. Whey protein gels formed at acid pH are nonelastic and net charge on the proteins will give rise to repulsive forces during
solubilized in denaturant-containing buffers (Prudencio-Ferreira extrusion and will not promote molecularly rearranged proteins or
and Areas 1993). Hydrogen bonds represent additional molecular strong affinity in the heated extruder (Ledward and Mitchell 1988;
affinities in the whey protein network of acid gels (Shimada and Cheftel and others 1992). Increasing the negative charge of whey
Cheftel 1988). Schaich and Karel (1976) utilizing electron spin protein by increasing the pH resulted in an extrudate with textural

C 2013 Institute of Food Technologists® Vol. 12, 2013 r Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 547
properties similar to soy protein extrudates (Martinez-Serna and the degree of lipid binding. Temperatures of 120 to 125 ◦ C
Villota 1992). resulted in significant reductions in the quantity of lipid bind-
If charge effects are of such importance in extrusion processing (Guzman and others 1992). Lipid–starch complex formation
ing, it is expected that the addition of neutral salts to the feed is dependent on SME and extrusion temperature, increasing to
will markedly affect protein interaction within the extruder. At maximum complex formation and decreasing with increases to
low concentrations, the effects of both sodium and calcium chlo- the combined energy input (Meuser and others 1987). Increas-
rides on the extrusion of soya are small (Rhee and others 1981). ing the retention time within the extruder barrel promotes more
However, at higher concentrations (1.0% to 2.0%) significant ef- efficient mixing and a greater degree of lipid binding. Guzman
fects were noted and sodium chloride inhibited texture formation and others (1992) observed a linear relationship between the de-
and resulted in limited extrudate stability, while calcium chloride gree of lipid binding and the expansion indices of extruded corn
increased the textural strength and stability of extrudates. meal. The fatty acid distribution of the free lipid fraction in corn
Secondary forces prevailing among adjacent polypeptides are meal was similar before and after extrusion, indicating no pref-
electrostatic interactions and electrokinetic (dispersion, van der erential affinity for available triacylglycerols. Lipid peroxidation
Waals) forces. Electrostatic forces supplemented by inductive during extrusion-cooking of cornmeal was low, and lipid perox-
forces, hydrogen bond stabilization, and hydrophobic affinities are ides were detected only in the free lipid fraction of the extruded
relevant to the texture obtained following extrusion (Kinsella and cornmeal (Guzman and others 1992). Nonpolar affinity of lipids
Franzen 1978; Areas 1986). Critical temperatures are necessary in extrudates protects against peroxidation of lipids during extru-
for structural changes resulting in protein aggregation, peptide sion and may provide extended shelf-life observed in extrudates.
formation, and amino acid destruction, and at any selected tem- Lysophosphotidylcholine–amylose complexation creates a starch
perature the rate of protein change is a function of flour moisture molecule with an ionic head group, enabling starch–protein inter-
concentration (Hansen and others 1975). actions important in determining the structure of extrudates (Ho
and Izzo 1992).
Protein–starch interaction
Corn extrudates typically exhibit low total soluble protein and Mechanism of protein-structuring in extrusion
high torque and melt temperatures within the extruder barrel Disulfide bonds, hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions are
(Allen and others 2007). In the temperature range of 158 to 170 ◦ C predominant texturization mechanism during extrusion of whey
straight-chained amylase molecules interact with whey proteins and soy proteins (Hager 1984; Areas 1992; Martinez-Serna and
producing insoluble polymers. As torque increases the applied Villota 1992; Mitchell and Areas 1992; Prudencio-Ferreira and
force likely promotes increased unfolding of whey proteins expos- Areas 1993; Della Valle and others 1994; Ledward and Tester
ing additional binding sites for starch, sugar, dextrin molecules, or 1994). Sulfonation exhibits significant effects on the chemical and
other proteins. The increasing polymer interaction will reduce the physical characteristics of extruded-expanded whey protein extru-
water-holding capacity (WHC) of both the starch and proteins, date. However, disulfide cleavage through sulfonation exhibited
and to the extent that interactions are covalent in nature, decrease either no beneficial or deleterious effects on extrudate charac-
the quantity of protein that can be resolubilized (Allen and others teristics. Disulfide bond content did influence the chemical and
2007). Matthey and Hanna (1997) propose that starch–protein in- physical properties of an extruded-expanded whey protein ex-
teractions inhibit degradation of starch in the extruder, implying trudate (Taylor and others 2006). The establishment of disulfide
that linear protein and starch alignment during extrusion includes bonds or hydrophobic affinity in the extruder did not seem rea-
the formation of amylase–protein complexes. Proteins affect ex- sonable to Ledward and Mitchell (1988) who concluded that such
pansion by adjusting water distribution in the feed matrix and interactions are thermally labile. Many disulfide and hydropho-
contributing to extensive networking through covalent and non- bic interactions presumably form on cooling, and electrostatic, to
bonding interactions that take place during extrusion (Moraru and some extent steric factors, and more specific chemical reactions
Kokini 2003). govern the alignment and interaction of proteins in the extruder.
Hypothetically, the types of protein aggregates that make up the
Protein–lipid interaction suspension or filled “melt” model for biopolymer extrusion are
At low concentrations, lipid interactions with proteins during dependent on the association properties of proteins. Insoluble pro-
extrusion may be important for structural stabilization. The lipid tein aggregates formed during extrusion form a dispersed phase
moiety is expected to interact with proteins to a saturation limit within the melt phase. The interaction of proteins during extrusion
determined by the number of hydrophobic sites present or be- is dependent both on the quantity of insoluble protein aggregates
coming accessible as the protein fraction is extruded (Mitchell forming during extrusion and after exiting the extruder (Areas
and Areas 1992). Protein–lipid interaction was not increased as 1992). The specific texture of extruded WPI results from a ther-
extrusion temperatures were increased (Izzo and Ho 1989). The mal microcoagulation phenomenon in which protein aggregation
failure of the degree of protein–lipid binding to increase with was restricted to electrostatic repulsions, absence of SH/S–S in-
the extrusion temperature suggests lipid–protein interactions are terchange reactions, high shear forces developed in the extruder,
noncovalent rather than a result of lipid degradation. Binding of and/or the presence of noncoagulated protein among coagulated
indigenous and added lipids react with the zein protein differently, particles (Queguiner and others 1992b).
with the added oil being bound to a greater extent during ex- Della Valle and others (1994) hypothesized different mechanisms
trusion (Izzo and Ho 1989). Proteins also interact with oxidizing of protein interaction may operate depending on the quantity of
lipids that may lead to reversible aggregation and polymerization mechanical energy provided. At lower energy levels, decreased
of proteins (Bekes and others 1983a, 1983b; Stanley 1989). solubility is due to the formation of noncovalent and disulfide
Approximately two-thirds of the free lipids are bound to corn bonds, whereas other stronger types of linkage may occur at higher
meal during extrusion at 50 to 60 ◦ C (Guzman and others 1992). energy levels. The decrease in protein solubility with increasing
Increasing the extrusion temperature to 90 ◦ C did not increase specific mechanical energy (SME) is not necessarily a result of
548 Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety r Vol. 12, 2013
cross-linking during extrusion, since cross-linking can also be eas- trudates (Barraquio and others 1988; Barraquio and Vandevoort
ily broken during extrusion. This apparent contradiction arose 1991).
because unfolding and cross-linking occur simultaneously. Protein Diluted solutions of whey proteins and especially β-
unfolding increases as SME is increased, and protein unfolding lactoglobulin are more resistant to aggregation at acid pH (2.0
enables reassociation during extrusion. At low water concentra- to 3.5) than at low acid pH (4.5 to 6.5). The thermal stability of
tions, some of the hydrogen bonds broken during denaturation whey proteins decreases markedly at pH higher than 3.8 to 3.9
may be recreated between proteins instead of between water and (Jelen and Buchheim 1984; Bernal and Jelen 1985; Patocka and
protein in the denatured state, leading to protein aggregation (Della others 1986; Patocka and others 1987). At pH ≤ 3.9 heat-induced
Valle and others 1994). Protein reassociation or cross-linking likely β-lactoglobulin gels are nonelastic, soluble in the presence of urea
takes place at the die, is influenced by the shear rate at the die, and and sodiumdodecylsulfate (SDS), and free of intermolecular disul-
is aligned by the shear rate and viscosity necessary to achieve the fide bonds (Shimada and Cheftel 1988; Shimada and Cheftel 1989;
desired texture of the extrudate (Otun and others 1986; Ledward Queguiner and others 1992a). Semisolid spreads are obtained by
and Mitchell 1988). extrusion-cooking of WPI in the pH range 3.5 to 3.9 at a 20% pro-
Li and Lee (1996) showed that both disulfide formation and hy- tein concentration. The specific texture obtained was attributed
drophobic interaction play key roles in the aggregation of wheat to thermal microcoagulation, restricted protein aggregation due to
proteins during extrusion-processing. The aggregation of proteins electrostatic repulsion and absence of SH/S–S interchange reac-
resulted in an increase in molecular weight of proteins and a de- tions, high shear forces developed in the extruder, and the presence
crease in protein solubility. The fragmentation of proteins also of non-coagulated whey protein among coagulated aggregate par-
occurs during extrusion at die temperatures greater than 160 ◦ C. ticles with a mean diameter of 11.5 μm (volume basis) (Queguiner
Both glutenins and gliadins in wheat flour play an important role and others 1992a).
in the network formation of extrudates (Li and Lee 1996). The Areas (1992) proposed a “suspension model” describing the mix
formation of intermolecular disulfide bonds are responsible for the in the extruder as insoluble material in particulate form within the
wheat cross-linking during extrusion (Li and Lee 1998). The addi- flowing molten mass. The particulate fraction may be present in
tion of cysteine reacts with wheat proteins by SH/S–S interchange the initial feed or result from high temperature and pressure inputs
and/or SH/SH oxidation during extrusion, thus weakening the during extrusion, disrupting macromolecules and promoting irre-
disulfide-mediated cross-linking among wheat proteins. As a result versible aggregation. As the molten mass is flowing through the die,
of adding cysteine the mean molecular size of wheat proteins in the particulates resist deformation conferring specific mechanical
the extrudates decreased, and the solubility, disulfide content, and properties to the extrudate. The “suspension model” hypothesizes
sulfhydryl content of wheat proteins in the extrudate increased (Li that insoluble particulates act as filler in the continuous phase and,
and Lee 1998). predicts a critical limit to the acceptable particulate volume fraction
Redox additives may affect the capacity of gluten proteins to for maintaining a coherent structure of the extrudate (Areas 1992).
associate during heating through sulfhydryl–disulfide exchange re- Soy or starch provides the necessary continuous melt for the insol-
actions by altering the concentration of free thiol groups, affecting uble protein particulates and co-extrusion occurs where macro-
the flexibility of glutenin chains, and initiation of polymerization molecules are entangled. The entangled macromolecules share a
reactions. During hydrothermal extrusion, free SH groups initi- 3-dimensional network depending on the characteristics of the
ate gliadin–glutenin reactions and the extent of these reactions carrier material (Areas 1992).
depends upon the available concentration of SH-groups in the
system. Removing SH-groups by the addition of an oxidant or Physical and Mechanical Parameters that Alter
SH blocking agent hinders gluten polymerization and increases Protein Functionality during Extrusion
SDS extractability of gliadin (Lagrain and others 2008). Addition The extruder is described as a low-moisture, continuous-flow
of a reducing agent restores the capacity for gliadin to link with reactor (Linko and others 1983; Harper 1986). Large molecules
glutenin and decreases gliadin extractability. The control of gluten such as protein and starch are denatured and align themselves along
polymerization and the degree of gliadin–glutenin cross-linking the streamlines in the laminar flow occurring in the extruder screw
during thermal extrusion may provide a key to extrusion opti- and die. At elevated temperatures, macromolecules crosslink, re-
mization (Lagrain and others 2006). form, and restructure during extrusion and expansion that sig-
The solubility of casein exceeded 50% in selected solvent sys- nificantly affect the final texture of the extrudate (Harper 1986).
tems (Mitchell and Areas 1992) before and after extrusion, and is Cross-linking among adjacent molecules affects the resistance of
totally soluble in alkaline solutions. Casein can be successfully ex- the fabricated structure to further degradation during processing.
truded at temperatures as low as 80 ◦ C, a property selected as a basis Weak hydrophobic affinity and hydrogen bonds can be disrupted
for a dry spinning process (Visser 1988). The sodium, calcium, and by water, while stronger covalent and ionic bonds resist disruption
rennet caseinates tested were successful substrates for dry-spinning. to retain product texture.
Extrusion can serve as a continuous reactor for the conversion of
acid casein into sodium caseinate at low-moisture contents (Linko Temperature and shear forces
and others 1983; Boulle 1987). Using the extruder as a continuous Heating in a controlled extrusion process results in disruption of
reactor, skim milk powder was mixed with 0.2 M HCl to pro- water-soluble soybean protein into subunits that become insoluble
duce an acid-coagulated exrudate (Barraquio and others 1988). (Wolf and Tamura 1969; Catsimpo and others 1970; Cumming
Analysis of the high-heat skim milk powder extrudates demon- and others 1973). Disruption and solubilization are characteris-
strated that total and soluble protein, nonprotein nitrogen, and tic reactions of glycinin to heating in a solution (Burgess and
lactose were not affected by selected extrusion parameters, while Stanley 1976) and hold true in the practical, complex conditions
pH was decreased by increasing moisture and increased with in- of extrusion-cooking. In wheat gluten (WG), disulfide bonds
creasing screw speed. Electrophoresis of the extruded skim milk cross-link glutenin subchains into large molecules (Macritchie
powders did not exhibit any alteration in the caseins in the ex- 1975). The position of the S–S bonds near the center of glutenin

molecules, where the greatest tension exists during extrusion, are shearing and stretching protein globules into aligned or entangled
susceptible to disruption. Macritchie (1975) described the quan- fibrous bundles (Onwulata and others 2003). Varying extrusion
titative theory of polymer breakdown under high shear stress by temperature resulted in controlled rates of denaturation, predi-
asserting that chain degradation during shear does not occur at any cating a texturized ingredient with predetermined functionality
practical shear rates unless the polymer molecules possess a large based on degree of denaturation can be created (Onwulata and
number of entanglements. Degradation arises because molecu- others 2003).
lar chains cannot disentangle sufficiently fast in response to shear SME is the power used to pump the material through the
stress. The highest tension occurs at the center of the polymer die divided by the total mass flow rate (Qm ) and is expressed in
and, as a result, polymers will break preferentially at the center. (W h/kg) (Senouci and Smith 1988). At a constant extruder screw
Gluten protein satisfies the requirements since gluten molecules speed N, an increase in flow rate is associated with a decrease in
with molecular weights in the order of a million are expected viscosity and SME. On the other hand, an increase in the ex-
to be considerably entangled. Nonlinear stress–strain behavior of truder screw speed at a constant flow rate results in an increase in
WG is attributed to molecular degradation under excessive shear the SME and a decrease in the viscosity of maize grits and potato
stress that accompanies extrusion (Macritchie 1975). Additionally, powder. Senouci and Smith (1988) demonstrated that the flow
subsequent to molecular degradation, chemical reactions may oc- rate and screw speed can be increased simultaneously to retain a
cur at the points of scission of the protein. Potentially, disulfide constant Q/N ratio, although this increases the SME, but decreases
and sulfhydryl reactions may also affect the molecular weights, the viscosity of the melt. Thus, the SME during extrusion can be
mobility, and viscosity of protein melt. manipulated by altering screw speed and feed rate.
Taranto and others (1978) postulated the working and kneading Sokhey and Chinnaswamy (1992) defined SME as the mechan-
of the extrusion screw is not a prerequisite for the ultrastruc- ical energy input per unit mass of the extrudate. Dividing the net
tural arrangement of proteins and insoluble carbohydrate compo- power input to the screw by the extruder flow rate (dry basis)
nents responsible for extrudate texture. Increasing shear strain and will determine the extrusion SME. Net power inputs to the screw
temperature-time in the extruder enhances cross-linking among are calculated from the torque requirements. The SME can be
protein molecules, while increasing shear through the die tended calculated from:
to disrupt the linkages (Holay and Harper 1982). Shear-induced
damage to large food molecules reduces expansion, increases water SME = (Md ω/ṁ ) (Wh /kg)
solubility, and reduces functionality (Harper 1986). The texture of
where Md = torque (Nm ), ω = angular velocity (per s), and ṁ =
the resulting extrudate is therefore affected by the shear environ-
throughput (kg/h). The angular velocity, ω, is calculated as ω =
ment in the extruder screw and die, the type of ingredients, and
(2πN)/60, where N to screw rotations per min (screw speed)
the time/temperature history necessary for chemical cross-linking
(Sokhey and Chinnaswamy 1992).
of macromolecules (Harper 1986).
Garber and others (1997) reported that when the screw speed
Extrusion of wheat proteins plasticized with glycerol is possible
is constant the viscosity controls SME. Changing screw speed has
within a narrow range of operating conditions (Redl and oth-
drastically different effect for torque and SME. Increasing screw
ers 1999). Depending on operating conditions, extrudates present
speed decreases torque but increases SME. Screw speed can also
very different aspects ranging from smooth-surfaced extrudates
impact on viscosity. This leads to SME to be expressed as a function
with substantial expansion to completely disrupted extrudates.
of screw speed raised to the nth power:
Low SME input results in smooth-surfaced extrudate with a
molecular weight distribution similar to native gluten. Extrusion SME = ώn
at temperatures <60 ◦ C is limited by increasing viscosity and
therefore increased die pressure and torque. Polymerization dur- Because the flow behavior index (n) may be <1, torque de-
ing extrusion is dominant and positively related to SME (Redl creases and SME increases with increasing screw speed (Garber
and others 1999). Specific influences of SME input and time- and others 1997). Hsieh and others (1989) increased screw speed
temperature history on polymerization were not discerned be- during extrusion of wheat and oat fibers and observed a decrease
cause the parameters were co-dependent. Increasing polymeriza- in percent torque, increased specific energy, and decreased die
tion led to volumetric distortions and disrupted extrudates. Redl pressure. In general, when the particle size of the feed material
and others (1999) theorize polymeric distortion and disruptions is in the range of 100 to 1000 μm, there are little effects on the
resulted from the inability of the polymer to withstand levels of extrusion torque, SME, and product temperature. However these
strain higher than a critical strain value. extrusion parameters will decrease significantly if the particle size
Whey protein concentrate (WPC) can be co-extruded suc- is increased at above 1000 μm (Garber and others 1997). The
cessfully with selected cereals to give extrudates ranging from addition of sucrose to corn meal at 20% moisture progressively
nonexpanded and glassy to well expanded and porous, demon- reduced the SME, exhibiting little effect at the 10% moisture
strating a wide range of functional and sensory properties (Kim concentration (Barrett and others 1995).
and Maga 1987). The source, concentration and processing his- Power is dissipated in the reverse screw element (RSE) of ex-
tory of the whey proteins are significant factors, since partial or truders by viscous shearing. Barres and others (1990) integrated
complete denaturation affects whey protein structure and leads the volumic power over the volume of each of the direct, reverse,
to changes in cross-linking and complexing of the whey pro- and intermeshing screw channel sections, and summing the volu-
teins during extrusion (Aboagye and Stanley 1987). Proteins can mic power for all sections of the reverse section element provided
be pretexturized or denatured before adding to the extruder to an overall estimation of the total instantaneous power dissipated in
create improved matrices and lead to improved extrudate func- the entire RSE. Determination of the volume of material in the
tionality (Kester and Richardson 1984; Mohammed and others RSE, the density of the melt, and the mean residence time, the
2000). Extrusion-processing texturizes globular whey proteins by mean SME received by the material flowing through the RSE was
computed by Barres and others (1990) as: content results in an increase in SME. Increasing the product mois-
ture, casing temperature, or die pore diameter decreases the SME.
SME = Ẇtot × ṫ /ρ × V = Ẇtot /Q A decrease in product moisture or a decrease in die pore diameter
leads to an increase in PT. An increase in screw speed results in
Martelli (1983) expressed SME as: a decrease in mean residence time for the mass in the extruder
(Meuser and others 1987). An increase in the product moisture
SME = τ ώ ∝ μa ώ
content results in an increase in mean residence time. An increase
where τ represents torque, ώ is screw speed, and μa is the average in die pore diameter results in a decrease in mean residence time.
viscosity of the dough in the screw. With increased die pore diameter, the effect of product moisture
content is decreased (Meuser and others 1987). Die pressure is
Feed moisture content influenced by three-way interaction of particle size, screw speed,
Moisture increases the mobility of proteins and potentially in- and feed moisture content (Garber and others 1997). The influ-
creases cross-linking and water absorption while reducing density ence of the selected extrusion parameters on mean residence time
(Holay and Harper 1982). High peanut flour (53.5% protein) feed is attributed to degrees of filling of the screw chamber which at
moisture concentrations, high extrusion process temperatures, and a constant product mass flow and is dynamically dependent on
slow screw speeds enhance extrudate expansion and increase tex- the extrusion parameters. Greater degrees of filling increase the
tural integrity (Aboagye and Stanley 1987). Amylose-lipid com- back-mixing effect, leading to an increase in residence time and
plexes formed upon extrusion differ from complexes formed dur- altering the residence time spectrum (Meuser and others 1987).
ing gelatinization of native flour in excess water, reducing the SME dissipation into starch/protein mixtures was not affected
viscosity and water solubility of extruded flours (Schweizer and by increasing screw speed (Bruin and others 1978; Bhattacharya
others 1986). and Hanna 1987; Seker 2005). Tsao and others (1978), Fletcher
Moisture content of the feed contributed most to the vari- and others (1985), Della Valle and others (1989) and Lue and
ation in energy requirements followed by temperature (Bhat- others (1994) observed that increasing screw speed resulted in
tacharya and Hanna 1987). Relatively, the effect of screw speed on increased SME. However, Jin and others (1994) and Akdogan
energy requirements was insignificant. Increasing moisture con- (1996) reported that SME dissipation was proportional to torque
tent and barrel temperature resulted in a decrease in SME. Ex- and screw speed screw, but was inversely proportional to flow rate.
truder pressure decreased significantly with increases in product Jin and others (1994) and Akdogan (1996) concluded the posi-
moisture content, extruder barrel temperature, and screw speed tive effect of screw speed on SME was greater than the negative
(Bhattacharya and Hanna 1987). The specific energy requirement effect of torque on SME at constant output rate. Lower melt vis-
of extrusion-cooking is greatly affected by changes in dough viscosities result in fast extruder screw speeds result at constant shear
cosity. Moisture content and temperature inversely accounted for rates (Senouci and Smith 1988). Extruded starchy materials exhibit
most of the variation in specific energy. non-Newtonian (pseudoplastic) flow behavior, however, the ap-
Extrusion treatment of pea flour was characterized by mois- parent viscosity of extrudates decreases with increasing extrusion
ture content, SME, shear rate at the die, and extrudate temper- temperature or shear rate (Lue and others 1994). Because shear
ature (Della Valle and others 1994). SME influenced starch and rate is proportional to screw speed for a specific screw element,
protein solubility more than did temperature. Protein transforma- increasing screw speed results in increasing shear rate (Lue and oth-
tion during extrusion involves simultaneous thermo-mechanical ers 1994). The tendency to Newtonian behavior as screw speed
denaturation and cross-linking equivalent to starch degradation and temperature are increased is attributed to the macromolecular
described by melting and chain-splitting phenomena. Different degradation of the food material occurring during extrusion. Re-
mechanisms may operate depending on the amount of mechanical versible and irreversible modifications to maize starch melts result
energy provided. At low energy levels, decreased solubility results from shear during extrusion (Vergnes and others 1987).
from the formation of noncovalent and disulfide bonds, whereas The degree of fill and the mean residence time of feed ma-
other stronger types of interaction may occur at high energy levels terial in the extruder is reduced when the screw speed is in-
(Della Valle and others 1994). Extrusion of a high-moisture (about creased, but the intensity of the mechanical treatment is increased
60%) surimi/soy protein (about 25%) formula resulted in extru- (Senouci and Smith 1988). The effect of mechanical degradation
date with a texture dependent primarily on feed moisture, screw is more important at low temperatures than at high temperatures.
speed, and barrel temperature (Thiebaud and others 1996). The At constant screw speed, an increase in temperature tends toward
feed rate and the mean residence time exhibited no significant a Newtonian response (Senouci and Smith 1988). Davidson and
effect on the characteristics of the extrudate. others (1984) observed that mechanical degradation is important
at low temperatures, whereas thermal degradation dominates at
Modeling extrusion parameters high temperatures.
Meuser and others (1987) hypothesized the influence of the An increase in set temperature or screw speed resulted in in-
various extrusion parameters can be differentiated by a systems creased drive power consumption, and increased die temperature,
analysis approach, developing a model dividing the extrusion pro- but decreased die pressure (Fletcher and others 1985). The drive
cess into influencing and influenced parameters. The functional power (D) for a twin-screw extruder was related to torque (τ ) and
relationships existing between selected parameters can be calcu- screw speed (S) by the equation:
lated by means of regression analysis. Within the relevant range
of operating conditions for high-temperature short-time (HTST) D = 0.302 + 0.023τ × S.
extrusion, the parameters can be presented as functions of SME
input and product temperature (PT). Product moisture content, A decrease in feed rate results in increased drive power con-
casing temperature, and die pore diameter influence extrusion sumption per unit mass, decreasing die pressure and die temper-
SME (Meuser and others 1987). A decrease in product moisture ature, whereas an increase in moisture results in decreasing drive

power consumption, die temperature, and die pressure (Fletcher nient energy-efficient, volume-yielding, labor-efficient, and rapid
and others 1985). process (Stanley 1986). Texture is often the major hurdle fac-
The shear rate the material receives in the extruder is depen- ing fabrication and remodeling of edible ingredients into ac-
dent on screw speed and is described with a power law relationship ceptable foods. Extrusion imparts the necessary cohesive qual-
(Senouci and Smith 1988). Processing shear-sensitive food mate- ities to materials such as protein and starch that often lack
rials in a starve-fed extruder allows expression of shear viscosity cohesiveness.
as a function of screw speed and accounts for the effect of pro- Kokini and others (1992) presented an analysis of the extru-
cessing history prior to viscosity determination. An increase in date expansion phenomenon in 5 stages: (1) order–disorder tran-
melt temperature results in reduction in viscosity at fast screw sitions and chemical complexing during extrusion transforming
speeds. At low die temperatures, the increase in melt temperature raw cereal feed into a homogeneous viscoelastic melt; (2) growth
is substantial (Senouci and Smith 1988). As the extrusion tem- of bubbles at numerous nucleation sites within the extruder; (3)
perature increases and follows an Arrhenius type relationship, the swelling of the elastic melt results in expansion as the extrudate
melt viscosity decreases. Increasing the moisture content of the emerges from the die; (4) flash evaporation and bubble growth is
food material decreases the shear viscosity. dependent on die temperature as the extrudate passes through and
Emin and Schuchmann (2013) selected computational fluid dy- out of the die; and (5) collapse of bubbles that cannot sustain water
namics (CFD) to evaluate the dispersive mixing efficiency in twin- vapor pressure, strongly dependent on moisture content and rhe-
screw extruders. High shear zones are generated at the clearances ological properties of the melt. Independent extrusion parameters
between screws and barrel or between two screws at which the such as feed rate, water addition, and extrusion temperature can be
flow is dominated by simple shear flow. An increase in screw speed controlled by the operator, while the dependent extrusion param-
improved dispersive mixing, although the generated shear stresses eters (resistance against extrusion and extrusion pressure) achieve
decreased. Increasing the screw speed from 300 to 500 rpm led specific values according to the level of independent extrusion
to exposure of the particles to lower shear stresses, whereas the parameters (Andersson and Hedlund 1990).
capillary ratio increases. The decrease in generated shear stresses
does not necessarily lead to less dispersive mixing efficiency. As- Feed moisture and extrusion temperature
sessment of the influence of screw geometry led to the conclusion An increase in the feed moisture during extrusion results in
that dispersive mixing can be improved by using reverse kneading more compact and dense extrudates, whereas an increase in the
blocks that force particles to flow through the tip of the screws ex- extrusion temperature generally results in a less compact and dense
posing more particles to high-shear zones (Emin and Schuchmann extrudate. The degree of starch gelatinization and extrudate ex-
2013). However, CFD models will only be as good as the knowl- pansion are reduced as feed moisture is increased (Ding and others
edge of the physical parameters of the melt within the barrel and 2006). Water acts as a plasticizer to the starch-based material, re-
die, which can only ever be approximations if they are deduced ducing melt viscosity and the mechanical energy dissipation in the
from the operating torque and speed of rotation. Better on-line extruder, and the extrudate becomes dense and bubble growth
rheological measurements are needed to provide data to and vali- is compressed. Recorded pressure was negatively correlated with
date such models. feed moisture (Ding and others 2006). Reduced starch gelatiniza-
tion and limited bubble growth results in dense and harder extru-
Assessment of Physical and Sensory Properties of date. Increasing temperatures will decrease melt viscosity, favoring
Extrudates bubble growth and low density and resulting in greater extrudate
Food extrusion is the high-temperature, high-pressure, short- expansion (Fletcher and others 1985).
time conversion of selected protein, carbohydrate, and lipid for- The interaction of feed moisture and extrusion temperature is
mulations into a viscoelastic melt that is blended in a screw con- significant for initial relaxation modulus, fracturability, cohesive-
veyor and forced through a die. The sudden pressure release when ness, and springiness (Halek and Chang 1992). Moisture exerts a
the viscoelastic melt exits through the die results in the flash evapo- great influence on extrudate quality influencing cell structure and
ration of water as steam and a porous, low-density, often expanded the fragility of expanded extrudates (Kitabatake and others 1985;
extrudate (Kokini and others 1992). Many influential indepen- Miller 1985; Onwulata and others 2001). The affects of moisture
dent extrusion parameters affect dependent properties and func- content and extrusion temperature on expansion is justified by
tionalities of extrudates formed under select extrusion processing effects on melt viscosity, a determinant of the pressure profile in
conditions. Thus, it is possible to predict the properties of the the die. Reduced feed moisture increases melt viscosity, may in-
extrudates when the extrusion parameters are known or to obtain crease entrapment of bubbles, and increases expansion (Halek and
a desired extrudate property by identifying the necessary extru- Chang 1992). High viscosity will result in high pressure in the
date conditions. The physical properties of the extrudates relative die, a determinant of bubble growth, and may suppress vaporiza-
to extrusion conditions include (1) extrudate density, (2) shear tion of superheated water (Kokini and others 1992). High extru-
strength, (3) work of shearing, (4) break elongation, (5) breaking sion temperature may result in increased vapor pressure and favor
strength, (6) stress relaxation, and (7) water regain (Cumming and expansion, while low temperatures may reduce vapor pressure
others 1972). A list of analytical methods and references for the within a higher-viscosity melt, thus reducing expansion (Halek
determination of physical and sensory properties of extrudates are and Chang 1992). Harper and Trebelhorn (1992) reported that
summarized in Table 1. longitudinal expansion is more dependent on product temperature
than on moisture. Lower SME dissipation results in lower product
Extrusion parameters impacting on the functionality and temperature and restricted expansion. A lower product temper-
quality of extrudate ature also restricts starch gelatinization, thus reducing expansion
Thermal extrusion of fabricated foods is a technology de- (Garber and others 1997). Increasing extrusion temperature and
signed to incorporate many unit operations, such as mixing, shear- whey protein concentration (5% to 25%) decrease the expansion
ing, cooking, drying, expanding, and texturization, in a conve- indices of extrudates (Amaya-Llano and others 2007).
Table 1–Parameters used to assess physical and sensory properties of extrudates.
Parameter Description Reference

Radial expansion index (for example The ratio between extrudate diameter and die diameter multiplied by 100 Andersson and Hedlund (1990);
Expansion degree) and expressed as a percentage. Minimum of 30 replications is necessary Patil and others (1997).
to provide constant coefficient of variation (CV) and standard effort (SE).
Expansion indices (EI) Overall expansion of an extrudate that takes place in three dimensions, Berrios and others (2008).
cross-sectional, longitudinal, and volumetric. EI is defined by the
mathematical equation: VEI = SEI × LEI where SEI is the sectional
expansion index characterizing diametral expansion, LEI is the
longitudinal expansion index, and VEI is volumetric or overall expansion
index.
Overall expansion ratio (volume) Solid density divided by bulk density. Sokhey and Chinnaswamy (1992).
Puff ratio The mean cross sectional area of the extruded product divided by the cross Bhattacharya and others (1986).
sectional area of the extruder die.
Density The mass (weight) per unit volume, of extrudates. Hwang and Hayakawa (1980)
Bulk density The mass of extrudate particles divided by the total volume occupied Hwang and Hayakawa (1980);
including particle volume, internal pore volume, and interparticle void Bhattacharya and others (1986).
volume. Five replications are necessary to provide constant CV.
Water-absorption capacity (WAC) Determined according to the method of Obatolu and Cole (2000). Obatolu and Cole (2000)
Water-holding capacity (WHC) Determined according to the AACC method 56 to 20 (2005). AACC (2005); Patil and others
(2005).
Water absorption index (WAI) WAI,% = Weight of sediment, g/Weight of dry solids, g × 100
Water solubility index (WSI) WSI,% = Weight of dissolved solids in supernatant, g / Weight of dry solids,
g × 100
Patil and others (2005).
Nitrogen solubility index (NSI) Determined according to the method of Obatolu and Cole (2000). Obatolu and Cole (2000).
Oil absorption capacity Determined by the amount of soybean oil (g) absorbed by the extrudate (g). Lin and others (1974);
Li and Lee (1996).
Oil emulsification capacity (OEC) Determined according to the method of Beuchat (1977). Beuchat (1977).
Pasting properties Analyzed with a Brabender Viscoamylograph Andersson and Hedlund (1990).
Rapid viscosity analysis (RVA) Determined with a rapid visco-analyzer (RVA) demonstrating the changes Berrios and others (2008).
in viscosity over a time–temperature profile, reflecting changes in the
molecular weight and conformation of starches and proteins
Compression relaxation modulus Determined from compression tests and stress relaxation testing (Instron Halek and others (1989).
F (t)/A
Universal Testing TM Equipment), and calculated as: E (t) = (z−1/Z 2)
where F(t) is the compressive force at time t, A is the initial

cross-sectional area of the extrudate, and z is the ratio of the length after
compression to the initial length
Breaking force The force required to break the extrudate as determined by Instron Andersson and others (1973);
Universal Testing equipment or TA-XT2 texture analyzer. Chaiyakul and others (2009).
Penetration force Determined by penetration using a TA-TX2 texture analyzer. Amaya-Llano and others (2007).
Crushing force Determined with TA-XT2i texture analyzer: Fcr = S / x (N) where S is the Bouvier and others (1997); de Mesa
area below the force-deformation curve from 0 to 70% strain and x is the and others (2009).
distance of compression expressed as Newtons (N).
Crispness Determined with a TA-XT2i texture analyzer: Wc = S / n (N mm) where S is Bouvier and others (1997); de Mesa
the area below the force-deformation curve from 0 to 70% strain and n is and others (2009).
the number of peaks in the force-deformation curve expressed as Newton
millimetres (N mm).
Hardness and breaking strength The peak value of the compression force determined with a TA = XT2 Berrios and others (2008).
texture analyzer and determined with: S = Ac / t × Ap (N/mm) where S
is the hardness/strength in (N/mm) Ac is the area under the time force
curve (N.t), Ap is the original cross sectional area of the extrudates
(mm−2 ) and t is the time that the probe compresses on the extrudate.
Rehydration rate Determined with the method described in Yu and others (2013). Yu and others (2013).
Gel Strength and syneresis Determined with the method of Aguilera and Rojas (1996). Aguilera and Rojas (1996).
In vitro protein digestibility Determined with the multi-enzyme technique. Hsu and others (1977).
Color Determined with spectrophotometer and presented CIE color values: L* Amaya-Llano and others (2007); Ilo
values representing lightness with 0 for darkness and 100 for brightness, and others (1999); Chaiyakul and
positive and negative a* values representing redness and greenness, others (2009).
respectively, and positive and negative b* values representing
yellowness and blueness, respectively. The color difference (E) for
extrudates is calculated as: E = (L2 + a2 + b2 )1/2 .
Sensory texture attributes Such as biting force, hardness, toughness, grittiness, crispiness, melting in Andersson and Hedlund (1990),
mouth, adhesiveness, slipperiness, sliminess, color (visualize with Munsell Chaiyakul and others (2009).
book of color), noise, brittleness, crispness, and sticky mouth coating are
determined with trained taste panels.
Density is affected primarily by feed moisture and extrusion of extrudates. Increasing feed moisture of corn meal from 20%
temperature (Halek and Chang 1992), with the highest densities to 28% decreased the rigidity of cornmeal extrudates, whereas an
at lower temperatures. Determination of compressive relaxation increase >28% feed moisture increased the rigidity of extrudates
modulus characterizes the structural properties of extrudates, with because of reduced expansion or more complex chemical inter-
longer relaxation times defining more rigid structures. Feed mois- actions (Halek and Chang 1992). Feed moisture and screw speed
ture content is the primary extrusion condition influencing com- exhibit less influence on hardness at high temperatures, and are
pressive relaxation times (Halek and Chang 1992), with an increase more significant at low temperatures. The effects of feed mois-
in feed moisture generally leading to a decrease in relaxation time ture, extrusion temperature, and screw speed on fracturability,

Table 2–Major parameters affecting various properties of cornmeal extru- determination of the degree of expansion of extrudates. Excellent
dates (adopted from Halek and Chang, 1992). correlation was observed between the water content of extrudates
Property Most significant parameter(s) after equilibrium and biting force, crispiness, and toughness, as well
Product moisture content Moisture content, temperature
as between volume weights and crispiness, toughness, and melt-
Puff ratio Temperature × temperature ing properties. The contents of water-soluble starch in extrudates
Solid density Temperature were well correlated with toughness, adhesiveness, melting prop-
Bulk density Temperature × temperature, temperature erties, and slipperiness of extrudates, and the content of ethanol-
Initial relaxation modulus Temperature × temperature, temperature ×
moisture content soluble starch was highly correlated with extrudate slipperiness
Relaxation time Moisture content, temperature × (Andersson and Hedlund 1990).
temperature
Fracturability Temperature × moisture content
Hardness Temperature × temperature Mechanical conditions
Cohesiveness Temperature × moisture content Feed rate, screw speed, feed moisture, and barrel temperature
Springiness Temperature × moisture content
Gumminess Temperature × temperature all significantly affect selected extrudate properties. The biting
Chewiness Screw speed × temperature force, hardness, toughness, and grittiness of extrudates increased
substantially when water was added during extrusion, while little
influence was observed when the raw material feed rate was in-
creased (Andersson and Hedlund 1990). Increasing the feed rate
hardness, cohesiveness, springiness, gumminess, and chewiness are and screw speed during twin-screw extrusion of maize grits lead
summarized in Table 2 (Halek and Chang 1992). Screw speed and to greater elastic effects of the “melt” (Fletcher and others 1985).
extrusion temperature exhibited a significant influence on chewi- Increasing the screw speed decreases the “melt” viscosity, result-
ness. Extrudates tended to be harder when the extrusion tempera- ing in a more readily deformed extrudate. An increase in screw
ture was increased (Andersson and Hedlund 1990). Increasing the speed also results in more even moisture distribution (Harmann
moisture content (21% to 23%) significantly decreased the specific and Harper 1973). Although varying the feed rate induces greater
volume and increased the hardness of extrudates (Li and others effects in the macromolecular transformations during extrusion,
2005). The breaking force of extrudates is not related to extrudate the reverse screw element also plays a major role (Barres and oth-
expansion (Lai and others 1985). ers 1990). The level of macromolecular transformation correlates
Extrusion at low moisture (7.9% to 12.4%) reduces plasticity with energy input (SME) and the length of the reverse screw ele-
and elasticity of extrudates (Miller 1985). Low-moisture extru- ment (RSE), with less influence from the width of the axial slots
dates are less resilient than product extruded at high moisture in the classical ranges.
and dried to equivalent moisture. Upon drying the extrudate Increasing screw speed results in smaller diameter extrudates
becomes more fragile that can be broken down to smaller frag- with increased length and volume, but decreased bulk density
ments or powder during handling. Low-moisture extrusion pro- (Lue and others 1994). Fast screw speeds (250 rpm) decrease die
duces larger cells and fissures in the extrudate than high-moisture pressure and percentage torque, but increase SME (Hsieh and
extrusion that results in stress concentrations and increased sus- others 1990). However, Seker (2005) reported that increasing the
ceptibility to brittle fracture (Miller 1985). The structural changes screw speed did not affect SME, water solubility, or absorption in-
relate to the plasticity and elasticity of high-moisture extrusion. dices, but did affect the sectional expansion index and bulk density
The relatively inelastic matrices of low-moisture extrusion pro- of SPI and maize extrudates. The quantity of energy transferred
mote developing cells to burst and to coalesce into larger voids. from the screw to the dough controlled longitudinal expansion
As moisture content increased in the extrusion of wheat flour (Garber and others 1997). An increase in the screw speed decreased
and wheat starch, extrudate expansion decreased and the texture radial expansion and bulk density, but increased axial expansion
weakened (Faubion and Hoseney 1982b). Hard (11% protein) and and breaking strength (Hsieh and others 1990).
soft (9% protein) wheat flour extrudates were similar in expansion Extrusion of soy protein fortified with (3.5% to 14.2%) corn
and microstructure, whereas the extrudate of high-protein (15% starch demonstrated that increasing screw speed results in higher
protein) flour was weaker in both shearing strength and break- SME and expansion, and reduces the mechanical strength of the
ing strength, properties attributed to the disruption of cell wall extrudates (de Mesa and others 2009). Increasing SME leads to
structure characteristically observed in high-protein extrudates. higher melt temperature and greater steam flash-off and expansion
The reduction in textural strength occurred without equivalent at the die. X-ray microtomography illustrated that the numbers of
loss of expansion (Faubion and Hoseney 1982b). Extrudates of cells with cell wall thickening attributed to the foaming action
soft wheat flour supplemented with gluten exhibited shearing and of proteins associated with increasing soy protein concentrations.
breaking strengths similar to native 15% protein flour. Starch and Mechanical strength of extrudates exhibited an inverse relation-
flour produce different extrudates because the responses of starch ship with expansion and increased with the addition of soy protein
and protein to extrusion at increased moisture are not equivalent, concentration due to lower SME, reduced expansion, and cell wall
and the observed responses could not be attributed simply to the thickening (de Mesa and others 2009). Interestingly, the effect of
overexpansion and subsequent collapse of gas cells (Faubion and increasing soy protein concentration is greater than the effect of
Hoseney 1982b). Protein concentration is more important than screw speed on starch degradation. Increasing screw speed resulted
flour type or, more precisely, gluten type in determining the ex- in a slight shift towards lower-molecular-weight fractions of starch
trusion characteristics of flour. Considering the high temperatures, (de Mesa and others 2009). Increasing the soy protein concen-
pressures, and shear during extrusion, denaturation of the protein trations and the die temperature generally increased the specific
occurs regardless of flour type obscuring any functional differences volume of extrudates (Faller and others 1999). Increased SME is
among glutens (Faubion and Hoseney 1982b). also desired to increase expansion of extrudates (Onwulata and
Andersson and Hedlund (1990) concluded it is possible to pre- others 2001). An increase in SME can result in a larger reduction
dict biting force, crispiness, hardness, and melting properties upon in extrudate viscosity than a higher extrusion temperature.
Extruder screw geometry, flight depths, pitches, compression also provide unique appearance to extrudates, and other properties
ratios, and lengths of the metering section, as well as operating such as absorption of milk in breakfast cereals are also affected by
conditions significantly affect the composition and quality of food pore sizes and total volume of pores in the extrudate (Ghorpade
extrudates (Tsao and others 1978). Extruder screw type and con- and others 1997).
figuration can affect the SME input to the material being extruded
and, consequently, can affect expansion ratios (Sokhey and others Color and flavor
1994). Initial extrusion of corn starch demonstrated that screw Berset (1989) reviewed the literature referring to the color of
configuration exhibited little effect on overall or radial expansion extrudates and concluded that raw material constituents, extru-
ratios. Screw configuration as well as the order of screw type used sion operating conditions, and extrudate handling and storage
in a re-extrusion process exhibited notable effects on the expan- must be considered when preventing browning or discoloration
sion properties of corn starch, and will affect extrudate quality. It as well as color degradation and the appearance of final consumer
is unclear whether variations in expansion ratios or bulk densities food products. Addition of water during extrusion and increas-
of extrudates are due to changes at the molecular level (Sokhey ing the feed rate slowed the Maillard reaction, reduced browning
and others 1994). and flavor development, but increasing the extrusion temperature
Die diameter exerts a large effect on expansion ratio. increased browning and flavor development (Andersson and Hed-
Chinnaswamy and Hanna (1988) advised a specific die ratio of lund 1990). Corn-soy blends (17.0% to 17.5% protein) extruded
length to diameter (L/D) of 3.4 and pressure of 7 MPa for maxi- at 171 ◦ C exhibited a dark-colored extrudate with pleasant flavor
mum expansion of starch with little experimental validation. Gen- properties (Maga and Lorenz 1978). Increasing WPC content re-
erally, a smaller die diameter results in a higher shear rate, resulting sulted in increased browning of extrudates (Matthey and Hanna
in lower shear viscosity and higher expansion (Kokini and others 1997). The extrudate containing 30% protein and 20% feed mois-
1992). Longitudinal fissuring of the extrudate results from fail- ture extruded at 180 ◦ C exhibited the lowest L* and the highest a*
ure attributed to shear within the die orifices, and is aggravated and b* values. An increase in moisture content in the raw materials
by poor elasticity and cohesiveness. Asymmetrical die flow pro- and decrease in barrel temperature resulted in increased breaking
nounced in low-moisture extrusion resulting from uneven pressure strength index of extrudates (Chaiyakul and others 2009).
distribution at the die is peculiar to twin-screw extrusion (Miller Increase in the SPI concentrations resulted in dark (decreased
1985). L values), but high feed moisture concentrations and high tem-
peratures resulted in light extrudates (increased L values) (Yu and
Material properties during extrusion others 2013). This is probably more related to the porosity of the
Kaletunc and Breslauer (1996) demonstrated that a wheat flour extrudates rather than chemical reactions. In general, increasing
state diagram is useful for identification of the physical state of protein concentrations in the formulation increase the yellowness
wheat flour during high-temperature extrusion. Glass transition (increased b* values) of extrudates (Faller and others 1999; Amaya-
temperatures characteristic of amorphous materials were observed Llano and others 2007; Brncic and others 2011). Yellowness (the
for wheat flour extrudates. Assessment of the wheat flour con- b* values) also increases with increasing moisture contents, pos-
stituent fragmentation as a function of SME was monitored as sibly reflecting less browning reaction (Faller and others 1999).
decreasing Tg on a state diagram (Kaletunc and Breslauer 1993). The addition of Agave tequilana fiber to the extruded WPC corn
The Tg of extrudates decreased rapidly with increases in moisture starch formulations decreased lightness, greenness, and total color
concentration (Kaletunc and Breslauer 1993). Extrusion SME did (Santillan-Moreno and others 2011).
not affect the glass transition temperature (Tg ) of protein–starch Maga (1989) concluded actual or potential interaction of flavor-
extrudates. The limiting molecular weight of dextrans affecting Tg contributing compounds by physical or chemical means with pro-
was 1 × 104 to 6.7 × 104 , implying that extrusion will not affect tein, starch, or lipid components due to mixing, melting, unfold-
the Tg of starch matrices (Gropper and others 2002). ing, and shear actions during extrusion occur in other less severe
thermal food preservation systems. Developing relatively simple
Particle size model systems will lead to potential prediction of realistic contri-
Increasing the particle size of the feed material generally de- bution of flavor-binding during extrusion, identifying select flavor
creased the overall expansion of the extrudates (Garber and oth- components that will effectively retain the desired flavor of ex-
ers 1997). Small particle size fractions produced extrudates with trudates (Maga 1989). Camire and Belbez (1996) concluded that
increased solubility and high viscosity with and without added an emphasis on real products, not model systems, will allow more
whey protein (Onwulata and Konstance 2006). The addition accurate prediction of flavor formation during extrusion.
of whey protein reduced paste viscosity irrespective of parti-
cle size. Formulations including corn meal fractions that ap-
proximated the particle size of added WPC resulted in viscos- Development of Protein-Fortified Extrudated Products
ity increase in the extruder and enhanced expansion ratios and Dairy proteins
porosity of the puffed extrudate. The hardness of the expanded Dairy proteins are amenable to structural modifications induced
whey protein-fortified extrudates decreased, resulting in a more by high temperature, shear, and moisture (Onwulata and others
fragile extrudate (Onwulata and Konstance 2006). Large parti- 2010). Viscoelasticity and solubility of nonfat dried milk (NFDM),
cle size (1.622 μm), slow screw speed (200 to 300 rpm), and WPC, and WPI extrudates demonstrated that structural changes
high-moisture concentration (22%) during extrusion resulted in were more dependent on extrusion temperature than on moisture
<97.3% starch gelatinization and a dense and hard extrudate content. Extruded WPC and WPI liquefied when extruded at 50
◦
(Garber and others 1997). As particle size increases, generally C, became soft at 75 ◦ C and large moisture concentrations, and
overall expansion of the extrudate decreases. Pore volumes and were solid at 100 ◦ C, reflecting heat-induced and shear-induced
distribution are important physical properties of extrudates in- denaturation (Tunick and Onwulata 2006; Onwulata and others
fused with fluid foods. Uniform distribution and small pore size 2010).

Singh and others (1991) formulated milk protein raffinates expansion and breaking strength. Incorporation of whey proteins
(MPR) containing selected concentrations of lactose and NFDM reduced SME input to the extrusion process. By reducing mois-
powder for extrusion with corn flour and determined that lower ture and adding reverse-screw elements, SME can be increased
temperatures resulted in decreased browning and protein concen- as well as extrudate expansion and breaking strength (Onwulata
trations greater than 5% resulted in decreased expansion. The con- and others 2001). Fortifying corn, rice, and potato flours with
centration and type of milk protein resulted in reductions in WHC 25% WPC resulted in minimal effect on the texture of extruded
and water-sorption characteristics as the protein concentration in- products (Onwulata and others 2001; Brncic and others 2008b).
creased (Singh and others 1991). Extrudate quality characteristics The addition of whey proteins will increase the protein content of
are directly related to the whey protein concentration (Onwulata breakfast cereals and puffed snack products from 2% to 25% (On-
and others 1998). Rapid evaporation of water is integral to ex- wulata and Tomasula 2004). Some trade off in snack texture occurs
trudate expansion, but specific type of protein and carbohydrate, with whey-fortified extruded snacks becoming dense, brittle, and
as well as shear, increase the complexity surrounding expansion crunchy, a result of less expansion attributed to adsorption of water
of extrudates. Adequate control of moisture and standardization by the whey, thus reducing interaction with starch matrices.
of constituents and formulation will improve extrusion-processing Extrusion of starch-casein blends with 5% to 10% casein at
of whey-fortified extrudates. The incorporation of considerable barrel temperatures from 126 to 194 ◦ C fragmented the starch
quantities of whey protein (>10%) will reduce expansion and in- and denatured the casein (Fernandez-Guiterrez and others 2004)
crease WHC (Onwulata and others 1998). Adding sweet whey promoting molecular interaction. The expansion index was high-
solids (SWS) or WPC to corn meal or rice or potato flour de- est at a barrel temperature of 194 ◦ C, but the bulk density and
creased expansion and breaking strength significantly, implying compression force of the extrudate decreased. Casein concentra-
poor textural effects (Onwulata and others 2001). By reducing the tions of 10% and low-moisture concentrations of 18% extruded at
moisture content and adding reverse-screw elements, extrudate 194 ◦ C produced extrudates with increased expansion and de-
expansion and breaking strength were improved. creased compression force. Starch fragmentation, as well as protein
Fortification of corn flour with WPC demonstrated that low denaturation, provided greater potential for interaction between
concentrations of protein (WPC, 7.5%) and moisture (10.08 L/h) both polymers, formation of inter- and intramolecular affinities
provide extrudates with the largest expansion, and high concentra- and bonds, and changes in water absorption and water solubility
tions of protein (WPC, 22.5%) and moisture (14.28 L/h) provide indices and viscosity of extruded products (Fernandez-Guiterrez
extrudates with the highest breaking strength (Brncic and others and others 2004). Denaturation of casein during extrusion de-
2008a). Whey protein isolate addition did not significantly af- creases hydration resulting in a decrease in viscosity. Increasing
fect the shear strength of corn starch extrudates (Martinez-Serna starch concentrations increases viscosity that can be directly cor-
and Villota 1992; Matthey and Hanna 1997), but WPC added in related with water absorption indices and color intensity. The
excess of 20% resulted in decreased expansion and low sensory darkening of extrudates resulting from Maillard reactions at high
scores (Matthey and Hanna 1997). Water absorption index (WAI) temperatures indicates polymer degradation and starch-casein in-
increases with increasing whey protein addition and feed moisture teraction (Fernandez-Guiterrez and others 2004).
content. Water solubility index (WSI) decreases with increasing
whey protein addition and increasing moisture content (Brncic Soy proteins
and others 2011). The WAI and WSI varied with processing con- The addition of soy protein isolate (SPI) and WG proteins re-
ditions, although the effects of acidic conditions during extrusion sults in increased total pore volume compared to starch extrudates
were more pronounced. Low protein concentrations and high without protein. The addition of SPI exhibited higher total pore
feed moisture resulted in extrudates that produced the strongest volume than did WG. SPI did not affect the open pore volume, but
gels with decreased syneresis (Amaya-Llano and others 2007). WG fortification greater than 20% resulted in decreased open pore
Texturized whey protein concentrate-based (TWPC) powders volume (Ghorpade and others 1997). Extrudate shear strength and
produced by reactive supercritical fluid extrusion of whey proteins bulk density of extrudates increased with the addition of WG, but
in an acid or alkaline environment, combined with controlled heat no changes in bulk density were observed with the addition of SPI
and shear in the presence of calcium or sodium salts and super- (Ghorpade and others 1997). Increasing soya bean flour fortifica-
critical carbon dioxide, favorably generates unique whey protein tion (≤40%) increased the expansion ratio, improved the porous
ingredients with unique gelling and functional properties (Manoi texture and crispness, decreased the hardness, and modified the
and Rizvi 2008). Supercritical carbon dioxide injection rate and specific volume and chewing behaviors of extrudates (Li and oth-
product temperature at the die are critical to control expansion ers 2005).
and texture of high-whey-protein (52.8% to 78.2%) extrudates. Yu and others (2013) utilized a central composite rotate design
Supercritical extrusion processing at temperatures less than pro- and response surface methodology to evaluate the significance
tein denaturation temperatures prevent the hard texture due to the of independent and interactive effects of extrusion process vari-
thermosetting property of whey proteins and create a uniformly ables on the physical properties of SPI and corn flour extrudates.
expanded extrudate structure (Cho and Rizvi 2010). Extruding Increasing SPI and moisture concentrations increased the break-
skim milk powder with hydrochloric acid (0.20 M HCl) to pro- ing strength and bulk density, but decreased the expansion ratio,
duce an acid-coagulated extrudate demonstrated that total and WSI, and rehydration rate. High temperatures increased breaking
soluble protein, nonprotein nitrogen (NPN), and lactose were not strength, expansion ratio, and rehydration rate, but decreased bulk
affected by extrusion feed rate, moisture, temperature, or screw density and WSI (Yu and others 2013).
speed (Barraquio and others 1988). The pH of extruded coag- Extrudates produced from rice flour fortified with SPI exhibited
ulum was affected by the moisture delivered and by the screw depressed water absorption (WA) capacity (Noguchi and others
speed. 1982). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed fine strings
Unfortunately, the addition of SWS or WPC to corn meal or associated with soy protein fortification. Protein solubility in buffer
potato or rice flour reduced SME as well as quality indices for decreased significantly when rice flour or SPI were extruded
separately but remained high when extruded simultaneously. The others (1975) formulated a protein snack food containing 15% to
low solubility of rice flour was attributed to strong covalent in- 50% soy protein (70%), 10% to 17% whey powder, 10% to 50%
teraction and disulfide bonding, whereas the low solubility of SPI nonfat dry milk, 7% to 15% wheat flour, and 7% to 15% potato
was attributed to the formation of isopeptide bonds (Noguchi and flakes as protein sources for extrusion at 121 ◦ C (250 ◦ F) to provide
others 1982). a snack-type wafer resistant to crumbling, yet adequately cohesive
The types of starch can also have an impact on protein-fortified for consumer acceptance (Huelskamp and others 1975).
extrudates. The shear strength of SPI extrudates decreased until Extruded blends of corn gluten meal (CGM) and soy protein
the amylose fraction in the starch reached 50% and then increased concentrate demonstrated that high shear rates resulted in puffier,
until the amylose fraction in the starch reached 70%. As the soy less dense extrudate, increased WHC, and decreased shear strength
protein concentration increased from 10% to 30% with 70% amy- (Bhattacharya and others 1986). Higher product moisture content
lose starch, the shear strength decreased (Ghorpade and others reduced puffing, giving a denser extrudate, decreased WHC, and
1997). The shear strength of extrudates fortified with 10% protein increased shear strength. Increasing the soy protein concentration
increased as the starch amylose content increased (Ghorpade and in the blend resulted in extrudates with a higher puff ratio, WHC,
others 1997). However, at 30% protein concentration, the shear shear strength, and uncooked and cooked viscosities. Scanning
strength decreased as amylose content increased to 50% and then electron micrographs illustrated that increased shear rate provided
increased with increases in amylose concentration. The effect of a more porous extrudate, while a slow shear rate yielded a dense
modified starch on the expansion of extrudates can result from the extrudate (Bhattacharya and others 1986).
reduction in SME dissipation or the higher resistance of modified Glutinous rice flour, soybean meal, and vital WG formulas con-
starch to degradation (Seker 2005). taining 20% or 30% protein extruded with feed moistures of 20%,
The use of acid in modifying soy proteins decreased expan- 25%, or 30% and barrel temperatures of 150 and 180 ◦ C (Chaiyakul
sion and increased rheological properties of extrudates. Isoelec- and others 2009) exhibited significantly different physical and sen-
tric precipitation apparently prevented interaction with protein sory properties. The increase in moisture content and decrease in
necessary for expansion and laminar protein structure develop- barrel temperature decreased the expansion of extrudates resulting
ment. Scanning electron micrographs presented a disordered pro- in increased density and hardness (Chaiyakul and others 2009).
tein orientation (Dahl and Villota 1991). Slightly alkaline extru- High protein concentration extrudates exhibited greater hardness,
dates exhibited increased expansion but less texture development. crispness, noise, and color intensity. Addition of protein in the
Highly alkaline protein extrudates were disrupted exhibiting pre- formulation resulted in sticky mouth coating by extrudates. The
mature aggregation and dysfunctional expansion during extrusion extrudates obtained at low-moisture concentrations or high barrel
(Dahl and Villota 1991). temperatures exhibited little hardness, crispness, noise, or brittle
intensity, but resulted in intensive sticky mouth coating and color
Wheat gluten intensity (Chaiyakul and others 2009).
Faubion and Hoseney (1982a) reported increases in shearing and Sander (2001) filed a US Patent describing an expanded cereal-
breaking strengths of corn starch extrudates with increases in wheat type product and a method for making such a product wherein
flour content. They observed a decrease in shear strength with an the protein content was 50% to 70%. Utilizing potato starch to
increase in WG content to 10% and then a slight decrease in shear aid expansion, supplementation with proteins from cereal grains,
strength as the WG concentration increased to 15%. Fortification legumes, or milk is proposed to formulate a denatured protein
of yellow corn snack meal with ≤30% vital gluten increased the extrudate with desirable mouth-feel characteristics similar to ex-
expansion ratios of the extrudates. panded low-protein cereal products. Eastman and others (2006)
Harper (1986) suggested that the presence of WG is an im- described the benefits of protein sources in the extrusion of high-
portant factor related to hardness of extrudates. Ding and others protein (10% to 90%) textured food products. The textured food
(2006) concluded wheat extrudates are harder than rice extrudates. product described typically contained 40% to 100% of the rice
A characteristic of glutinous rice is stickiness, and extrudates from protein ingredient, is extruded in a twin-screw extruder, and pro-
glutinous rice exhibit stickiness in the mouth. The addition of vides acceptable consumer structure, color, flavor, and nutrient
protein to glutinous rice decreases the sensory property associ- quality.
ated with stickiness (Chaiyakul and others 2009). Faubion and As the moisture increased >20%, expansion of cowpea meal
Hoseney (1982b) concluded the quality of protein-fortified ex- extrudates decreased, and as the barrel temperature increased, the
trudates resulting from extrusion of wheat starch, wheat flour, density of the extrudate decreased (Phillips and others 1984). The
vital gluten, SPI, and a blend of mono- and diacylglycerols de- degree of protein–water interaction during dough development
pended on protein type and concentration. The addition of WG plays a major role in expansion of the extrudate (Dahl and Villota
(≤11%) reduced expansion and texture. But, at equivalent protein 1991). Extrusion of chickpea/maize flour fortified with brewers’
concentrations, SPI increased the expansion and texture of ex- spent grain (BSG) with crude protein contents of 11.8% to 19.5%
trudates. After extrusion, the aggregation and molecular weights demonstrated that increased screw speed resulted in increased ex-
of wheat proteins increased, and the solubility of wheat proteins trudate expansion and decreased extrudate hardness (Ainsworth
decreased dramatically in the tested solvents (Li and Lee 1996). and others 2007). The addition of brewers’ spent grain reduced
extrudate expansion and resulted in a darker-colored extrudate.
Mixed proteins The quality of extrudates from high-protein fractions of pinto
Extrudates of two- and three-component protein-fortified ce- beans are markedly improved by pretreatment with papain and
real blends formulated to contain 9.4% to 34.4% protein with cellulase (Czarnecki and others 1993a). Gujska and Khan (1990)
similar amino acid balance to that of chicken eggs exhibited ex- extruded high-starch fractions of navy, pinto, and garbanzo beans
pansion ratios (diameter extrudate/diameter die pore) of 1.8 to and observed less expansion in comparison with corn extrudates.
5.9, WAI of 3.5% to 5.9%, and WSI of 15.6% to 38.2% (Inglett Oil absorption increased with increasing extrusion temperature,
and others 1969; Conway and Anderson 1973). Huelskamp and and emulsification capacity was greater than observed for corn

extrudates. The water absorption indices of navy and pinto bean pansion indices and bulk densities, increased penetration force and
extrudates increased as extrusion temperature increased to 132 ◦ C. WAI, and decreased WSI (Santillan-Moreno and others 2011). In-
In an effort to improve food security in southern Africa, creasing the fiber content in corn meal increased axial expansion,
Pelembe and others (2002) developed a protein-rich (8% to 25%) but decreased radial expansion. The net results were increases in
sorghum-cowpea extrudate formula and process. Increasing the extrudate bulk density and breaking force (Hsieh and others 1989).
cowpea portion of the formulation increased the protein content
as well as the nitrogen solubility index (NSI), WAI, WSI, and Nutritional Attributes
yellow color, and a decrease in total starch, expansion ratio, and With increasing applications of extrusion in food processing,
porridge firmness. Increasing extrusion temperature reduced the interests in extrusion processing to enhance nutritional properties
NSI, total starch, and WAI. Expansion ratios and WSI increased of food is also growing. Research is demonstrating that extrusion-
with the severity of the heat treatment (Pelembe and others 2002). processing can improve protein quality and protein (and starch)
digestibility together with retaining active nutrients. In addition,
Effects of other ingredients: salt and sugar one of the advantages of extrusion production of breakfast cereals
Three percent salt or 4% sugar in the feed decreased the die pres- and snack foods is the versatile ability to provide nutritionally bal-
sure, percentage torque, and SME in the extrusion of corn meal anced or enriched foods due to the capability to select blends of
(Hsieh and others 1990). At 6% and 8% sugar the die pressure, raw materials from nutrient-rich sources such as cereals, legumes,
percentage torque, and SME increased. The addition of salt or and dairy protein in the formulation of uniform extrudates. How-
sugar enhanced radial and axial expansion of corn meal extrudate, ever, extrusion processing conditions, temperature, feed moisture,
but reduced the bulk density and breaking strength. Mechanical screw speed and configuration, and so on, will influence the nu-
and thermal determinations conclude that sucrose plasticizes corn tritional quality of the extrudates. Early research on the beneficial
extrudates (Barrett and others 1995). Consequently, the Tg of ex- nutrient retention and improved protein digestibility, and poten-
trudates will decrease with the addition of sugar resulting in a loss tially detrimental reduction of nutrients and loss of available lysine
of crispness (Kaletunc and Breslauer 1996). At 10% and 20% mois- due to Maillard reaction of extrusion are reviewed by Bjoerck and
ture, the addition of sucrose to corn meal increased the bulk density Asp (1983), Cheftel (1986), Camire and others (1990), Camire
and reduced the cell size; the increase in bulk density and decreased (1991), and more recently by Singh and others (2007b). The aim
cell size was progressive for 20% extrusion moisture and evident of this section is to review recent development in the understand-
only at 10% sucrose addition at 10% extrusion moisture (Barrett ing of the nutritional values of extrusion-processing, in particular
and others 1995). Sucrose progressively plasticizes the structures to protein digestibility and quality.
of extrudate equilibrated to moisture contents between 12% and
17% as assessed by compression, dynamic mechanical spectrometry, Protein digestibility
and differential scanning calorimetry. Sucrose-induced reduction Unlike conventional cooking or baking processes, in vitro pro-
in extrusion SME reflect the reductions in melt viscosity result- tein digestibility of plant protein-based foods is usually enhanced
ing from replacement of starch with sucrose, reducing the shear by extrusion (Camire 1991; Malleshi and others 1996; Singh and
conditions and inhibiting extrudate expansion (Barrett and others others 2007b). For example, Alonso and others (1998; 2000) com-
1995). These consequences are more pronounced at high moisture pared extrusion with conventional thermal processing methods
concentrations in which melt viscosity is relatively low, even prior on protein digestibility of faba beans, kidney beans, and peas and
to the addition of sucrose. Combinations of sucrose and extrusion demonstrated that extrusion is the most effective in increasing pro-
moisture can be optimized to adjust product structure, physical tein digestibility. The improvement of in vitro protein digestibility
properties, and consequently sensory properties. Sugars and mois- of legume extrudates is also reported by Abd El-Hady and Habiba
ture decrease the sectional expansion of extruded corn grits and (2003). The protein digestibility of an extruded high-protein pinto
increase extrudate density (Fan and others 1996). Monosaccharide bean-corn blend was further improved by enzymatic pretreatment
sugars reduce the sectional expansion of corn extrudates more than with cellulase (Czarnecki and others 1993b). More recently, Cui
disaccharide sugars. Replacement of some starch in the formula- and others (2011) reported that extrusion of WG results in a sig-
tion by sugar or water will reduce the glass transition temperature nificant increase in pancreatin-induced protein hydrolysis. The
and the viscosity of the melt. Lower viscosity allows shrinkage molecular weight distributions of the hydrolyzed peptides of na-
of the extrudate at lower temperatures; a strong correlation exists tive gluten are different from the molecular weight distributions of
between shrinkage and extrudate density (Fan and others 1996). the hydrolyzed peptides of extruded gluten. The efficiency of the
enzymatic hydrolysis of WG is greatly improved by changes in the
Effects of other ingredients: fiber secondary structure of gluten occurring during extrusion (Cui and
An increase in the apparent density of extrudates occurred when others 2011). In another study, Muoki and others (2012) demon-
bran, sucrose, or magnesium carbonate were extruded with wheat strated that the protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score
flour (Moore and others 1990). Cell number per pixel increased (PDCAAS) of extruded composite cassava-soy flour porridge is
greatly while average cell size decreased as bran concentration in- increased by 35% and 67%, respectively, for porridges with defat-
creased to 16%. Mean cell size increased as magnesium carbonate ted and full-fat soy flour compared with conventionally cooked
concentration increased to 0.4%, with cell size decreasing at mag- porridges of equivalent composition.
nesium carbonate concentrations greater than 0.4%. Increasing the Extrusion conditions such as temperature, feed moisture, pH,
fiber component in the formulation decreased extrudate diame- screw speed, and screw configuration influence the in vitro di-
ter, with little to no effect on longitudinal expansion of extrudates gestibility of proteins. The in vitro digestibility of extruded CGM
(Lue and others 1994). Decreases in the net volumetric expansion and CGM-whey blends was greater when extruded at pH 7.00
results in a more compact extrudate texture and increases break- rather than pH 3.85. Increasing screw speeds also increased the
ing strength. The addition of Agave tequilana fiber to the extruded in vitro digestibility of CGM and CGM-whey protein blend
WPC/corn starch formulations resulted in small differences in ex- formulations (Bhattacharya and Hanna 1988). Increasing barrel
temperature and solvent pH also improved the in vitro digestibility tein quality, particularly from plant-based raw materials and whey
of extruded sorghum (Fapojuwo and others 1987). On the other proteins.
hand, Ainsworth and others (2007) reported that screw speed ex- By combining legumes containing large concentrations of lysine
hibited no significant effect on the in vitro digestibility of protein with lysine-deficient methionine-rich cereals, extrudate formula-
in an extruded snack formulated with selected concentrations of tions will yield products with protein of high biological value.
brewers’ spent grain added to a maize flour base. Similarly, Amaya- For example, extrusion was used to produce sorghum-based high-
Llano and others (2007) reported that barrel temperature and feed protein porridge (Pelembe and others 2002). By addition of cow-
moisture did not significantly affect the in vitro digestibility of whey peas, the total protein content of the ready-to-eat food was in-
protein in extruded WPC-corn starch blends. creased, allowing for delivery of a much greater percentage (28%
One reason for the increased protein digestibility upon extrusion more for a 50:50 sorghum-cowpeas formulation) of the recom-
is believed to be due to the reduction in the activities of enzyme in- mended dietary allowance (RDA) for protein. A significant in-
hibitors associated with materials of plant/seed origins, especially crease in protein content and quality of extruded corn and brown
trypsin inhibitors, hemagglutinins, tannins, and phytates, all of rice-based products was achieved by the addition of wild legumes
which inhibit the digestibility of plant proteins. However, changes (Pastor-Cavada and others 2011). An early human metabolic study
in protein structure upon exposure to high temperatures and shear demonstrated that blended wheat/soy protein extrudates provide
are likely to be the main factor leading to the improvement better nitrogen retention than the extruded soy protein extrudates
of improved protein digestibility (Cheftel 1986; Camire 1991; (Vemury and others 1976).
Ledward and Tester 1994). Inactivation of antinutritional factors Blending of animal protein with plant protein sources using
in legumes such as trypsin inhibitors, lectins, and tannins are de- extrusion is another way of improving overall protein quality of
pendent on extrusion processing conditions, especially extrusion extruded food products. Interest in the extrusion of high-protein
temperature and moisture concentration (van der Poel and others cereals fortified with milk proteins has increased considerably in
1992). The extrusion process often results in considerable modifi- the last decade (Fernandez-Guiterrez and others 2004; Onwulata
cation of molecular structural rearrangements of proteins. Protein and Konstance 2006; Allen and others 2007; Amaya-Llano and
denaturation and unfolding of polypeptide bonds likely expose others 2007; Onwulata and others 2010; Brncic and others 2011;
the cleavage sites in the protein which otherwise would not be Yong and others 2011). Fortification of raw materials with the lim-
accessible by digestive proteases, and lead to proteins being more iting amino acids such as lysine or methionine is another approach
susceptible to digestion by proteolytic enzymes. to improve the protein quality of extrudates. However, we need
The reports of improving protein in vitro digestibility by extru- to be aware that the modification of the protein structures (for
sion are supported by animal studies. Corn-soy or kidney bean- example amaloid-beta) could also lead to potential for long-term
based extrudates improve the growth (body weight) and skeletal adverse health effects, for example cancers or neurotoxins. Selec-
muscle nitrogen fractions in rats (Marzo and others 2002; Baskaran tions of processing conditions such as high temperature, moisture
and Bhattacharaya 2004). The protein efficiency ratio and net pro- and shear, and ingredients, particularly proteins of animal origin
tein utilization of corn-soy blend extrudates are comparable nutri- that promote the production of structures, need to be prudent un-
tionally to milk proteins (Baskaran and Bhattacharaya 2004). One til a much more nuanced understanding of the extrusion process
earlier study also demonstrated that relative protein efficiency ra- and the dietary risks associated with such structures are available.
tios of extruded and lightly toasted wheat-based breakfast cereals
is much greater than that of any conventional breakfast cereals or Available lysine
flours fed to rats (McAuley and others 1987). One of the detrimental effects of extrusion on the nutritional
Most of the research on protein digestibility was carried out us- values of ready-to-eat food products is the likelihood of extrusion
ing in vitro methods and animal trials, with very few human stud- processing conditions affecting lysine availability due to Maillard
ies assessing the effect of extrusion on protein digestibility. One reactions (Bjorck and others 1983; Iwe and others 2004). The free
earlier study by Maclean and others (1983) with preschool chil- ε-amino group of lysine can react with reducing sugars or other
dren observed the digestibility of sorghum protein was markedly carbonyl compounds, thereby reducing its biological availability.
improved by a combination of milling and extrusion-processing, Since lysine is the limiting amino acid in most cereals, the loss
with a 76% increase in apparent nitrogen absorption compared of available lysine can have significant negative impact on overall
with cooked whole sorghum (Maclean and others 1983). Further nutritional values of extruded cereal-based snacks and breakfast
research is needed, particularly human studies, to validate evidence cereals.
of the improved protein digestibility of extruded foods. Such stud- Recently, Delgado-Andrade and others (2007) analyzed 60
ies would improve the current understanding of the mechanism of commercial breakfast cereals and reported the higher the protein
chemical and physical changes affecting the nutritional quality of content in the formulation, the greater the loss of available lysine,
proteins during extrusion and the potential role of extrudates on regardless the source of the protein (corn, wheat, rice, or mixture).
human, in particular child, physiological functions such as weight The enrichment of fiber in the formulation exhibited the greatest
management and nutritional intake. effect on the most marked reduction of lysine availability. Process-
ing method also exhibited profound impact on lysine availability,
higher concentrations of lysine were retained in flaked form when
Protein quality compared to puffed commercial breakfast cereals.
The nutritional value of protein-containing food is not only The loss of available lysine may be minimized by omitting re-
dependent on the quantity and digestibility of the protein, but ducing sugars such as glucose and fructose from the formulation,
also the amino acid composition and availability of essential amino but starch and sucrose can be hydrolyzed into reducing sugars dur-
acids. Extrusion can produce uniform and ready-to-eat food prod- ing extrusion, thus modification of processing conditions can be
ucts from a blend of raw materials. Creative formulation provides important to retaining lysine availability (Bjorck and others 1983).
an opportunity for development of extrudates with improved pro- For example, Singh and others (2007a) studied the extrusion

of egg and milk protein (at 10% and 30% concentrations) in intermolecular reactivity of protein occurring after the molten
the presence of reducing sugars (fructose and galactose at 0%, mass is extruded through the die. Protein unfolding is enhanced
2%, and 8% concentrations), with pregelatinized wheat flour, and as the SME increases during extrusion. Protein reassociation or
demonstrated that higher lysine retention was achieved at lower cross-linking likely takes place at the die, is influenced by the
temperatures and higher feed moisture. Singh and others (2007a) shear rate at the die, and is aligned by the shear rate and vis-
concluded when reducing sugars are used in the formulation, low cosity necessary to achieve the desired texture of the extrudate.
temperature and high feed moisture is most favorable for develop- The protein structures will be altered by shear degradation, yet
ing high-protein extrudates. The selection of low temperature and protein degradation in shear does not occur at any practical shear
high moisture in the extrusion feed was confirmed by Chaiyakul rates unless the polymer molecules possess a large number of en-
and others (2009) with a study of snack formulations containing tanglements. Increasing shear strain and temperature-time in the
high-protein glutinous rice flour, vital WG, and toasted soy grits, extruder enhances cross-linking among protein molecules, while
demonstrating that reducing extrusion temperature and increas- increasing shear through the die disrupts protein linkages.
ing feed moisture enhanced lysine retention. These results are in Increases in the protein and/or water concentrations during
agreement with earlier studies (Bjorck and others 1983; Cheftel extrusion result in lower expansion and weak extrudate texture.
1986; Meuser and others 1987). Lower temperatures during ex- Protein concentration is more important than flour type or, more
trusion, coupled with increased moisture content, reduce the rate precisely, gluten type in determining the quality of extrudates.
of Maillard reactions. Feed rate, screw speed, and barrel temperature all significantly
Increase in screw speed and a reduction in die diameter have also affect selected extrudate functional properties. Extruder screw ge-
been reported to enhance lysine retention of extruded soy-sweet ometry, flight depths, pitches, compression ratios, and lengths of
potato mixtures (Iwe and others 2004). Although increasing shear the metering section, as well as operating conditions, significantly
may favor Maillard reactions, reduction in residence time limits the affect the composition and quality of food extrudates. Die diam-
exposure of the materials to high temperatures leading to greater eter exerts a large effect on expansion ratio.
lysine retention. Although the stringent conditions of extrusion- Extrusion processing can improve protein quality and protein
processing may lead to poor retention of available lysine, research (and starch) digestibility together with retaining active nutrients.
is demonstrating that improved retention of available lysine can be In vitro protein digestibility of plant protein-based foods is generally
achieved with careful selection of processing conditions. enhanced by extrusion. Extrusion conditions such as temperature,
feed moisture, pH, screw speed, and screw configuration influ-
Concluding Summary ence the in vitro digestibility of proteins. The nutritional value
Thermal extrusion of fabricated foods is a technology de- of protein-containing food is not only dependent on the quan-
signed to incorporate many unit operations, such as mixing, shear- tity and digestibility of the protein, but also on the amino acid
ing, cooking, drying, expanding, and texturization, in a conve- composition and availability of essential amino acids. By com-
nient, energy-efficient, volume yielding, labor-efficient, and rapid bining legumes containing large concentrations of lysine with
process. Texture is often the major hurdle facing fabrication and lysine-deficient methionine-rich cereals, extrudate formulations
remodeling of edible ingredients into acceptable foods. Extrusion will yield products with protein of high biological value. Extru-
imparts the necessary cohesive qualities to materials such as protein sion has the potential to produce products of higher nutritional
and starch that often lack cohesiveness. value than the sum of the components.
Food extrusion is the high-temperature, high-pressure, short-
time conversion of selected protein, carbohydrate, and lipid for-
mulations into a viscoelastic melt that is blended in a screw con-
veyor and forced through a die. Many influential independent References
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conditions on antinutrients and protein digestibility of legume seeds. LWT
ties of extrudates formed under select extrusion-processing condi- Food Sci Technol 36:285–93.
tions. Thus, it is possible to predict the properties of the extrudates Aboagye Y, Stanley DW. 1987. Thermoplastic extrusion of peanut flour by
when the extrusion parameters are known or to obtain a desired twin-screw extruder. Can Ins Food Sci Technol J 20:148–53.
extrudate property by identifying the necessary extrudate condi- Aguilera JM, Rojas E. 1996. Rheological, thermal and microstructural
tions. Similarly, extrusion conditions leading to specific changes in properties of whey protein-cassava starch gels. J Food Sci 61:962–6.
the physical and chemical properties of selected starch and protein Ainsworth P, Ibanoglu S, Plunkett A, Ibanoglu E, Stojceska V. 2007. Effect
of brewers spent grain addition and screw speed on the selected physical and
raw materials can be determined. nutritional properties of an extruded snack. J Food Eng 81:702–9.
Nitrogen-centered and sulfur-free radicals produced during ex- Akdogan H. 1996. Pressure, torque, and energy responses of a twin screw
trusion by thermal and mechanical forces critically involved in extruder at high moisture contents. Food Res Intl 29:423–9.
protein cross-linking and textural characteristics of extruded wheat Allen KE, Carpenter CE, Walsh MK. 2007. Influence of protein level and
flour. Many disulfide and hydrophobic interactions presumably starch type on an extrusion-expanded whey product. Intl J Food Sci
Technol 42:953–60.
form on cooling, and electrostatic, to some extent, steric fac-
Alonso R, Orue E, Marzo F. 1998. Effects of extrusion and conventional
tors, and more specific chemical reactions govern the alignment processing methods on protein and antinutritional factor contents in pea
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Functionality of Protein-Fortified Extrudates

Li Day and Barry G. Swanson

Introduction Therefore, the objective of this article is to review the literature

resonance to study free radical production observed that the field

Table 1–Parameters used to assess physical and sensory properties of extrudates.

Parameter Description Reference

where F(t) is the compressive force at time t, A is the initial

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