CHAPTER 1.

Laser
Laser: spontaneous emission and stimulated emission; metastable state, population inversion,
types of pumping, resonant cavity, Einsteins's equations; Helium Neon laser; Nd:YAG laser;
Semiconductor laser, Applications of laser- Holography

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO LASER

Laser is the device that produces monochromatic, coherent, and highly directional light.
Laser is an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. Hence, the
process of stimulated emission causes amplification or increases the intensity of light.
Invention of laser has the background of the work published by Max Planck in 1900 that light
is a form of electromagnetic radiation, the theory considered as the mark of modern physics.
The principle of laser was first known in 1917, when physicist Albert Einstein in 1917,in the
course of calculations on the equilibrium of a gas, discovered that there must be spontaneous
and stimulated types of emission. Applying the idea of amplification by means of stimulated
emission, in 1953 Charles Townes and his collaborators at Columbia University constructed a
device and christened it MASER', an acronym for microwave amplification by stimulated
emission of radiation. This device soon found application in microwave communication
system.
Schawlow and Townes in 1958 suggested that the principle of the maser can be extended to
the optical regime. In 1960 the American physicist, Theodore Maiman invented the first laser,
a solid state laser, using a lasing medium of ruby. Later in 1960 the Iranian physicist, Ali
Javan constructed first gas laser using helium and neon.
In 1962 Robert Hall demonstrated first semiconductor diode laser. Indian electrical engineer
Kumar Patel invented CO, laser in 1964 at Bell laboratory. In 1994, Markos and his
coworkers at Bell laboratory developed Nd-YAG laser. A few other laser devices are dye
lasers, liquid lasers, chemical lasers, photonic crystal lasers etc. Photonic crystal lasers are
based on nano-structures that provide the mode confinement.
RecallBohr's model of an atom. According to Bohr's third postulate if an atom at higher
energy state makes a transition to lower energy state it emits a photon of energy h9 equal to
the energy difference between the two states.
In the process of emission of light from conventional sources some of the atoms may
spontaneously move from say Es to E, state, or Es to Es, or Es to E, while others may undergo
2| Applied Physics
transition from Eato any lower state and so on. As a result the emitted
energies or wavelengths. Such aradiation is non- monochromatic as
shownphotoinnsFighave.

Fig: 1.1 Non-monochromatic light

Further, even if allthe atoms spontaneously undergo transition say E, to
for all the atoms to jump down at the same time. Thus though the E, it is not
monochromatic it is not in the same phase. It is incoherent radiation as shownradiaintionFig,emipotesadb
(12),
Fig: 1.2 Incoherent light
Also, since photons are emitted in all directions the radiation is not
radiation from the ordinary source is therefore as shown in Fig.(1.3). unidirectional.
Ordinary light
Source

Fig: 1.3 Light emitted by ordinary sourceb

On the other hand, the wavelength (colour) of laser light is extremely pure
(monochromatic)
compared to other sources of light. Also, all the photons (energy) that make up the laser beam
maintain fixed phase relationship (coherence) with respect to one another.
Light produced by a laser can travel over a long distance with a very little divergence. It is
highly directional and can be focused to a very small spot which is very bright. Thus the
intense, monochromatic, coherent, and collimated beam of light finds a variety of exciting
applications in various fields.

- ’Collimated
Coherent in phase
Fig: 1.4 Light emitted by LASER source

The lasers emit radiation of wavelengths ranging from the microwave region and infrared 0
visible, ultraviolate, to the soft X-ray spectral region. They produce power that ranges tnu
 Laser 3

nanowatts to billion trillion watts (10 W) for very short bursts. They produce the burst of
light of very short duration of five million- billionths of a second (5 X 10 sec).
1.2 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ORDINARY LIGHT AND LASER LIGHT
Characteristics
Ordinary Light LASER
Coherence Incoherent source of light. Highly coherent (maintains fixed phase
relationship).
Wavelength Polychromatic source of light.Monochromatic source of light.
Direction of travelRadiation is not unidirectional.Unidirectional light.
Polarization Light is not polarized. Highly polarized (direction of oscillating
electric field perpendicular to direction of
travel).
Intensity Has comparatively less It is a highly intense beam.
intensity than laser.
1.3 QUANTUM PROCESSES
The lasers use very specific materials to produce their beams and the radiation emitted is
often very pure and of a very specific wavelength. Lasers operate on the principle of quantum
theory of radiation. In order to understand how a laser works it is imperative to recount the
quantum process that occurs in the material when radiation is incident on it. For sake of
explanation let us restrict initially only to two energy states of the atom. Let E, be the ground
state and E, the excited state.
(a) Photon absorption (Stimulated absorption): If an atom is in the lowest possible energy
state i.e. ground state E, it will absorb aphoton of energyhd = E, -E, from the incident
radiation and raises itself to the excited state E, This is known as stimulated absorption
or simply absorption as shown in Fig. 1.5.
E,

E
Fig: 1.5 Schematic diagram of atomic absorption
Symbolically, atom + photon ’ atom" (1.1)
(b) Spontaneous emission: The inherent tendency of an atom is to be in the lowest possible
state i.eground state. Therefore an atom in the higher energy (excited) state Ez seeks to
attain ground state E,by emitting aphoton of energy ho = E; E, on its own without
any extermal influence. This process of de-excitation is termed as spontaneous emission
as shown in Fig. 1.6.
4 | Applied Physics
E,

E spontaneous emission
Fig: 1.6Schematic diagram of atomic
Symbolically, atom' ’ atom + photon
excited state
(C) Stimulated emission: Before an atom in the undergoes
state to thespotnwtaontlev
emission, ifa photon having energy equal tothe energy difference
its excited between
interacts with it and induces it to make transition from
with emission of a photon, then that process of de-excitation is called
which gives two photons, one is the incident photon and second one is
downward transition. These two photons are identical with respect to
stimulemiategrtdoeunddemdheisir
(or frequency), phase, state of polarization and
eneerThusgy,
direction of propagation. wavelen
radiation is amplified, unidirectional, coherent, narrow and monochromatic. the emit
working principle of aLaser. Aschematic representation of it is shown in Fig. 1Thi7s is
E,
hu hu

E
Fig: 1.7 Schematic diagram of atomic stimulated emission
Symbolically, atom" + photon ’ atom + 2 photon (13)
1.4 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SPONTANEOUS AND STIMULATED EMISSION
Spontaneous Emission Stimulated Emission
An excited molecular state relaxes to lower An excited molecular state relaxes to loy
energy state naturally. energy state when stimulated by another photor
It is an arbitrary process and cannot be It is not an
controlled from outside.
arbitrary process and can
controlled from outside.
Metastable state and population inversion are Metastable state and population inversion
not required for spontaneous emission to occur. essential for simulated emission to occur.
Photons are emitted in all directions making the Photons emitted have the same direction as tt
light non-directional. of stimulating photon and hence light produc
is directional.
Photons emitted are of different frequencies and Difference in the
hence light is not monochromatic. frequency of the emit
photons are very small making the light alm
monochromatic.
Emitted photons do not have a phase relationship All
with each other. Thus the ight produced is other.emitted Thus
photons are in phase witn
the
incoherent.
light produced is coheren.
Amplification of light does not occur due to Light amplification occurs due to multiplicat
multiplication of photons. of photons.
 Laser 5

1.5 EINSTEIN'S EQUATIONS

Laser beam is obtained only if the rate of stimulated emission exceeds the rate of spontaneous
emission. The rate of absorption of incident photons depends on the number of atoms in the
ground state and the energy density of incident photons. Mathematically it can be given by,
Tabsorption = B2Q
N, g (1.4)
where B12 is the proportionality constant called Einstein's coefficient, N, the number of
atoms at the ground state, and Qthe energy density (i.e. the number of photons that have
exact energy h required for transition from E, to E,).
The rate of stimulated emission depends on the number of atoms at the upper state and can be
given by
Tstimulated = B,1 N, Q s (1.5)
where B21 is the Einstein's coefficient, N, the number of atoms at the upper energy state,
and Qthe energy density (i.e. the number of photons that have exact energy hô = Ez -E1).
Since spontaneous emission is a natural process the rate of spontaneous emission is
independent of the incident energy density but depends only on the number of atoms at the
upper state. Thus

Tspontaneous = A21 N, (1.6)

where As1 is the Binstein's coefficient, and N, the number of atoms at upper state
available to emit photons. The processes are schematically shown in Fig. 1.8.
N

BN,QB,N,Q AN,

N
Fig. 1.8: Spontaneous and Stimulated Processes in a Two Level System

1.6 COHERENCE LENGTH AND COHERENCE TIME:

Coherence refers to the extent to which electromagnetic radiation retains a closely consistent
phase connection, covering both temporal and spatial dimensions. The time for which
coherence remains intact is referred to as coherence time. And the length that a signal could
travel through a vacuum within this timeframe is denoted as the coherence length.
For example, in the case of light-emiting diodes, the coherence time typically falls within
half apicosecond, while the associated coherence length is approximately 15 microns.
Conversely, a basic laser might exhibit a coherence time of roughly half a nanosecond,
accompanied by a coherence length of around 15 centimeters.
6| Applied Physics
coherence time
laser with a narrowlinewidth, the
potentially stretch up to
could extend
In the case of a high-quality coherence length could
to about a microsecond,
while the 200
meters.
linewidth) and the coherence length. as
variation (referred to as well as
The range of signal
coherence time, are inversely proportional.
Length coherence = CX
Timeçoherence = (1.7)
Lcoh = c X Tcoh (1.8)

center wavelength
Where A is the linewidth and is the
Lcoh is Coherence Length
Tcoh is Coherence Time
c is Speed of Light
1.6.1 CoOHERENCE LENGTH
which a wave maintains a consistent
Coherence length is a measure of the distance over
over which a wave retains its
phase relationship. In other words, it is the distance
interference occurs. In
characteristic waveform before significant phase changes or wave
of light sources, such
optics, coherence length is frequently used to describe the quality source are more
light waves from the
as lasers. A longer coherence length indicates that the
synchronized and maintain their phase relationship over a larger distance.
The coherence length (Loh) is related to the wavelength (2) and the degree of spectral
bandwidth (A2)of the wave by the formula:

Lcoh (1.8)

where asmaller spectralbandwidth or a longer wavelength results in a longer coherence

length. Coherence length is important in various applications, including
interferometry, holography, and optical communication systems.
1.6.2 CoHERENCE TIME
Coherence time is a measure of the time duration over which a wave maintains its coherence
or phase relationship. In quantum mechanics, coherence time is often associated with the
duration in which a quantum system can remain in a superposition of states before
decoherence sets in and the quantum properties are lost due to interactions with the
environment. Coherence time is acritical factor in quantum computing and quantum
 Laser | 7

information processing, where maintaining the delicate quantum states is essential for
performing complex computations.
The coherence time (Tcoh) can be related to the spectral linewidth (Av) of the wave by the
formula:

Tcoh (1.9)
Similar to coherence length, a smaller spectral linewidth leads to a longer coherence time.
Coherence time is a crucial parameter in fields such as quantum optics, nuclear magnetic
resonance (NMR)spectroscopy, and quantum cryptography.
1.7 METASTABLE STATE
An atom can stay in the excited state for a very short period of 10 second as shown in Fig.
1.9. After that they undergo transition to ground state naturally (spontaneously). The
spontaneously emitted photons have no preferred direction and they do not have phase
relations with each other. The light generated is therefore incoherent. (Repeated) It is not
however necessary that the atom is always de-excited to ground state. It can go to an
intermediate state, called metastable state with non-radiatiative transition, where it stays for a
much longer period than in the upper (excited) level and then come down to the ground state.
Since the atoms can reside in the metastable state for longer time (about 10 to 10 second)
they accumulate in this state and their de-excitation to ground state gives out coherent
radiation. In fact the metastable state is necessary for lasing action.
E, Excited state
Rapid decay
Pumping E,OOto " " Meta-stable state
w Laser light
E_ Ground state
Fig. 1.9: Metastable state for Laser action
1.8POPULATION INVERSION
Usually the number of atoms in the ground state is more than that in higher states. Boltzmann
principle, which is the fundamental law of thermodynamics, states that at thermal equilibrium
the relative population between any two energy levels is given by,
N2
NË
= exp(-E-Ea
kT (1.10)
where, NË and N, are the populations of the lower and upper energy states respectively, Tthe
equilibrium temperature, and k the Boltzmann constant. Since E- Ej= h9, Eqn. (1.11) can
be written as

Ne=
N
exp( (1.11)
8| Applied Physics
occur there must be more number of atoms in the metastable
(upper
But for lasing
stimulated state. Ifto Ejis the ground state and E; represents metastable state then
level)emission
state should be far greater than
always the number of atoms N, in the mctastable
lasing level).
number of
atoms N, in the ground state (lower essential for lasing.
called population inversion is
Thus the condition N, > N,
Amedium in which population inversion is achieved is called an active medium also called
laser is produced by providing energy to an active medium which i
gain medium.
asubstance A the light in the precise wavelength of the laser. The active medium
that produces
may be solid, liquid, or gas. The atoms in the active medium responsible for stimulated
active centers.
emission and light amplification are called
E;
E;

E, - E
(b) Population Inversion
(a) Normal Population
Fig, 1.10

1.9 PUMPING
the atoms in the ground state be
To achieve population inversion it is necessary that non-radiative transition to the
continuously transferred to excited state from where they make lower lasing level.
metastable state and then radiative transition from metastable to ground or
pumping. To raise
The mechanism of raising ground state atoms to upper states is known as
solid state lasers and dye
atoms from ground state to upper states input energy is required. In employed in gas
lasers optical pumping is used whereas electrical pumping method is
lasers and in semiconductor lasers.

1.9.1 PuUMPING SCHEME

(a) Two-level Pumping Scheme: Suppose there are only two levels, a ground state Ejand
the metastable state E1, Pumping raises the ground state atoms to this metastable state.
As the population inversion is attained the laser would lase and there would be more
atoms in the ground state. Thus to maintain population inversion atoms must be
energetically pumped to metastable state E, from the outside. Although the model of
two-level pumping is theoretically sufficient to explain properties of laser light,
actually building a laser with two energy level scheme becomes somewhat more
complicated.
(b) Three-level Pumping Scheme: In a three-level atom system the ground state atoms
are pumped to uppermost energy level E3 when light of energy h9 = Eg- E, is incident
on them. Level E3 is unstable. The excited atoms at this level make spontaneous
downward transition before 10" seconds either to the ground state E, or to an
intermediate state E, The spontaneous transition E3 ’ Eis more probable than E3
 Laser9

’E,. The transition Es ’ E, is non-optical and the energy difference E - E is

transferred to the lattice. The number of atoms in the temporary stable E, state
increases. When more than half of the ground state atoms gather at Es, a photon of
energy h = Ez- E, released in the spontaneous transition, which is a rare event,
causes stimulated emission.
Ey Excited state
Non-radiative transition
Meta-stable state
E,
Pumping
energy Stimulated emission
(Laser)
E. Ground state

Fig. 1.11 Three level pumping scheme

In three-level laser system, metastable state is the upper lasing level and ground state is
the lower lasing level. To pump more than half of the ground state atoms to the upper
lasing level (metastable state) a very high energy is required.
() Four-level Pumping Scheme: In four-level pumping scheme ground state E is not the
lower lasing level. Atoms are pumped from ground state to the uppermost level E
There is non- radiative rapid decay from E, to energy level E, which is the metastable
state.

The laser transition from metastable state terminates at an unstable intemediate state Ez
rather than at the ground state. The intermediate state decays non-radiatively very fast to the
ground state. Since population inversion is to be achieved between E, and E; a modest
amount of pumping is sufficient to populate the metastable state.
Excited state
E4 Non-radiative transition

E Meta-stable state (Upper lasing level)

Pumping
energy Stimulated emission
(Laser)
Ez Lower lasing level
Fast non-radiative transition
E Ground state
Fig. 1.12 Four Level Pumping Schemes
1.9.2 PUMPING TECHNIQUES
The most common methods of pumping are described below.
(a) Optical Pumping: This is the efficient method for solid state lasers as they have broad
absorption bands. This method uses photons to excite the atoms to the higher energy
state, generally, by means of flash lamp. The incident photons from the flash lamp are
used by the atoms of the laser medium to excite to the higher energy states to achieve
population inversion.
10 | Applied Physics

(b) Electrical Pumping: This type of pumping can be used in lasers where the
activity and electrical discharge do not interfere with cach other. It is mainly
gas laser, dye laser and semiconductor laser. In gas laser, high voltage ionizes
used \asing
Electrons in the discharge tube are accelerated by electric field which turnthe gas.
with the atoms, ions or molecules in the active medium and are excited collide to higher
energy states to achieve population inversion.
1.10 RESONANCE CAVITY

When population inversion is achieved between the upper lasing level and lower lasing level
most of the excited atoms emit photons but do not contribute to the overall output. F
amplification and subsequently giving out coherent highly directional intense light beam is
necessary.
An optical resonator known as Fabry-Perot resonator that consists of two mirrors facing each
other between which an active medium is placed provides positive feedback to the medium
and turns the system into a laser.
The mirors are perfectly parallel to each other and perpendicular to the axis of the active
medium. The miror at one end is made 100% reflecting while the other one is
semitransparent as shown in Fig. 1.13a.
Such an optical configuration of two plane parallel mirrors with a plane parallel slab of air
between them was invented and used by Marie Fabry and Jean Perot in their study of
interference effect produced by multiple reflections.
Incident Radiation

100% reflecting Partially reflecting

miTOr Active medium mirror

Fig. 1.13(a)
Working of optical cavity
(a) Radiation is incident on the active medium and raises it to excited state.

Optical pumping

Fig. 1.13(b)
(b) Excited atoms emit photons in all directions.
 Laser | 11

Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission

Fig: 1.13 (c)
(c) The off-axis photons are undesirable pass out from the sides of the resonator and are
lost. Those are emitted parallel to the axis and reach highly reflecting mirror, bounce
back into the medium whereas some of the photons moving towards semitransparent
miror pass out and rest of them reflect back into the medium. Each of the axial
photons in its back and forth journey triggers one excited atom to undergo stimulated
emission.

Each stimulated transition gives out two photons. The process continues and number of
photons double at each step. As a result number of photons having same frequency,
phase, and the direction goes on increasing enormously. In fact the resonance cavity
acts as an oscillator by returning some of the photons back into medium where all the
photons are in the same phase. Thus the light wave of large amplitude is built up
between the mirrors.

N
Feedback

Fig. 1.13(d)
(d) Finally when the beam of sufficient strength is built it burst out of the semitransparent
mirror.

Amplifiçation

Fig. 1.13 (e)

1.11 CHARACTERISTICSOF LASER
The most salient features of a laser beam are:
(a) Directionality: Radiation from a laser source travels in a single direction only with
minimal divergence. Owing to this, it can be transmitted over long distance. As the
active medium is placed in a resonant cavity its gets reflected back and forth inside the
cavity. The light that travels parallel to the axis only is emitted as laser beam and rest
of the light is eliminated.
12 | Applied Physics

(b) Intensity: Alaser beam is highlyintense compared to ordinary light.

light into anarrow beam and its power is concentrated in asmall region of Laserspaceradiates
to its very less divergence. Whereas, the intensity from an ordinary
decreases with increase in distance as it spreads out. It is noted that aSource of
laser of 11 watt
owliingght
appears more intense than ordinary lamp of~100 watt.
(c) Monochromaticity: When alight source produces asingle wavelength it is said
monochromatic. In reality this is not possible. Thus a light source is to be
by a single wavelength but by spread in wavelength about the central
wavelength spreads over a range of -100Ã to 1000¢ for ordinary light,
charact
waveleengtrizedh. notThe
laser it is less than 10¢. whereas for
(d) Coherence: It is the most prominent feature which distinguishes laser
light. Laser has long (several kilometers) trains of wave characterized byfrom
highordi
dy nary
of space and time coherence. Two waves are said to be coherent if they have zero
constant phase difference between them. It is feasible to obtain interference nat
from two independent laser sources which is impossible in case of ordinary light. As an
ordinary light source is a jumble of short wave trains that reinforce in arandom
manneri
resulting in an incoherent source of light. Coherence length for a sodium lamn
~0.3mm whereas for He-Ne laser it is ~100m.
1.12 HELIUM-NEON LASER
He-Ne laser is a gas laser. It gives continuous wave output. It works on a four level pumpine
scheme. It was constructed by Ai Javan and his colleagues in 1960 at Bell Telephone
Laboratories.
Construction
A mixture of helium and neon in the ratio 10:1 at a low pressure about 1torr
(equivalent to
Imm of mercury) is placed in a quartz tube about 100 cm long and 1.5 cm internal diameter
as shown in Fig. 1.14.
Brewster's
window
Cathode

Helium- Neon mixture(10:1)

100% reflecting Brewster's
mirror
window reflecting mirror
Fig. 1.14 Helium Neon Laser Tube
To prevent the loss of the beam Brewster-angle windows are attached to each end of the
discharge tube. When Brewster-angle windows are used, the beam is automatically polarized
in a single transverse direction.
According to Brewster's law, if an unpolarized beam is incident at an angle,
e= , = tan-1(2) then the reflected beam will be plane polarized. Here , is known as
polarizing angle or Brewster's angle, n, the refractive index of air (or gas) and n, the
refractive index of window glass.
 Laser 13

Ahigh voltage power supply provides current to the system. Two concave mirrors facing
each other one finely reflecting and the other semitransparent are fixed at two ends on the
axis of the tube forms a Fabry-Perot resonator.
Working

In He-Ne laser, neon atoms are the active centers. Helium atoms help neon atoms gain
sufficient energy and raise them to the higher energy states.
When an electric discharge is passed through the gas the electrons collide with helium and
neon atoms. Helum atoms are lighter and therefore get excited from its ground state F,to
higher energy state Fi. The F; state is metastalble and its energy is 20.61 eV.
Further the transition F’ F; is not allowed. The helium atoms in F; state collide with
ground state neon atoms. Helium atoms return to ground state by imparting their energy
20.61 eV to neon atoms so that neon atoms are raised to higher energy state E4.

Also, the kinetic energy with which helium atoms collide with neon atoms provides
additional 0.05 eV energy to the neon atoms. This way the neon atoms which are the active
centers are pumped to E4 state which is metastable. The energy of E4 state is thus 20.66 eV.
Population inversion is achieved between upper lasing level E4 and lower lasing level E3.
Lasing takes place in a transition E,’ E3. The wavelength of emitted photon is 6328 A. The
Fabry-Perot resonator builds a highly coherent, directional and intense laser beam.
The transition fromn E; to Ez is spontaneous one and yields only incoherent light. The atoms
in the E2 state come to the ground state E, by losing their energy in collision with the tube
walls. Since the excitation of helium and neon atoms due to electron impacts takes place
incessantly, a He-Ne laser operates continuously and hence emits continuous wave.
Energy Level Diagram
Energy transfer through
inelastic atomic collision E
F 20.66 eV
Lesser transition (6328 A)
20.61 eV
Metastable state Metastable state
18.70 eV -E,
Spontaneous emission
-E,
Electron
impact
Radiationless
transition

Ground Ground
state state I-E,
Helium Neon
atom atom

Fig:1.15 Energy Level Diagram of Helium Neon Laser

14 | Applied Physies
The most often used laser transition in neon is red color laser
casiest wavelength to produce since it has the highest gain. The other operating
at 6328
visible
can be produced are green laser (5435 A), yellow laser (5940 A),
Inthe near intrared there are transitions in the 11500 A(1.15um), annd
33900 A(3.39 um).
orange laser
15230 wA(1a.5ve2l3ngt(h61a729
Advantages: It emits more directional and more monochromatic
wave laser. It can operate continuously without the need for cooling.light. It is aa
Disadvantage: It has asmalloutput. continug,
Applications: It is usedto read bar codes, in scanners and printers and i
in
1.13 APPLICATIONS OF LASER
Laser finds applications in the field of scientific research,
holography,
communication, medicine, entertainment, etc. military operations. ind
1. The initial famous application of laser was made on
the lunar
Apollo II Mission of 1969, when an array of retro reflectors was ranging experiment
mounted on
of the moon and pulses from a ruby laser were sent
from the earth. The the suhrtacg
reflected
were received by suitable detectors and by measuring the time
going from the earth to the moon and taken by the pulses :
back, the distance of the moon from the earth
calculated to an accuracy of 15 cm.
2. In military operations the laser range
finders which work on the principle of a radar lse
neodymium and carbon dioxide lasers have become a standard item to know te
distance of the enemy tank and other targets.
3. In naval applications, instead of
ultrasonic waves
underwater transmission. For efficient ranging and lasers are used as source of
detection frequency doubled
Nd:YAG laser or an argon gas laser or a Raman shifted xenon chloride laser is used.
4. A missile can be guided and controlled by an
infrared beam emitted from a laser.
5. Pulsed carbon dioxide, Nd:YAG or alexandraite laser is used
for laser drilling.
6. Micromachining of circuit boards and semiconductor chips containing memory and
logic circuits makes use of laser.
7. Continuous wave lasers are used for cutting materials like metallic foils, ceramics,
graphite, sapphire and diamond.
8. Laser beam is used in optical fiber
communication.
9. Lasers are used in eye surgery and cancer
treatment.
Above are only few applications of laser beam but in reality lasers are used in many
scientific and engineering applications. other
1.14 LIDAR (LIGHT DETECTION AND RANGING)
LiDAR is acronym for Light Detection and Ranging. It is a remote sensing technology that
uses laser light to measure distances and create detailed three-dimensional maps of
surfaces.
The system works by emitting laser pulses toward a target, which then reflect back to the
sensor. By measuring the time it takes for the pulses to return (time-of-flight), the system
 Laser 15

calculates the distance to the target. These measurements, combined with precise GPS and
arientation data, form a dense point cloud of 3D coordinates.
The Distance of the object = Speed of Light x Time of Flight
2
ALiDAR system consists of a laser source, scanner and optics, a photodetector, a GPS
receiver, an IMU (Inertial Measurement Unit), and a computer system for data processing.
Aero planes and helicopters are the most popular platforns for collecting LiDAR data
overlarge areas. There are two types of LiDAR: topographic and bathymetric. Topographic
LiDAR typically uses a near-infrared laser to map the land, while bathymetric LiDAR uses
water-penetrating green light to measure the elevation of the seafloor and riverbed. Its
advantages include high accuracy, longer range, and better resolution, the ability to penetrate
vegetation, rapid data collection, and versatility in mounting on various platforms.
LiDAR technology is used to create detailed topographic maps in a variety of applications,
including mapping and surveying. Environmental monitoring, forestry, agriculture, urban
detection.
planning, archaeology, and obstacle
self-navigating vehicles for

Measuring Distance Using LiDAR

Source
Initial pulse

O Reflected pulse Object

Detector

Distance

Fig: 1.16Distance measurement by LiDAR

1.15 BARCODE

Abarcode is a unique pattern that can be read by machines to identify and track products,
items, orinformation. Invented by Bernard Silver and N. Joseph Woodland in the 1940s,
barcodes have revolutionized shopping, inventory management, and information access.
They're usedin various industries, including retail and healthcare, to streamline processes,
reduce errors, and increase efficiency. Commonly referred to as UPC, QR code, EAN, and
Data Matrix. These barcode commonly referred as,
a) 1-D (One-Dimensional) Barcodes: These barcodes consist of a single row of lines and
spaces that represent data. They are read from left to right and can store a limited amount
of information, typically up to 20 characters. Examples of 1D barcodes include:
16 | Applied Physics

-UPC (Universal Product Code)

-EAN(European Article Number)

-Code 128

-Code 39

One-Dimensional Barcodes

*340 0912345621 * ABCD1234

Dot Of Light

Digitized Signal
HH
b)2-D (Two-Dimensional) Barcodes: These barcodes use a matrix of squares or dots to
represent data. They can store much more information than lD barcodes, up to 7,089
characters, and can be read in multiple directions. Examples of 2D barcodes include:
- QR Code (Quick Response Code)o
Data Matrix

- PDF417

- Aztec Code

2D barcodes are often used for more complex applications, such as storing URLs, contact
information, or even small images.
 Laser | 17

Two-Dimensional Barcodes

1,15.1 BARCODE READER

Abarcode reader or barcode scanner is an optical scanner that can read printed
barcodes and send the data they contain to computer.
It consists of a light source, typically a laser or LED, to illuminate the barcode, and a
sensor to capture the reflected light. The reflected light is converted into an electrical
signal,which is then decoded into digital data. This data is transmitted to a computer
or system for processing.
Process of reading barcodes:
Barcode can be read by dragging the barcode tip across its bars. The light was absorbed by
the dark bars and the lights were reflected back by the white space. Laser scanners, pan
readers, camera-based readers, and CCD readers are the technology or process that helps in
the process of reading a barcode. It is also important to note that reading barcodes also faces
some challenges. They can be such as bleed in ink, colour contrast that is insufficient, peeling
of the barcode labels and many more.

Dot Of Light

Digitized Signal

TYPES OF BARCODE READERS:

I) Pen Scanners: Shaped like a pen, these devices are swiped across the barcode
to read the data.
2) Handheld Scanners: These are portable and manually operated devices,
commonly used in retailsettings for scanning product barcodes at checkout
counters.
I8Agplied Physics
3) Laser Scanners: can quickly scan barcodes from various distances
4) Mobile Computers: Portable devices with integrated barcode and anges
used in logistics and fieldwork for tracking inventory and sccanners, often
the go. managing assets On
5) 2D Scanners: These are capable of reading both 1D and 2D
QR codes. barcodes, Such as
6) Fixed-Mount Scanners: These stationary scanners are used in
environments like warehouses, where products or packages pass
Scanner.
high-vbyolmthee
T) CCD readers: Charge-coupled device (CCD) readers use an array of
of tiny light sensors lined up in arow in the head of the reader. Each hundreds
sensor
measures the intensity of the light immediately in front of it.

1.15.2 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN 1-D BARCODE AND 2-D QR CcoDE

S.No. 1-D Barcode 2-D QR code
It was introduced in the year
1 It was introduced in the year 1952. 1994.

2 Its developer is Norman Joseph Its developer is Masahiro

Woodland. Hara.
3 There are 2 types of Barcode, 1 There is only 1 type of QR
dimensional and 2 dimensional. Code.
It is a type of 2 dimensional
It isa way of storing numbers in a barcode or printed
4 printed format that is also computer representation of data that
understandable. can be scanned for data
retrieval.
It is used at stores for tracking all It is used in supermarkets,
purchased items, in hospitals for hospitals, and cinema or by
5 tracking the records of patients, in individuals etc. for transfer
rental cars business and tracking of of data (sharing contacts,
airline luggage, mails and nuclear photos, videos and other
waste.
documents.
6 The storage capacity is greater than The storage capacity is 2 kilo
100 bytes. bytes.
 Laser 19

1.16 APPLICATION OF LASER IN METAL WORK

Lasers are widely used in metalworking for their precision and efficiency. Key
applications include:

Laser Cutting: Laser cutting uses a high-power laser beam to precisely cut
metals such as steel, aluminum, and copper, resulting in less waste and clean
edges. It is extensively used in the automotive, aerospace, electronics, and
manufacturing industries to create parts and intricate designs.
Laser welding: Melts metal pieces together with a laser beam, resulting in
high speed, deep penetration, low heat impact, and the ability to weld
difficult-to-reach areas. It is used in the automotive, aerospace, medical
device, and electronics industries to produce strong, precise welds in materials
such as stainless steel, aluminum, and titanium.
Surface Treatment: The use of a laser beam to modify metal surfaces
improves hardness, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance. Laser
hardening, alloying, and texturing techniques are used on metals such as steel,
titanium, and aluminum. It is used in the automotive, tooling, and electronics
industries to improve component durability and performance.
Laser drilling: To create precise holes in metals, material is melted and
vaporized. It is known for its high precision, ability to create intricate holes,
and compatibility with metals such as stainless steel, titanium, and nickel
alloys. Common applications include aerospace (cooling holes in turbine
blades), electronics (microvans on circuit boards),and medical devices.
Laser additive manufacturing Laser 3D Printing: The process of layering
metal powder or wire with a laser to create precise, complex objects. It is
known for its high precision and low material waste when used with metals
such as titanium and stainless steel. It is used in aerospace for lightweight
structures, medical for customized implants, and automotive for rapid
prototyping and high-performance parts.
Laser Engravingand Marking: Using a focused laser beam, create detailed
designs or information on metal surfaces by removing material or changing
color. It has high precision, durability, and is applicable to metals such as
steel, aluminum, and titanium, as well as plastics and ceramics. Applications
include product branding, personalization, serial numbers, and decorative
markings in industries such as electronics, automotive, and consumer goods.
 Laser 19
1.16 APPLICATION OF LASER IN METAL WORK
Lasers are widely used in metalworking for their precision and efficiency. Key
applications include:
Laser Cutting: Laser cutting uses a high-power laser beam to precisely cut
metals such as
steel, aluminum, and copper, resulting in less waste and clean
edges. It is extensively used in the
automotive, aerospace, electronics, and
manufacturing
Laser industries to create parts and intricate
designs.
welding: Melts metal pieces together with a laser beam, resulting in
high speed, deep penetration, low heat impact, and the ability to weld
difficult-to-reach areas. It is used in the automotive, aerospace, medical
device, and electronics industries to produce strong,
such as stainless steel, aluminum, and titanium. precise welds in materials
Surface Treatment: The use of a laser beam to
improves hardness, wear resistance, and modify metal surtaces
corrosion
hardening, alloying, and texturing techniques are used on metals resistance. Laser
titanium, and aluminum. It is used in the such as steel,
automotive,
industries to improve component durability and tooling, and electronics
Laser driling: To create precise holes in performance.
vaporized. It is known for its high precision, metals, material is melted and
ability to create intricate holes,
and compatibility with metals such as
stainless
alloys. Common applications include aerospace steel, titanium, and nickel
blades), electronics (microvans on circuit boards), and(cooling holes in turbine
Laser additive manufacturing Laser 3D medical devices.
metal powder or wire with a laser to create Printing: The process of layering
known for its high precision and low materialprecise, complex objects. It is
such as titanium and stainless steel. It is used waste when used with metals
in
structures, medical for customized implants, andaerospace for lightweight
automotive for rapid
prototyping and high-performance parts.
Laser Engraving and Marking: Using a focused laser beam,
designs or information on metal surfaces by removing materialcreate detailed
color. It has high precision, durability, and is applicable to or changing
steel, aluminum, and titanium, as well as plastics and ceramics.metals such as
include product branding, personalization, serial numbers, andApplications
markings in industries such as electronics, automotive, and consumerdecorative
goods.
20 | Applied Physics

SoLVED PROBLEMS

from 0.4 x 10 Hz to 0.7 x 1015 Hz

1. White light has a frequency range
coherence time and coherence length for it.
Find the
Hz,v, = 0.7 x10Hz
Solution: Given: frequency v, =0.4 x 10>
where Av is the frequency bandwidth
1
Formula: Tcoh =
(Av)aies
First, let's calculate the frequency bandwidth
10* Hz-0.3 x1015Hz
Au = V -Vz = (0.7 - 0.4) >x
(ob)sb
Now, we can calculate the coherence time
1 1
-3.33 x 10sec
Tcoh Au 0.3 x1015
Next, to find the coherence length (L), we use the formula:
Lcoh =cX Tcoh
Lcoh =3x 108 x 3.33 x 1015 =0.001 km or 1mm
So, the coherence time for white light is approximately 3.33 x 10" seconds, and the
coherence length is approximately 1 millimeter.

2. If light of wavelength 6600 A has wave trains 20 long, what are its coherence
length and coherence time?
Solution: Given: =6600, N = 20wave trains, Lcoh =?, Tcoh =?,
N is the number of wave trains and is the wavelength
Formula: Lcoh= N X , Lcoh=cX Tooh
Now, we can calculate the coherence length (L):
Lcoh = N xA = 20 x 6600 x 10-7m = 1.32 x 10-Sm = 0.0132mm= 13.2um

Next, to find the coherence time (Tcoh) we use the formula:

Lcoh = CX Tcoh
Lcoh 1.32 x 10-5
Tcoh C 3 x 108 =4.4 x 10sece
So, the coherence length for the light is approximately 0.0132 millimeters, and
coherence time is approximately 4.4 x 1014sec
 Laser 21

1 Compute the coherence length of light with 6328 A in 10-9sec pulse duration.
Solution: Given: = 6328Å, Tooh =10-sec
Nis the number of wave trains and 2 is the wavelength
Eormula Lcoh = cX Troh = Nx
To find the coherence length, we need to first calculate the coherence time (Tcoh)
using the given pulse duration

Coherence length, Lcoh = CX Tcoh

Lcoh =3x 10 x10=0.3m
Now, we can also use the wavelength to calculate the coherence length
2=6328 =6328 x 100 m=6.328x 10 m
The coherence length can also be calculated as
Lcoh =c XTcoh =N×
Rearranging to solve for N, we get,
Lcoh = N ×1
Lcoh 0.3m
N = 6.328 x10-7474

So, the coherence length for the light is approximately 0.3 meters, which corresponds
to about 474 wavelengths.
4) A He-Ne laser, giving light at 6330 A has a coherence length of 20 km. Determine its
coherence time and the number of waves per wave train.
Solution: Given: Lcoh = 15 km=15000m 1= 6332¢,Tcoh =?
N is the number of wave trains and 2 is the wavelength
Formula Lcoh = c XTcoh N x
First, let's calculate the coherence time (t) using the formula:
Lcoh = CX Tcoh
Lcoh 15000m
Tcoh = =5x 10-5sec
C 3x 10®m/s
Next,to find the number of waves per wave train (N), we use the formula:
Lcoh = cX Troh=Nx
Lcoh = N x 1
 the And telu many
and for pulse?
seconds.emitted 1017photons
iD
How
the
is of
wavelength 4.5mm
wavelength photonsod: 3.147mW.=
t
million 10° length
pulse 10-19j osd 10-3
x =? x x
23 million.
laser
5approximately the
Lcoh
=
10-m the (E) x 5.29 pulse. ipower
s 3.147
pxt
=2.3
1010 a iswhat 0.15J,the is photon 2.83 constant
is,
10-11sec, is = each =
23 Ifnm. 2 × and
2 -|= 2.83x10-19 output 3.147mW photons
operation?
x approximately is and
(i) 4.5 nhc
trainssingle
Tcoh
0.15J pulsetrains
695.5 6.626x10-34x3x1080.15 in
photonsIts
planks =pxt
= is pulse?
1.5x pulse,CX =10-11 6.695x10-9 of =
x6.332laser wavelength
10-7 per wave wavea nm. p= =,h- numberEphton,
is = of of in
15000
He-Ne ench= released the Lcoh
pulse x energy number pulse 6328is 10-m, nhc
Tcoh of 1 1.5 of 10
photon it
when n
is
train perin number of number x is of aof
nm,
there N length x the per 5.29 laser EnergyEnergy
the of released energy = 108 =C
E the minute x632.8 E
phton,
calculate released
calculate one approximately
Lcoh forwavelight 695.5 Troh
the calculatex3 the
are He-Ne
time of photos,
N= per emits photons
energy = = is
cX = is Energy per = =? a
coherence Lcoh N of nm of
Physics waves
laser
E N =
Given:
Solution: Lcoh Let's Now, First, Next, Energy emitted
wavelength n Energy
632.8 of
60sec number
andmany
X10-11sec
of ruby N=
are are A=
Applied
thenumber how Formula there =
Solution: Formula
1minute the
So, A i) ii) ThephotonsGiven: is
() So,
|22 5. Ifn
6.
23
Laser
to
be
between the
10-23J|K, of Laser?
temperature width
transition source? laser?
approximately
0.238 of
x300o
694.8x10-9x1.38x10-23
=e spectral production inversion?
x laser
a
1.38 =?, of
60 theambient operation
pumping?
x k= this Lcoh
10-9108
if The
QUESTIONS the population
laser 300K, of mm
(nm). nm
length in
radiation. the
x x Assume
the 6.63x10-34x3x108 pumping of
632.8
3 a 0.5 0.238 in
10-31 play typesobtaining
× in 27'C= nanometers 4882nm
0.5nm is inversion.
Population
10-34 =
coherence source
x levels width) or
1017
X
n=6 TYPEof it different
10-3 x and
× nm. hc AKT =
Lcoh
nm emission does
6.63 energy = 8.874 (spectral laser ANSWERstate for
x T 238,144 role
wavelength
694.3 e 488 the the suitable
3.147 m. =
Lcoh the metastable
two = = is stimulated WhatGive
10- (E2-Ei)/kT N2 N, of What of
of 42
wavelength = length SHORT (ii) emission? not
is
Xt
pX x terms: LASER?
population 694.3 nm. nm, Lcoh and
hc N2 Tcoh and of
NË 0.5 488 coherence importance Absorption pumping
= CX following
spontaneous
light
of a be = in
stimulated
694.3nm withto = pumping
of 10-34Js level
ratio N2 N1 Given:Lcoh
measured
produces source the the the Induced
the = 6.63
x
h= millimeters.Explain Explain
Therefore, is is is two
Solution: Formula Formula:
Solution: What What What Why
Find C.270 Given: Laser
is (i)
them laser
7. 8 1. 2. 3. 4. 5, 6.
24 | Applied Physics

What is active material in He-Ne laser? How

population inversion is achieved in
7. a He.
Ne laser?
operation of a LASER?
8 What is the role of resonant cavity in the
9. Explain the role of Helium in the He-Ne Laser.
wavelength in visible ros
10. Draw the energy level diagram of He-Ne laser. What is its
engineering and scientific field.
11. Give the various uses of Lasers in medical,
applications.
12. Explain the significance of coherence length in laser
length?
13. How does the spectral width of alaser affect its coherence
laser soureo
14. Compare the coherence lengths ofa monochromatic and a broad-spectrum
15. Define coherence time and explain its relationship with laser pulse
duration.
a laser.
16. Explain the difference between coherence time and pulse duration in
17. What is the effect of increasing the wavelength of alaser on its coherence length?
18. Explain how the coherence time of alaser is related to its spectral bandwidth.
19. What is the effect of increasing the pulse duration of alaser on its coherence time?
20. How does the coherence time of a laser affect its ability to be used in optical
communication systems?
21. What is LiDAR technology, and how does it work?
22. What are two common applications of LiDAR technology, and how is it used in each?
23. What is the advantage of using LiDAR over traditional surveying methods like GPS and
leveling?
24. What is the primary function of a LiDAR sensor?
25. How does LiDAR measure distance to a target object?

DESCRIPTIVE ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Derive the formula for coherence length (Lcoh) in terms of wavelength (2) and
spectral width (A,), and explain the physical significance of cach term. (5 marks)
2. What does the word LASER stand for? Explain main three processes involved in the
production of LASER with appropriate figures.
3. With neat energy level diagram describe the construction and working of He-Ne Laser.
What are its merits and demerits?
4. Write a note on Barcode reader
5 Describe the principles of LiDAR technology, including the use of laser pulses to
measure distance
6
Compare and contrast 1D and 2D barcodes, including their applications, advantages,
and limitations.
7 Write a note on LiDAR.