Introduction to Climatology

Ar. Sahil Pahal

(Lecturer, Dept. of Architecture, Govt. Polytechnic, Sector-26, Panchkula)
 Syllabus
UNIT I General Introduction • Natural lighting
• Introduction to Climatology • Introduction and objectives of Solar Passive Design
• Movement of earth around sun. • Passive solar heating and cooling
• Different elements of climate like: Wind, temperature, UNIT IV Wind control
humidity, precipitation and pressure. • Orientation with respect to wind
• Different climatic zones • Wind protection devices Use of building materials with
• Orientation of building with respect to above mentioned respect to climate
elements of climate • Concrete; Brick; Glass; Plastics; Stone; Insulating
• Effect of climate on man and shelter. material
UNIT II Relation of Climate and comfort UNIT V Environment and Ecology
• Macro-micro climatic effects • Basic elements of ecology
• Concept of comfort zone and bio-climatic chart • Concepts of natural cycles in Eco-system
• Climatic evaluation by season • Source of noise and air pollution, their effects and
UNIT III Sun Control and shading devices (without controls
calculations) • Use of landscape elements for micro and macro climate
• Solar Chart (sun path diagram) control
• Orientation for sun • Introduction to climate change, principle causes and
effects- methods of mitigating climate change.
• Internal and external sun protection devices
Contents:
• Climatology • Earth’s revolution around the
sun
• Climate
• Latitude
• Weather
• Longitude
• Movement of Earth around
Sun • Altitude
• Earth’s Orbit
• Axial Tilt and Seasons
“Study of climatic conditions of any
geographic area”.
“The average weather condition for not less
than 30 years of certain geographical
location”
 “The momentary state of the atmospheric
environment, such as temperature, humidity,
wind, light, rainfall, etc., at a certain location.”
We all know that “Earth follows an elliptical
orbit around the Sun, meaning it moves in
an elongated, oval-shaped path.”
SOMETHING LIKE THIS:
EARTH'S ORBIT:
• Shape: Slightly flattened circle
(ellipse).
• Size: Earth's average distance
from the Sun is about 15 crore or
150 million kilometers.
• Perihelion:The point in its orbit
when Earth is closest to the Sun.
• Aphelion: The point when Earth is
farthest from the Sun.
AXIAL TILT AND SEASONS:
• Earth's axis is tilted at approximately 23.5
degrees relative to its orbit around the Sun.
• It is the primary reason we experience changing
seasons.
• When the Northern Hemisphere is tilted toward
the Sun, it's summer there, and the Southern
Hemisphere experiences winter.
• When the Southern Hemisphere is tilted toward
the Sun, the opposite occurs.
21st JUNE:

Summer Solstice in Northern Winter Solstice in Southern

Hemisphere Hemisphere
21st DECEMBER:

Winter Solstice in Northern Summer Solstice in Southern

Hemisphere Hemisphere
EARTH'S REVOLUTION AROUND THE
SUN:
• It takes roughly 365 days and 6 hours for Earth to complete one orbit,
defining a year.
• Leap years are introduced to account for the extra fraction of a day.
(6 hours X 4 = 24 hours ~ 1 day)
Rotation and day-night cycle:
• Earth also spins on its axis.
• As Earth rotates, different parts of the planet are exposed to the
Sun's light, creating day and night.
• This rotation takes about 24 hours, defining a day.
LATITUDE: (aka PARALLELS)
• Latitude is the measurement of
distance north or south of the
Equator.
• It is measured with 180 imaginary
lines that form circles around Earth
east-west, parallel to the Equator.
• These lines are known as parallels.
• A circle of latitude is an imaginary
ring linking all points sharing a
parallel.
LONGITUDE: (aka MERIDIANS)
• Longitude is the measurement east
or west of the prime meridian.
• Longitude is measured by imaginary
lines that run around Earth vertically
(up and down) and meet at the
North and South Poles.
• These lines are known as meridians.
• Each meridian measures one arc
degree of longitude. The distance
around Earth measures 360
degrees.
ALTITUDE: (aka ELEVATION)
Altitude is the “height above sea
level” of any place.
Impact on climate:
• As altitude increases, temperatures
generally decrease.
• This is known as the lapse rate,
where the temperature drops about
2°C per 300 meters of altitude gain.
• Higher altitudes often have cooler,
more temperate climates, while
lowland areas tend to be warmer.
 Elements of Climate

Ar. Sahil Pahal

(Lecturer, Dept. of Architecture, Govt. Polytechnic, Sector-26, Panchkula)
 Syllabus
UNIT I General Introduction • Natural lighting
• Introduction to Climatology • Introduction and objectives of Solar Passive Design
• Movement of earth around sun. • Passive solar heating and cooling
• Different elements of climate like: Wind, temperature, UNIT IV Wind control
humidity, precipitation and pressure. • Orientation with respect to wind
• Different climatic zones • Wind protection devices Use of building materials with
• Orientation of building with respect to above mentioned respect to climate
elements of climate • Concrete; Brick; Glass; Plastics; Stone; Insulating
• Effect of climate on man and shelter. material
UNIT II Relation of Climate and comfort UNIT V Environment and Ecology
• Macro-micro climatic effects • Basic elements of ecology
• Concept of comfort zone and bio-climatic chart • Concepts of natural cycles in Eco-system
• Climatic evaluation by season • Source of noise and air pollution, their effects and
UNIT III Sun Control and shading devices (without controls
calculations) • Use of landscape elements for micro and macro climate
• Solar Chart (sun path diagram) control
• Orientation for sun • Introduction to climate change, principle causes and
effects- methods of mitigating climate change.
• Internal and external sun protection devices
Contents:
Different elements of climate
like:
• Wind
• Temperature
• Humidity
• Precipitation
• Pressure.
ELEMENTS OF CLIMATE:
• TEMPRATURE
• PRECIPITATION
• HUMIDITY
• WIND
• PRESSURE
TEMPRATURE:
•A temperature is an objective comparative measure of hot or
cold.
• The
temperature of the air is measured in degrees Celsius (DC),
most often with a mercury thermometer.
• The dry-bulb or 'true air temperature' is a value taken in the
shade, the thermometer being mounted inside a louvered
wooden box, known as the 'Stevenson screen' at a height of 1·20
to 1·80 m above the ground.
Stevenson screen:
Humidity:
• The amount of water vapor in the air.
• The humidity of air can be described as absolute humidity (AH),
i.e. the amount of moisture actually present in unit mass or unit
volume of air, in terms of grams per kilograms (g/kg) or gram per
cubic meter (g/m³).
• Relativehumidity is the ratio of the actual amount of moisture
present, to the amount of moisture the air could hold at the
given temperature expressed as a percentage:
• RH = (AH /SH) x100 (%)
Precipitation:
• Precipitationis the collective term used for
rain, snow, hail, dew and frost that is, for all
forms of water deposited ('precipitated')
from the atmosphere.
• It is measured by rain-gauges.
• It
is expressed in millimeter per a time unit
(mm/month, mm/day).
Wind:
• Wind velocity is measured by C1 cup-type or propeller
anemometer, or by a Pitot tube (similar to the air-speed meters
of aero-planes),
• Its direction is measured by a wind vane.
• Free wind velocities are normally recorded in open flat country
at a height of 10m.
• Measurements in urban areas are often taken at a height of
between 10 and 20 m to avoid obstructions. Velocities near the
ground are a good deal lower than the free wind speed.
Anemometer :
Wind vane:
Pressure:
• Air Pressure is the result of the pressure created by the weight of the air in
the Earth's atmosphere. It is also called a barometric pressure, named after
the instrument used to measure air pressure.
• Although it may not be visible, air has weight since it is not empty. It is filled
with small particles of nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide and a few
other gases.
• The weight of the particles in the air creates pressure due to the
gravitational force of the Earth. Since more air is present above the air close
to the ground, air pressure is the highest on the planet's surface and
decreases as altitude increase.
Barometer:
• Barometer- A tool used
to measure air pressure
in inches of mercury or
millibars (mb).
 Climatic Zones

Ar. Sahil Pahal

(Lecturer, Dept. of Architecture, Govt. Polytechnic, Sector-26, Panchkula)
 Syllabus
UNIT I General Introduction • Natural lighting
• Introduction to Climatology • Introduction and objectives of Solar Passive Design
• Movement of earth around sun. • Passive solar heating and cooling
• Different elements of climate like: Wind, temperature, UNIT IV Wind control
humidity, precipitation and pressure. • Orientation with respect to wind
• Different climatic zones • Wind protection devices Use of building materials with
• Orientation of building with respect to above mentioned respect to climate
elements of climate • Concrete; Brick; Glass; Plastics; Stone; Insulating
• Effect of climate on man and shelter. material
UNIT II Relation of Climate and comfort UNIT V Environment and Ecology
• Macro-micro climatic effects • Basic elements of ecology
• Concept of comfort zone and bio-climatic chart • Concepts of natural cycles in Eco-system
• Climatic evaluation by season • Source of noise and air pollution, their effects and
UNIT III Sun Control and shading devices (without controls
calculations) • Use of landscape elements for micro and macro climate
• Solar Chart (sun path diagram) control
• Orientation for sun • Introduction to climate change, principle causes and
effects- methods of mitigating climate change.
• Internal and external sun protection devices
Climate Classification:
o The Köppen climate classification is one of the most widely used climate
classification systems.
o Itwas first published by German-Russian climatologist Wladimir Köppen
(1846–1940) in 1884, with several later modifications by Köppen, notably in
1918 and 1936.
o Later,German climatologist Rudolf Geiger (1894–1981) introduced some
changes to the classification system, which is thus sometimes called the
“Köppen–Geiger climate classification”.
Climate Classification:
o TheKöppen climate classification divides climates into five main climate groups,
with each group being divided based on seasonal precipitation and temperature
patterns.
o The five main groups are-
1. A (tropical)
2. B (arid)
3. C (temperate)
4. D (continental)
5. E (polar)
o Köppen designed the system based on his experience as a botanist, his
main climate groups are based on what types of vegetation grow in a given
climate classification region.
Climate Classification:
1st 2nd 3rd
f (Rainforest)
m (Monsoon)
A (Tropical)
w (Savanna, dry winter)
s (Savanna, dry summer)
W (Arid Desert) h (Hot)
B (Dry)
S (Semi-Arid or steppe) k (Cold)
w (Dry winter) a (Hot summer)
C (Temperate) f (No dry season) b (Warm summer)
s (Dry summer) c (Cold summer)
a (Hot summer)
w (Dry winter)
b (Warm summer)
D (Continental) f (No dry season)
c (Cold summer)
s (Dry summer)
d (Very cold winter)
T (Tundra)
E (Polar)
F (Ice cap)
 Climate of India:
Climate type Region Annual rainfall

Amw
(Monsoon type with short Western coastal region, south of Mumbai over 300 cm
dry winter season)

As 75 – 100 cm
Coromandel coast = Coastal Tamil Nadu and adjoining areas of Andhra
(Monsoon type with dry [wet winters, dry
Pradesh
season in high sun period) summers]

Aw Most parts of the peninsular plateau barring Coromandel and Malabar

75 cm
(Tropical Savanah type) coastal strips

BShw Some rain shadow areas of Western Ghats, large part of Rajasthan and
12 to 25 cm
(Semi-arid Steppe type) contiguous areas of Haryana and Gujarat
 Climate of India:
Climate type Region Annual rainfall

BWh Most of western Rajasthan less than 12 cm

(Hot desert type)

Cwg Most parts of the Ganga Plain, eastern Rajasthan, Assam and in 100 – 200 cm
(Monsoon type with dry winters) Malwa Plateau

Dfc Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and parts of Assam ~200 cm

(Cold, Humid winters type with
shorter summer)

Et Mountain areas of Uttarakhand Rainfall varies from

(Tundra Type) The average temperature varies from 0 to 10°C year to year.

E Higher areas of Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh in which Precipitation occurs in
(Polar Type) the temperature of the warmest month varies from 0° to 10°C the form of snow
Climate Zones in India:
o India possesses a large variety of climates o The criteria of allocating any location in
ranging from extremely hot desert regions India to one of the first five climate zones
to high altitude locations with severely are that the defined conditions prevail for
cold conditions similar to northern more than six months.
Europe.
o In cases where none of these categories
o Within India it is possible to define six can be identified for six months or longer,
regions with distinct climates. The six the climatic zone is called Composite.
climates are normally designated as
1. Hot and Dry, o On this basis, Bansal and Minke, 1988,
originally produced the Climatic Zones in
2. Warm and Humid, India Map by evaluation of the mean
3. Moderate, monthly data from 233 weather stations,
4. Cold and Sunny, and then delineating the six climatic
zones.
5. Cold and Cloudy and
6. Composite.
 Man and Comfort

Ar. Sahil Pahal

(Lecturer, Dept. of Architecture, Govt. Polytechnic, Sector-26, Panchkula)
 Syllabus
UNIT I General Introduction • Natural lighting
• Introduction to Climatology • Introduction and objectives of Solar Passive Design
• Movement of earth around sun. • Passive solar heating and cooling
• Different elements of climate like: Wind, temperature, UNIT IV Wind control
humidity, precipitation and pressure. • Orientation with respect to wind
• Different climatic zones • Wind protection devices Use of building materials with
• Orientation of building with respect to above mentioned respect to climate
elements of climate • Concrete; Brick; Glass; Plastics; Stone; Insulating
• Effect of climate on man and shelter. material
UNIT II Relation of Climate and comfort UNIT V Environment and Ecology
• Macro-micro climatic effects • Basic elements of ecology
• Concept of comfort zone and bio-climatic chart • Concepts of natural cycles in Eco-system
• Climatic evaluation by season • Source of noise and air pollution, their effects and
UNIT III Sun Control and shading devices (without controls
calculations) • Use of landscape elements for micro and macro climate
• Solar Chart (sun path diagram) control
• Orientation for sun • Introduction to climate change, principle causes and
effects- methods of mitigating climate change.
• Internal and external sun protection devices
Contents:
• Heat Transfer • Relative Humidity
• Metabolic Rate
• Human Comfort
• Clothing
• Thermal Comfort
• Comfort Chart
• Factors affecting Thermal
Comfort • Victor Olgay’s Bioclimatic
• Air Temperature Chart
• Mean Radiant Temperature • Other Factors
• Air Velocity
Heat Transfer:

• Conduction: Transfer of Heat from

object to another by method of direct
contact.
• Convection: Transfer of heat through a
fluid (liquid or gas) caused by molecular
motion.
• Radiation: Energy that is radiated or
transmitted in the form of
electromagnetic waves.
Human Comfort:
o Comfort is best defined as the absence of discomfort.

o People
feel uncomfortable when they are too hot or too cold, or when the air is
odorous and stale.
o Positive
comfort conditions are those that do not distract by causing unpleasant
sensations of temperature, air drafts, humidity, or other aspects of the
environment.
o Ideally, in a properly conditioned space, people should not be aware of equipment
noise, heat, or air motion.
o The feeling of comfort—or, more accurately, discomfort—is based on a network of
sense organs: the eyes, ears, nose, tactile sensors, heat sensors, and brain.
What is Thermal Comfort?
o According to ASHRAE “thermal comfort is that condition of mind, which expresses
satisfaction with the thermal environment i.e. the condition when someone is not
feeling either too hot or too cold.”
o Human body is a machine which consumes food i.e. calories intake to function or
perform any work.
o Thehuman body will release excess heat into the environment, so the body can
continue to operate.
o The heat transfer is proportional to temperature difference.
What is Thermal Comfort?

o Incold environments, the body loses more heat to the

environment and in hot environments the body does not
release enough heat. Both the hot and cold scenarios lead
to discomfort.
o The body is in a state of thermal equilibrium with its
environment when it loses heat at exactly the same rate as
it gains heat.
o Mathematically,the relationship between the body’s heat
production and all its other heat gains and losses is:
What is Thermal Comfort?

• M = metabolic rate
• E = rate of heat loss by evaporation, respiration, and
elimination
• R = radiation rate
• C = conduction and convection rate
• S = body heat storage rate
Factors affecting thermal comfort:
A. Personal Factors: • Environmental Factors:
B. Age.
C. Gender.
D. Level of health.
E. Acclimatisation.
F. Psychological state.
1. Air Temperature:
• It is the dry bulb temperature
• Its an important factor
• Low temperature makes people feel cold
• High temperature makes people feel hot
• Comfort can be achieved (between 16 -28 degree Celsius)
2. Mean Radiant Temperature
o Its radiation to and from an enclosed surface

o Measured with globe thermometer

o Calculated from globe temperature using

o Air temperature
o Velocity

o Comfort is achieved if
o Globe temperature is between (16 -28 degree Celsius)
o Difference between dry and mean radiant temperature is not less than 5 degree Celsius
3. Air velocity
o Air velocity helps on the body by
o Increasing heat loss during sweating
o Enhancing evaporation of sweat; causing cooling

o Velocity of up to 0.1 metre per second may lead to a feeling of stuffiness indoors

o Velocity of 0.1 to 1.0 m/s are comfortable indoors.

o Velocity above 1.0 m/s leads to discomfort.

o For Outdoors,
o wind speeds of up to 2. 0 m/s can help achieve comfort (when the humidity is high)
o Wind speeds of over 5. 0 m/s lead to considerable discomfort.
4. Relative Humidity
o When humidity is low
o The air is dry
o Sweating is more effective for body cooling

o When humidity is high

o The air is damp and clammy
o Sweating no longer cools the body effectively

o Thermal comfort is achieved between 20%-75% Relative Humidity

5. Metabolic rate
o Peoplehave different metabolic rates that can fluctuate due to activity level and
environmental conditions.
o The Activity represents the metabolic rate

o The higher the activity, the more heat is produced by the body

o Metabolic rate is measured in W/m² and its unit is Met.

o1met = 58.2 W/m², which is equal to the energy produced per unit surface area of
an average person seated at rest.
6. Clothing
o Clothing,through its insulation properties, is an important modifier of body heat
loss and comfort.
o Clothing
insulation can be described in terms of its clo value. The clo value is a
numerical representation of a clothing ensemble’s thermal resistance.
o The value of 1 clo = 0.155 m²°C/W.

oA heavy two-piece business suit and accessories have an insulation value of about
1 clo, while a pair of shorts is about 0.05 clo.
o A person without any clothes is said to be having 0 clo value.
The Comfort
Chart
Victor Olgay’s
Bio-climatic Chart
Other factors:
Indoor Air quality:
o Human comfort can also be affected by the quality of ventilation in a building.

o Ventilation is necessary in buildings to remove 'stale' air and replace it with 'fresh'
air, as well as to prevent overheating.
o We all breathe air to live and if it is polluted or carries airborne diseases we can fall
ill as a result.
o Airborne hazards such as carbon monoxide or longer-term indoor threats like
radon release are sometimes a problem but the toxic fine combustion particles
mainly from traffic emissions and some power stations are the major health risk to
the public at large.
Other factors:
Visual comfort
o Visual comfort is also an important factor that involves the provision of natural
light, external views, reduction of glare and so on.
Noise nuisance
o Comfort can also be negatively influenced by the amount and type of noise in a
building.
o Noisenuisance is excessive noise or disturbance that may have a negative effect
on health or the quality of life, e.g. being able to hear the occupants of a
neighbouring house through the walls.
Other factors:
Ergonomics
o Ergonomics is particularly related to the design of workplaces, products and
systems to best fit those who use them.
o The aim of effective ergonomics is to apply learnings about human abilities and
limitations to improve interaction with environment and products, and prevent or
limit the risk of illness or injury.
 Macro and Micro Climate

Ar. Sahil Pahal

(Lecturer, Dept. of Architecture, Govt. Polytechnic, Sector-26, Panchkula)
 Syllabus
UNIT I General Introduction • Natural lighting
• Introduction to Climatology • Introduction and objectives of Solar Passive Design
• Movement of earth around sun. • Passive solar heating and cooling
• Different elements of climate like: Wind, temperature, UNIT IV Wind control
humidity, precipitation and pressure. • Orientation with respect to wind
• Different climatic zones • Wind protection devices Use of building materials with
• Orientation of building with respect to above mentioned respect to climate
elements of climate • Concrete; Brick; Glass; Plastics; Stone; Insulating
• Effect of climate on man and shelter. material
UNIT II Relation of Climate and comfort UNIT V Environment and Ecology
• Macro-micro climatic effects • Basic elements of ecology
• Concept of comfort zone and bio-climatic chart • Concepts of natural cycles in Eco-system
• Climatic evaluation by season • Source of noise and air pollution, their effects and
UNIT III Sun Control and shading devices (without controls
calculations) • Use of landscape elements for micro and macro climate
• Solar Chart (sun path diagram) control
• Orientation for sun • Introduction to climate change, principle causes and
effects- methods of mitigating climate change.
• Internal and external sun protection devices
Contents:
• Macro Climate • Importance of Micro-
• Factors Influencing Macro Climate in Architecture
Climate
• Importance of Macro-
Climate in Architecture
• Micro Climate
• Factors Influencing Micro
Climate
Macro Climate:
• Macro climate refers to the broader climate patterns of a large geographic
region, like a city, country, or continent.
• It involves long-term weather patterns, including average temperatures,
precipitation, and seasonal variations.
Factors Influencing Macro Climate:
• Latitude: Distance from the equator affects the amount of sunlight a
region receives, leading to temperature variations.
• Ocean Currents: Oceans moderate climate by absorbing and releasing
heat. Regions near coastlines are influenced by ocean currents.
• Wind Patterns: Global wind patterns, like the trade winds and westerlies,
distribute heat and moisture across the planet, affecting climate.
Importance of Macro-Climate in
Architecture:
• Regional Planning: Architects need to understand the macro climate of a
region to plan cities and towns effectively. This knowledge helps in
designing infrastructure that can withstand the typical weather conditions
of the area.
• Energy Efficiency: Knowledge of macro climate guides architects in
designing energy-efficient buildings. For instance, in colder regions,
designs might focus on maximizing sunlight exposure for natural heating.
• Sustainable Architecture: Understanding macro climates is crucial for
sustainable architecture. Architects can implement passive design
strategies based on regional climate patterns to reduce energy
consumption.
Micro Climate:
• Microclimate refers to the climate of a small, localized area,
such as a garden, park, building, or street.
• It
focuses on the atmospheric conditions within a specific space,
considering factors like temperature, humidity, wind patterns,
and sunlight exposure.
Factors Influencing Micro Climate:
• Topography: Elevation and slope of the land affect sun exposure and wind
patterns.
• Vegetation: Trees and plants influence humidity, provide shade, and
impact local wind patterns.
• Built Environment: Buildings, roads, and other structures can create micro
climates by blocking wind or reflecting sunlight.
Importance of Micro-Climate in
Architecture:
• Site Analysis: Architects analyze micro climates to understand how
specific locations are affected by environmental factors. This knowledge
helps in optimal site selection for buildings.
• Design Considerations: Different micro climates require unique design
considerations. For instance, buildings in urban areas might face heat
island effects, whereas coastal areas might have high humidity and salt
exposure.
• User Comfort: Architects use micro climate data to design spaces that
provide comfort to occupants. Proper ventilation, shading, and insulation
techniques are employed based on micro climate analysis.