IWPD(Internet and

Webpage Design)
By Atul Bhatt
 Network
• A computer network is a system in which multiple
computers are connected to each other to share
information and resources.
 Characteristics of a Computer Network
• Share resources from one computer to another.
• Create files and store them in one computer, access
those files from the other computer(s) connected over
the network.
• Connect a printer, scanner, or a fax machine to one
computer within the network and let other computers of
the network use the machines available over the
network.
 Internet
• It is a worldwide/global system of interconnected
computer networks. It uses the standard Internet
Protocol (TCP/IP). Every computer in Internet is
identified by a unique IP address. IP Address is a
unique set of numbers (such as 110.22.33.114) which
identifies a computer’s location.
 Intranet
• Intranet is the system in which multiple PCs are
connected to each other. PCs in intranet are not
available to the world outside the intranet. Usually
each organization has its own Intranet network and
members/employees of that organization can
access the computers in their intranet.
 Differences between Internet and Intranet
• Internet is general to PCs all over the world whereas
Intranet is specific to few PCs.
• Internet provides a wider and better access to websites to
a large population, whereas Intranet is restricted.
• Internet is not as safe as Intranet. Intranet can be safely
privatized as per the need.
Features Of Computer network
A list Of Computer network features is given
below.
• Communication speed
• File sharing
• Back up and Roll back is easy
• Software and Hardware sharing
• Security
 Communication speed

Network provides us to communicate over the network in a fast and efficient manner. For
example, we can do video conferencing, email messaging, etc. over the internet.
Therefore, the computer network is a great way to share our knowledge and ideas.

File sharing

File sharing is one of the major advantage of the computer network. Computer network
provides us to share the files with each other.

Back up and Roll back is easy

Since the files are stored in the main server which is centrally located. Therefore, it is easy
to take the back up from the main server.
 Software and Hardware sharing
We can install the applications on the main server, therefore, the user can
access the applications centrally. So, we do not need to install the software
on every machine. Similarly, hardware can also be shared.

Security
Network allows the security by ensuring that the user has the right to
access the certain files and applications.
 ARPANET
• Advanced Research Projects Agency
Network, ARPANET or ARPAnet began development
in 1966 by the United States ARPA. ARPANET was a Wide
Area Network linking many Universities and research
centers, was first to use packet switching, and was the
beginning of what we consider the Internet today. ARPANET
was created to make it easier for people to access
computers, improve computer equipment, and to have a
more effective communication method for the military.
 World Wide Web (WWW)

• The World Wide Web (WWW) is a network of online

content that is formatted in HTML and accessed via
HTTP. The term refers to all the interlinked HTML
pages that can be accessed over the Internet. The
World Wide Web was originally designed in 1991 by
Tim Berners-Lee .
 Netiquette
• Netiquette is short for "Internet etiquette." Just like
etiquette is a code of polite behavior in society,
netiquette is a code of good behavior on
the Internet. This includes several aspects of the
Internet, such as email, social media, online
chat, web forums, website comments, multiplayer
gaming, and other types of online communication.
• Avoid posting inflammatory or offensive comments online flaming.
• Respect others' privacy by not sharing personal information, photos, or
videos that another person may not want published online.
• Never spam others by sending large amounts of unsolicited email.
• Show good sportsmanship when playing online games, whether you win or
lose.
• Don't troll people in web forums or website comments by repeatedly
nagging or annoying them.
• Stick to the topic when posting in online forums or when commenting on
photos or videos, such as YouTube or Facebook comments.
• Don't swear or use offensive language.
• Avoid replying to negative comments with more negative comments.
Instead, break the cycle with a positive post.
• If someone asks a question and you know the answer, offer to help.
• Thank others who help you online.
 5 Positive Effects of the Internet

1. It is easier to do research

2. Communication with family, friends and relatives is faster

3. There is a great possibility to earn while working from home

4. Faster business transactions and cheaper products

5. Savings on travel cost

 Packet Switching
• Packet switching is a digital network transmission
process in which data is broken into suitably-sized
pieces or blocks for fast and efficient transfer via
different network devices. When a computer attempts
to send a file to another computer, the file is broken
into packets so that it can be sent across the network in
the most efficient way. These packets are then routed
by network devices to the destination.
•In connectionless packet switching, each packet has the
following information written in its header section:
•The destination address
•The source address
•Total number of pieces
•The sequence number (Seq#) needed to enable
reassembly
After reaching the destination through different routes, the
packets are rearranged to form the original message.
 Internet Protocol (IP)
• Internet Protocol (IP) is the principal set (or
communications protocol) of digital message formats
and rules for exchanging messages between
computers across a single network or a series of
interconnected networks, using the Internet Protocol
Suite (often referred to as TCP/IP). Messages are
exchanged as datagrams, also known as data packets
or just packets.
 Hub
• A Hub is a hardware device that divides the network
connection among multiple devices. When computer requests
for some information from a network, it first sends the request
to the Hub through cable. Hub will broadcast this request to
the entire network. All the devices will check whether the
request belongs to them or not. If not, the request will be
dropped.
• The process used by the Hub consumes more bandwidth and
limits the amount of communication. Nowadays, the use of
hub is obsolete, and it is replaced by more advanced computer
network components such as Switches, Routers.
 Switch
• A switch is a hardware device that connects multiple devices on a
computer network. A Switch contains more advanced features
than Hub. The Switch contains the updated table that decides
where the data is transmitted or not. Switch delivers the message
to the correct destination based on the physical address present in
the incoming message. (manageable switch)

• A Switch does not broadcast the message to the entire network

like the Hub. It determines the device to whom the message is to
be transmitted. Therefore, we can say that switch provides a direct
connection between the source and destination. It increases the
speed of the network.
 Router
• A router is a hardware device which is used to connect a LAN
with an internet connection. It is used to receive, analyze and
forward the incoming packets to another network.
• A router works in a Layer 3 (Network layer) of the OSI
Reference model.
• A router forwards the packet based on the information
available in the routing table.
• It determines the best path from the available paths for the
transmission of the packet.
What is HTML?
 HTML is the standard markup language for creating Web pages.
 HTML stands for Hyper Text Markup Language
 HTML describes the structure of a Web page
 HTML consists of a series of elements
 HTML elements tell the browser how to display the content
 HTML elements are represented by tags
 HTML tags label pieces of content such as "heading", "paragraph",
"table", and so on
 Browsers do not display the HTML tags, but use them to render
the content of the page
 Modem
• A modem is a hardware device that allows the computer to
connect to the internet over the existing telephone line.
• A modem is not integrated with the motherboard rather
than it is installed on the PCI slot found on the
motherboard.
• It stands for Modulator/Demodulator. It converts the digital
data into an analog signal over the telephone lines.
 Computer Network Types
A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that
enables the computer to communicate with another computer and share
their resources, data, and applications.

A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer

network is mainly of four types:

•LAN(Local Area Network)

•PAN(Personal Area Network)
•MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
•WAN(Wide Area Network)
 LAN(Local Area Network)
• Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to
each other in a small area such as building, office.
• LAN is used for connecting two or more personal
computers through a communication medium such as
twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
• The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local
Area Network.
• Local Area Network provides higher security.
LAN(Local Area Network)
 PAN(Personal Area Network)
• Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an
individual person, typically within a range of 10 meters.
• Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer
devices of personal use is known as Personal Area Network.
• Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
• Personal computer devices that are used to develop the
personal area network are the laptop, mobile phones, media
player and play stations.
PAN(Personal Area Network)
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
• A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a
larger geographic area by interconnecting a different LAN
to form a larger network.
• Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens
and private industries.
• In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through
a telephone exchange line.
• It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network
 Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:
• MAN is used in communication between the
banks in a city.
• It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
• It can be used in a college within a city.
• It can also be used for communication in the
military.
 WAN(Wide Area Network)
• A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large
geographical area such as states or countries.
• A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
• A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it
spans over a large geographical area through a telephone line,
fibre optic cable or satellite links.
• The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
• A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business,
government, and education.
 What is Topology?
• Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the
components are interconnected to each other. There are
two types of topology: physical and logical topology.
 Bus Topology

• The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected through
a single cable known as a backbone cable.
• Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly
connected to the backbone cable.
• When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message over the
network. All the stations available in the network will receive the message whether it
has been addressed or not.
Advantages of Bus topology:
•Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to
the cable without passing through a hub. Therefore, the initial cost of
installation is low.

Disadvantages of Bus topology:

•Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it
requires a lot of cabling.
 Ring Topology

•Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.

•The node that receives the message from the previous computer will
retransmit to the next node.
•The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
•The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless
loop.
•It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other
node and having no termination point.
•The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
Advantages of Ring topology:
•Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the
network without bringing the network down.
•Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network
operation and monitoring are available.
Disadvantages of Ring topology:
•Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to
determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it
would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
•Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the
overall network.
 Star Topology
•Star topology is an arrangement of the
network in which every node is
connected to the central hub, switch or
a central computer.

•The central computer is known as

a server, and the peripheral devices
attached to the server are known
as clients.
Advantages of Star topology
Network control: Complex network control features can be easily implemented in
the star topology. Any changes made in the star topology are automatically
accommodated.
Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its own cable,
therefore failure in one cable will not affect the entire network.

Disadvantages of Star topology

•A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down,
then all the connected nodes will not be able to communicate with each
other.
•Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant
amount of routing is required.
 Tree topology
•Tree topology combines the
characteristics of bus topology and
star topology.

•A tree topology is a type of

structure in which all the computers
are connected with each other in
hierarchical fashion.
•The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node,
and all other nodes are the descendants of the root node.

•There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data
transmission. Thus, it forms a parent-child hierarchy.
 Advantages of Tree topology
•Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing network.
Therefore, we can say that tree topology is easily expandable.

Disadvantages of Tree topology

•High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.

•Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in
main bus cable will damage the overall network.
 Mesh topology
•Mesh technology is an arrangement
of the network in which computers
are interconnected with each other
through various redundant
connections.
•There are multiple paths from one
computer to another computer.

•It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a
central point of communication.
•The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
•Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where
communication failures are a critical concern.
Advantages of Mesh topology:
Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link
breakdown will not affect the communication between connected
computers.
Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the
nodes.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

•Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such
as a router and more transmission media than other topologies.
•Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to
maintain and manage. If the network is not monitored carefully, then the
communication link failure goes undetected.
Hybrid Topology
• The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid
topology.

• A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to

transfer the data.

• When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed

as Hybrid topology and if similar topologies are connected with each
other will not result in Hybrid topology. For example, if there exist a ring
topology in one branch of ICICI bank and bus topology in another branch
of ICICI bank, connecting these two topologies will result in Hybrid
topology.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology

•Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the
functioning of the rest of the network.
•Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new
devices without affecting the functionality of the existing network.

Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

•Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the

design of the Hybrid network. It is very difficult to design the
architecture of the Hybrid network.
•Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive
as these hubs are different from usual Hubs used in other topologies.
 IP address
An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a logical numeric
address that is assigned to every single computer, printer,
switch, router or any other device that is part of a TCP/IP-based
network.
The IP address is the core component on which the networking
architecture is built; no network exists without it. An IP address
is a logical address that is used to uniquely identify every node
in the network. Because IP addresses are logical, they can
change. They are similar to addresses in a town or city because
the IP address gives the network node an address so that it can
communicate with other nodes or networks, just like mail is
sent to friends and relatives.
 • Addresses in IPv4 are 32-bits long. This allows for a maximum of
4,294,967,296 (232) unique addresses.

• Addresses in IPv6 are 128-bits, which allows for 3.4 x 1038 (2128) unique
addresses.

(MAC) Address
MAC Addresses are unique 48-bits hardware number of a computer, which is
embedded into network card (known as Network Interface Card) during the
time of manufacturing. MAC Address is also known as Physical Address of a
network device.
 OSI Model
• OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that
describes how information from a software application in one computer
moves through a physical medium to the software application in another
computer.
• OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network
function.
• OSI model was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an architectural
model for the inter-computer communications.
• OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable
tasks. Each layer is assigned a particular task.
• Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be
performed independently.
Characteristics of OSI Model:
•The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower
layers.
•The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application
related issues, and they are implemented only in the software. The
application layer is closest to the end user. Both the end user and
the application layer interact with the software applications. An
upper layer refers to the layer just above another layer.
•The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport
issues. The data link layer and the physical layer are implemented
in hardware and software. The physical layer is the lowest layer of
the OSI model and is closest to the physical medium. The physical
layer is mainly responsible for placing the information on the
physical medium.
Functions of the OSI Layers
 Physical layer
•The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits
from one node to another node.
•It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
•It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
•Physical Layer: This layer defines the hardware, cabling wiring, power
output, pulse rate etc.
Functions of a Physical layer :
•Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be
connected physically.

Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.

•Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the
information.
 Data-Link Layer
• This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data
frames.
• It defines the format of the data on the network.
• It provides a reliable and efficient communication
between two or more devices.
• It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of
each device that resides on a local network.
• It contains two sub-layers:
 • Logical Link Control Layer
• It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer
of the receiver that is receiving.
• It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the
header.
• It also provides flow control.
• Media Access Control Layer
• A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link
Control layer and the network's physical layer.
• It is used for transferring the packets over the network.

Functions of the Data-link layer

•Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into
packets known as Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer
to the frame. The header which is added to the frame contains the
hardware destination and source address.
 Network Layer
• It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of
devices on the network.
• It determines the best path to move data from source to the
destination based on the network conditions, the priority of service,
and other factors.
• The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the
packets.
• Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and
used to provide the routing services within an internetwork.
• The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as
Network layer protocols. Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.
 Functions of Network Layer:
•Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the
network layer. It provides a logical connection between different devices.
•Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address
to the header of the frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on
the internet.
•Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it
determines the best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source
to the destination.
•Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper
layer and converts them into packets. This process is known as
Packetizing. It is achieved by internet protocol (IP).
 Transport Layer
• The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are
transmitted in the order in which they are sent and there is
no duplication of data.
• The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer
the data completely.
• It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them
into smaller units known as segments.
• This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it
provides a point-to-point connection between source and
destination to deliver the data reliably.
 Session Layer
•It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.
•The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the
interaction between communicating devices.

Functions of Session layer:

•Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates
a dialog between two processes or we can say that it allows the
communication between two processes which can be either half-duplex
or full-duplex.
•Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when
transmitting the data in a sequence. If some error occurs in the middle
of the transmission of data, then the transmission will take place again
from the checkpoint. This process is known as Synchronization and
recovery.
 Presentation layer
•A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of
the information exchanged between the two systems.
•It acts as a data translator for a network.
•This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from
one presentation format to another format.
•The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

Functions of Presentation layer:

•Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in
the form of character strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use
different encoding methods, the presentation layer handles the
interoperability between the different encoding methods. It converts the
data from sender-dependent format into a common format and changes the
common format into receiver-dependent format at the receiving end.
•Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a
process of converting the sender-transmitted information into another form
and sends the resulting message over the network.

•Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data,

i.e., it reduces the number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is
very important in multimedia such as text, audio, video.
 Application layer
•An application layer serves as a window for users and application
processes to access network service.
•It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
•An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application
layer functions.
•This layer provides the network services to the end-users.

Functions of Application layer:

•File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer
allows a user to access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the
files from a computer and to manage the files in a remote computer.
•Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email
forwarding and storage.
•Directory services: An application provides the distributed database
sources and is used to provide that global information about various
objects.
Deep In OSI Layers
OSI Model
• OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It
has been developed by ISO – ‘International
Organization of Standardization‘, in the year 1974.
It is a 7 layer architecture with each layer having
specific functionality to perform. All these 7 layers
work collaboratively to transmit the data from one
person to another across the globe.
 1. Physical Layer (Layer 1) :
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical
layer. It is responsible for the actual physical connection
between the devices. The physical layer contains information in
the form of bits. It is responsible for the actual physical
connection between the devices. When receiving data, this
layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s
and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame
back together.
 The functions of the physical layer are :
1.Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of
the bits by providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver
thus providing synchronization at bit level.

2.Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e.
the number of bits sent per second.

3.Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies the way in which the

different, devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star or mesh
topology.
Hub, Repeater, Modem, Cables are Physical Layer devices.
** Network Layer, Data Link Layer and Physical Layer are also known
as Lower Layers or Hardware Layers.
 2. Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2) :
• The data link layer is responsible for the node to node
delivery of the message. The main function of this layer
is to make sure data transfer is error free from one
node to another, over the physical layer. When a packet
arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of DLL to
transmit it to the Host using its MAC address.
• The packet received from Network layer is further divided
into frames depending on the frame size of NIC(Network
Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and
Receiver’s MAC address in the header.
The functions of the data Link layer are :
1.Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a
sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be
accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the
frame.

2.Physical addressing: After creating frames, Data link layer adds physical
addresses (MAC address) of sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.

3.Error control: Data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which
it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
4.Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may
get corrupted thus , flow control coordinates that amount of data that can be sent
before receiving acknowledgement.

5.Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple

devices, MAC sub-layer of data link layer helps to determine which device has
control over the channel at a given time.

Packet in Data Link layer is referred as Frame.

** Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and device
drivers of host machines.
*** Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.
3. Network Layer (Layer 3) :
• Network layer works for the transmission of data
from one host to the other located in different
networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e.
selection of the shortest path to transmit the
packet, from the number of routes available. The
sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in the
header by network layer.
 The functions of the Network layer are :
1.Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from
source to destination. This function of network layer is known as routing.

2.Logical Addressing: In order to identify each device on internetwork uniquely,

network layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP address
are placed in the header by network layer. Such an address distinguishes each
device uniquely and universally.

* Segment in Network layer is referred as Packet.

** Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers

 4. Transport Layer (Layer 4) :
• Transport layer provides services to application
layer and takes services from network layer. The
data in the transport layer is referred to
as Segments. It is responsible for the End to End
delivery of the complete message. Transport layer
also provides the acknowledgment of the
successful data transmission and re-transmits the
data if an error is found.
 The functions of the transport layer are :
1.Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the
message from the (session) layer , breaks the message into
smaller units . Each of the segment produced has a header
associated with it. The transport layer at the destination station
reassembles the message.

2.Service Point Addressing: In order to deliver the message

to correct process, transport layer header includes a type of
address called service point address or port address. Thus by
specifying this address, transport layer makes sure that the
message is delivered to the correct process.
 The services provided by transport layer :
1.Connection Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process which include
– Connection Establishment
– Data Transfer
– Termination / disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgment,
back to the source after a packet or group of packet is received. This type of
transmission is reliable and secure.

2.Connection less service: It is a one phase process and includes Data

Transfer. In this type of transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge
receipt of a packet. This approach allows for much faster communication
between devices. Connection oriented Service is more reliable than
connection less Service.
• Data in the Transport Layer is called as Segments.

** Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of the OS and

communicates with the Application Layer by making system calls.
Transport Layer is called as Heart of OSI model.

5. Session Layer (Layer 5) :

This layer is responsible for establishment of
connection, maintenance of sessions, authentication
and also ensures security.
 The functions of the session layer are :
1.Session establishment, maintenance and termination: The layer allows the
two processes to establish, use and terminate a connection.

2.Synchronization : This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are

considered as synchronization points into the data. These synchronization point
help to identify the error so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of
the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.

3.Dialog Controller : The session layer allows two systems to start

communication with each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
**All the below 3 layers(including Session Layer) are integrated as a single
layer in TCP/IP model as “Application Layer”.
**Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application itself.
These are also known as Upper Layers or Software Layers.

6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6) :

Presentation layer is also called the Translation layer.
The data from the application layer is extracted here and
manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the
network.
 The functions of the presentation layer are :
1.Translation : For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

2.Encryption/ Decryption : Data encryption translates the data into

another form or code. The encrypted data is known as the cipher text and
the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting
as well as decrypting data.

3.Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted

on the network.
 7. Application Layer (Layer 7) :
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of
layers, we find Application layer which is implemented by
the network applications. These applications produce the
data, which has to be transferred over the network. This
layer also serves as a window for the application services
to access the network and for displaying the received
information to the user.
Ex: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger etc.
**Application Layer is also called as Desktop Layer.
The functions of the Application layer are :

1.Network Virtual Terminal

2.FTAM-File transfer access and management
3.Mail Services
4.Directory Services

OSI model acts as a reference model and is not implemented in Internet

because of its late invention. Current model being used is the TCP/IP model.
 TCP/IP Model
• The OSI Model we just looked at is just a reference/logical
model. It was designed to describe the functions of the
communication system by dividing the communication
procedure into smaller and simpler components. But when
we talk about the TCP/IP model, it was designed and
developed by Department of Defense (DoD) in 1960s and is
based on standard protocols. It stands for Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. The TCP/IP model is a
concise version of the OSI model. It contains four layers,
unlike seven layers in the OSI model. The layers are:
1.Process/Application Layer
2.Host-to-Host/Transport Layer
3.Internet Layer
4.Network Access/Link Layer
 TCP/IP OSI

TCP refers to Transmission Control Protocol. OSI refers to Open Systems Interconnection.

TCP/IP has 4 layers. OSI has 7 layers.

TCP/IP is more reliable OSI is less reliable

TCP/IP does not have very strict boundaries. OSI has strict boundaries

TCP/IP follow a horizontal approach. OSI follows a vertical approach.

TCP/IP uses both session and presentation OSI uses different session and presentation
layer in the application layer itself. layers.

TCP/IP developed protocols then model. OSI developed model then protocol.
1. Network Access Layer –
This layer corresponds to the combination of Data Link
Layer and Physical Layer of the OSI model. It looks out for
hardware addressing and the protocols present in this
layer allows for the physical transmission of data.
We just talked about ARP being a protocol of Internet
layer, but there is a conflict about declaring it as a protocol
of Internet Layer or Network access layer. It is described
as residing in layer 3, being encapsulated by layer 2
protocols.
 2. Internet Layer –
This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the
protocols which are responsible for logical transmission of data over the
entire network. The main protocols residing at this layer are :

1.IP – stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering

packets from the source host to the destination host by looking at the IP
addresses in the packet headers. IP has 2 versions:
IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most of the websites are using
currently. But IPv6 is growing as the number of IPv4 addresses are
limited in number when compared to the number of users.
 Client and Server model
• A client and server networking model is a model in which
computers such as servers provide the network services
to the other computers such as clients to perform a user
based tasks. This model is known as client-server
networking model.
• The application programs using the client-server model
should follow the given below strategies:
 Client
A client is a program that runs on the local machine requesting
service from the server. A client program is a finite program means
that the service started by the user and terminates when the service is
completed.

Server
A server is a program that runs on the remote machine providing
services to the clients. When the client requests for a service, then the
server opens the door for the incoming requests, but it never initiates the
service.
A server program is an infinite program means that when it starts, it
runs infinitely unless the problem arises. The server waits for the
incoming requests from the clients. When the request arrives at the
server, then it responds to the request.
 DNS Domain Name System.
• DNS stands for Domain Name System.

• DNS is a directory service that provides a mapping between the name of a

host on the network and its numerical address.

• DNS is required for the functioning of the internet.

• Each node in a tree has a domain name, and a full domain name is a sequence
of symbols specified by dots.

• DNS is a service that translates the domain name into IP addresses. This
allows the users of networks to utilize user-friendly names when looking for
other hosts instead of remembering the IP addresses.
DNS is a TCP/IP protocol used on different platforms. The domain name
space is divided into three different sections: generic domains, country
domains, and inverse domain.
 Label Description
aero Airlines and aerospace companies
biz Businesses or firms
com Commercial Organizations
coop Cooperative business Organizations

edu Educational institutions

gov Government institutions
info Information service providers
int International Organizations
mil Military groups
museum Museum & other nonprofit organizations

name Personal names

net Network Support centers
org Nonprofit Organizations
pro Professional individual Organizations
 Working of DNS
• DNS is a client/server network communication protocol. DNS
clients send requests to the. server while DNS servers send
responses to the client.
• Client requests contain a name which is converted into an IP
address known as a forward DNS lookups while requests
containing an IP address which is converted into a name known
as reverse DNS lookups.
• DNS implements a distributed database to store the name of all
the hosts available on the internet.
 FTP File transfer protocol.
• FTP stands for File transfer protocol.
• FTP is a standard internet protocol provided by TCP/IP used
for transmitting the files from one host to another.
• It is mainly used for transferring the web page files from their
creator to the computer that acts as a server for other
computers on the internet.
• It is also used for downloading the files to computer from
other servers.
Objectives of FTP
•It provides the sharing of files.
•It is used to encourage the use of remote computers.
•It transfers the data more reliably and efficiently.
 FTP Clients
• FTP client is a program that implements a file transfer protocol
which allows you to transfer files between two hosts on the
internet.
• It allows a user to connect to a remote host and upload or
download the files.
• It has a set of commands that we can use to connect to a host,
transfer the files between you and your host and close the
connection.
• The FTP program is also available as a built-in component in a Web
browser. This GUI based FTP client makes the file transfer very easy
and also does not require to remember the FTP commands.
 Telnet
• The main task of the internet is to provide services to users. For example,
users want to run different application programs at the remote site and
transfers a result to the local site. This requires a client-server program
such as FTP, SMTP. But this would not allow us to create a specific
program for each demand.

• The better solution is to provide a general client-server program that lets

the user access any application program on a remote computer.
Therefore, a program that allows a user to log on to a remote computer.
A popular client-server program Telnet is used to meet such demands.
Telnet is an abbreviation for Terminal Network.

• Telnet provides a connection to the remote computer in such a way that

a local terminal appears to be at the remote side.
 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
• Email is emerging as one of the most valuable services
on the internet today. Most of the internet systems use
SMTP as a method to transfer mail from one user to
another. SMTP is a push protocol and is used to send
the mail whereas POP (post office protocol) or IMAP
(internet message access protocol) are used to retrieve
those mails at the receiver’s side.
 SMTP
• SMTP is an application layer protocol. The client who
wants to send the mail opens a TCP connection to the
SMTP server and then sends the mail across the
connection. The SMTP server is always on listening
mode. As soon as it listens for a TCP connection from
any client, the SMTP process initiates a connection on
that port (25). After successfully establishing the TCP
connection the client process sends the mail instantly.
SMTP Protocol
The SMTP model is of two type :
1.End-to- end method
2.Store-and- forward method

Model of SMTP system

In the SMTP model user deals with the user agent (UA) for example
Microsoft Outlook, Netscape, Mozilla, etc. In order to exchange the
mail using TCP, MTA is used. The users sending the mail do not have to
deal with the MTA it is the responsibility of the system admin to set up
the local MTA. The MTA maintains a small queue of mails so that it can
schedule repeat delivery of mail in case the receiver is not available.
The MTA delivers the mail to the mailboxes and the information can
later be downloaded by the user agents.
Both the SMTP-client and MSTP-server should have 2 components:
1.User agent (UA)
2.Local MTA
 Post Office Protocol (POP)
Post Office Protocol (POP) is a type of computer
networking and Internet standard protocol that extracts
and retrieves email from a remote mail server for access
by the host machine.

POP is an application layer protocol in the OSI model

that provides end users the ability to fetch and receive
email.
Post Office Protocol is the primary protocol behind email
communication. POP works through a supporting email software
client that integrates POP for connecting to the remote email
server and downloading email messages to the recipient’s
computer machine.
POP3 stands for Post Office Protocol Version3 (Current Version). POP is
a protocol which listens on port 110 and is responsible for accessing
the mail service on a client machine. POP3 works in two modes such
as Delete Mode and Keep Mode.
a) Delete Mode: A mail is deleted from the mailbox after successful
retrieval.
b) Keep Mode: The Mail remains Intact in the mailbox after successful
retrieval.
 Difference between SMTP and POP3
• For sending and receiving messages, we use two
protocols one is SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol) and another is POP3 (Post Office
Protocol version 3). They are also called as PUSH
and POP protocols respectively. They are agents,
Message Transfer Agent and Message Access
Agent respectively to send and retrieve the
messages.
S.NO SMTP POP3
SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer
1. POP3 stands for Post Office Protocol version 3.
Protocol.

2. It is used for sending messages. It is used for accessing messages.

3. The port number of SMTP is 25. The port number of POP3 is 110.

It is a MTA (Message Transfer Agent) for It is MAA (Message Access Agent) for accessing the
4.
sending the to the receiver. messages from mail box.

It has two MTAs one is client MTA (Message It has also two MAAs one is client MAA (Message
5. Transfer Agent) and second one is server Access Agent) and another is server is server (Message
MTA (Message Transfer Agent). Access Agent). MAA

6. SMTP is also known as PUSH protocol. POP3 is also known as POP protocol.
 IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol)
• IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) is a standard
email protocol that stores email messages on a mail server,
but allows the end user to view and manipulate the messages
as though they were stored locally on the end user's
computing device(s). This allows users to organize messages
into folders, have multiple client applications know which
messages have been read, flag messages for urgency or
follow-up and save draft messages on the server.
IMAP can be contrasted with another client/server email
protocol, Post Office Protocol 3 (POP3). With POP3, mail is
saved for the end user in a single mailbox on the server and
moved to the end user's device when the mail client opens.
While POP3 can be thought of as a "store-and-forward"
service, IMAP can be thought of as a remote file server.
Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension (MIME) Protocol
• Why do we need MIME?
Limitations of Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP):
• SMTP has a very simple structure
• It’s simplicity however comes with a price as it only send
messages in NVT 7-bit ASCII format.
• It cannot be used for languages that do not support 7-bit ASCII
format such as- French, German, Russian, Chinese and Japanese,
etc. so it cannot be transmitted using SMTP. So, in order to make
SMTP more broad we use MIME.
• t cannot be used to send binary files or video or audio data.
Purpose and Functionality of MIME –
Growing demand for Email Message as people also want to express in
terms of Multimedia. So, MIME another email application is introduced as it
is not restricted to textual data.
MIME transforms non-ASCII data at sender side to NVT 7-bit data and
delivers it to the client SMTP. The message at receiver side is transferred
back to the original data. As well as we can send video and audio data
using MIME as it transfers them also in 7-bit ASCII data.

Features of MIME –
It is able to send multiple attachments with a single message.
Unlimited message length.
Binary attachments (executables, images, audio, or video files) which may be
divided if needed.
MIME provided support for varying content types and multi-part messages.
Types of Transmission Media

• In data communication terminology, a transmission

medium is a physical path between the transmitter
and the receiver i.e it is the channel through which
data is sent from one place to another.
Transmission Media is broadly classified into the
following types:
1. Guided Media:
It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being
transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.
Features:
•High Speed
•Secure
•Used for comparatively shorter distances
There are 3 major types of Guided Media:

(i) Twisted Pair Cable –

It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other.
Generally, several such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They are
the most widely used Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of two types:
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend
on a physical shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):

This type of cable consists of a special jacket to block external interference.
It is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and data channels of
telephone lines.
(ii) Coaxial Cable –
It has an outer plastic covering containing 2 parallel conductors each having a
separate insulated protection cover. Coaxial cable transmits information in two
modes: Baseband mode(dedicated cable bandwidth) and Broadband
mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges). Cable TVs and analog
television networks widely use Coaxial cables.
Advantages:
•High Bandwidth
•Better noise Immunity
•Easy to install and expand
•Inexpensive
Disadvantages:
•Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network
(iii) Optical Fiber Cable –
It uses the concept of reflection of light through a core made up of glass or
plastic. The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering
called the cladding. It is used for transmission of large volumes of data.
Advantages:
•Increased capacity and bandwidth
•Light weight
•Less signal attenuation
•Immunity to electromagnetic interference
•Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages:
•Difficult to install and maintain
•High cost
2. Unguided Media:

It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media. No physical

medium is required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
Features:
•Signal is broadcasted through air
•Less Secure
•Used for larger distances
There are 3 major types of Unguided Media:
(i) Radiowaves –

These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending
and receiving antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz.
AM and FM radios and cordless phones use Radiowaves for transmission.
Further Categorized as (i) Terrestrial and (ii) Satellite.

ii) Microwaves –
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need
to be properly aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is
directly proportional to the height of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz –
300GHz. These are majorly used for mobile phone communication and
television distribution.
(iii) Infrared –
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They
cannot penetrate through obstacles. This prevents interference between
systems. Frequency Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is used in TV remotes,
wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.
 Web Hosting
Web hosting is a service that allows organizations and
individuals to post a website or web page onto the Internet. A
web host, or web hosting service provider, is a business that
provides the technologies and services needed for the website
or webpage to be viewed in the Internet. Websites are hosted,
or stored, on special computers called servers. When Internet
users want to view your website, all they need to do is type
your website address or domain into their browser. Their
computer will then connect to your server and your webpages
will be delivered to them through the browser.
 Meta Search Engine
• A meta search engine is a type of search engine that
gives results based on a combination of results from
other search engine databases. It specializes in
concatenating databases from a variety of search
engines and linking search results to relevant
sources. To put it simply, a meta search engine
submits your query to several other search engines
and returns a summary of the results. Therefore, the
search results you receive are an aggregate result of
multiple searches.
JavaScript
• JavaScript is a lightweight programming
language(“scripting language”) and used to make web
pages interactive. It can insert dynamic text into HTML.
JavaScript is also known as browser’s language.
JavaScript(JS) is not similar or related to Java. Both the
languages have a C like a syntax and are widely used in
client-side Web applications, but there are few
similarities only. JavaScript is mainly used to make web
pages more interactive.
 Java
• Java is an object-oriented programming language
and have virtual machine platform that allows you
to create compiled programs that run on nearly
every platform. Java promised, “Write Once, Run
Anywhere”. Java is used in a wide range of places,
including Android apps, credit card programming
and in the creation of desktop applications and
web enterprise applications.
 Authentication
• Authentication is the process of verifying who you are. When you
log on to a PC with a user name and password you are
authenticating, Authentication is about validating your credentials
like User Name/User ID and password to verify your identity. The
system determines whether you are what you say you are using your
credentials. In public and private networks, the system authenticates
the user identity via login passwords. Authentication is usually done
by a username and password, and sometimes in conjunction with
factors of authentication, which refers to the various ways to be
authenticated.
 Authorization
• Authorization the process of verifying that you have access
to something. Gaining access to a resource (e.g. directory on
a hard disk) because the permissions configured on it allow
you access is authorization. Authorization, on the other
hand, occurs after your identity is successfully authenticated
by the system, which ultimately gives you full permission to
access the resources such as information, files, databases,
funds, locations, almost anything.
 Automated Teller Machine (ATM)
• An ATM, which stands for automated teller machine, is a
specialized computer that makes it convenient to
manage a bank account holder’s funds. It allows a
person to check account balances, withdraw or deposit
money, print a statement of account activities or
transactions, and even purchase stamps.
 HTTP
• HTTP stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol.
• It is a protocol used to access the data on the World Wide Web (www).
• The HTTP protocol can be used to transfer the data in the form of plain
text, hypertext, audio, video, and so on.
• This protocol is known as HyperText Transfer Protocol because of its
efficiency that allows us to use in a hypertext environment where there
are rapid jumps from one document to another document.
• HTTP is similar to the FTP as it also transfers the files from one host to
another host. But, HTTP is simpler than FTP as HTTP uses only one
connection, i.e., no control connection to transfer the files.
• HTTP is used to carry the data in the form of MIME-like format.
 Ethernet

• Ethernet is an array of networking technologies and

systems used in local area networks (LAN), where
computers are connected within a primary physical space.
• Systems using Ethernet communication divide data
streams into packets, which are known as frames. Frames
include source and destination address information, as well
as mechanisms used to detect errors in transmitted data
and retransmission requests.
 What is Ecommerce?
• Ecommerce, also known as electronic commerce or internet
commerce, refers to the buying and selling of goods or
services using the internet, and the transfer of money and
data to execute these transactions. Ecommerce is often used
to refer to the sale of physical products online, but it can also
describe any kind of commercial transaction that is
facilitated through the internet.
• Whereas e-business refers to all aspects of operating an
online business, ecommerce refers specifically to the
transaction of goods and services.
 Cookie
• A cookie is a small amount of data generated by
a website and saved by your web browser. Its purpose is to
remember information about you, similar to a preference file
created by a software application.
• While cookies serve many functions, their most common
purpose is to store login information for a specific site. Some
sites will save both your username and password in a cookie,
while others will only save your username. Whenever you
check a box that says, "Remember me on this computer,"
the website will generate a login cookie once you successfully
log in. Each time you revisit the website, you may only need
to enter your password or you might not need to log in at all.
 Session
• In the computing world, a session refers to a limited time of
communication between two systems. Some sessions
involve a client and a server, while other sessions involve
two personal computers.
• A common type of client/server session is a Web
or HTTP session. An HTTP session is initiated by a Web
browser each time you visit a website. While each page
visit constitutes an individual session, the term is often
used to describe the entire time you spend on the website
 proxy server
• Represent some else
• Authorized to act on behalf of another
• A proxy server verifies and forwards incoming client
requests to other servers for further communication.
A proxy server is located between a client and a server
where it acts as an intermediary between the two,
such as a Web browser and a Web server. The proxy
server's most important role is providing security
 Common Gateway Interface (CGI)
• The Common Gateway Interface (CGI) provides the
middleware between WWW servers and external databases
and information sources. The World Wide Web Consortium
(W3C) defined the Common Gateway Interface (CGI) and
also defined how a program interacts with a Hyper Text
Transfer Protocol (HTTP) server. The Web server typically
passes the form information to a small application program
that processes the data and may send back a confirmation
message. This process or convention for passing data back
and forth between the server and the application is called
the common gateway interface (CGI).
 Private key and Public key
• Cryptography is the science of secret writing with the intention of
keeping the data secret. Cryptography is classified into symmetric
cryptography, asymmetric cryptography and hashing.
• Private Key:
In Private key, the same key (secret key) is used for encryption and
decryption. In this key is symmetric because the only key is copy or
share by another party to decrypt the cipher text. It is faster than the
public key cryptography.
• Public Key:
In Public key, two keys are used one key is used for encryption and
another key is used for decryption. One key (public key) is used for
encrypt the plain text to convert it into cipher text and another key
(private key) is used but receiver to decrypt the cipher text to read
the message.
S.NO PRIVATE KEY PUBLIC KEY
1. Private key is faster than public key. It is slower than private key.

In this, the same key (secret key) and In public key cryptography, two keys are used one
2. same algorithm is used to encrypt and key is used for encryption and another key is used
decrypt the message. for decryption.

In private key cryptography, the key is In public key cryptography, one of the two keys is
3.
kept secret. kept secret.
Private key is Symmetrical because
Public key is Asymmetrical because the is two type
4. there is only one key that is called secret
of key: private and public key.
key.
In this cryptography, sender and In this cryptography, sender and receiver does not
5.
receiver met to share a key. need to met.

In this cryptography, public key can be public and

6. In this cryptography, the key is private.
private key is private.
 Cyber Law (IT Law)
• Cyber Law also called IT Law is the law regarding
Information-technology including computers and
internet. It is related to legal informatics and supervises
the digital circulation of information, software,
information security and e-commerce.
• IT law does not consist a separate area of law rather it
encloses aspects of contract, intellectual property, privacy
and data protection laws. Intellectual property is a key
element of IT law. The area of software license is
controversial and still evolving in Europe and elsewhere.
Importance of Cyber Law:
1.It covers all transaction over internet.
2.It keeps eyes on all activities over internet.
3.It touches every action and every reaction in cyberspace.
Area of Cyber Law:
Cyber laws contain different types of purposes. Some laws create rules for how
individuals and companies may use computers and the internet while some laws
protect people from becoming the victims of crime through unscrupulous activities on
the internet.
Difference between MAC Address and IP Address
• Both MAC Address and IP Address are used to uniquely
defines a device on the internet. NIC Card’s Manufacturer
provides the MAC Address, on the other hand Internet
Service Provider provides IP Address.
• The main difference between MAC and IP address is that,
MAC Address is used to ensure the physical address of
computer. It uniquely identifies the devices on a network.
While IP address are used to uniquely identifies the
connection of network with that device take part in a
network.
S.NO MAC ADDRESS IP ADDRESS

MAC Address stands for Media Access

1. IP Address stands for Internet Protocol Address.
Control Address.

MAC Address is a six byte hexadecimal IP Address is either four byte (IPv4) or six byte (IPv6)
2.
address. address.

A device attached with MAC Address can A device attached with IP Address can retrieve by RARP
3.
retrieve by ARP protocol. protocol.

NIC Card’s Manufacturer provides the MAC

4. Internet Service Provider provides IP Address.
Address.

MAC Address is used to ensure the physical

5. IP Address is the logical address of the computer.
address of computer.
 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a Transport Layer protocol. UDP
is a part of Internet Protocol suite, referred as UDP/IP suite. Unlike
TCP, it is unreliable and connectionless protocol. So, there is no
need to establish connection prior to data transfer.
• Though Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is the dominant
transport layer protocol used with most of Internet services;
provides assured delivery, reliability and much more but all these
services cost us with additional overhead and latency. Here, UDP
comes into picture.
• For the Realtime services like computer gaming, voice or video
communication, live conferences; we need UDP. Since high
performance is needed, UDP permits packets to be dropped
instead of processing delayed packets. There is no error checking
in UDP, so it also save bandwidth.
 TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL (TCP) USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL (UDP)

TCP is a connection-oriented protocol. Connection- UDP is the Datagram oriented protocol. This is because there is
orientation means that the communicating devices should no overhead for opening a connection, maintaining a
establish a connection before transmitting data and should connection, and terminating a connection. UDP is efficient for
close the connection after transmitting the data. broadcast and multicast type of network transmission.

TCP is reliable as it guarantees delivery of data to the The delivery of data to the destination cannot be guaranteed in
destination router. UDP.
TCP provides extensive error checking mechanisms. It is
UDP has only the basic error checking mechanism using
because it provides flow control and acknowledgment of
checksums.
data.
Sequencing of data is a feature of Transmission Control
There is no sequencing of data in UDP. If ordering is required, it
Protocol (TCP). this means that packets arrive in-order at
has to be managed by the application layer.
the receiver.
TCP is comparatively slower than UDP. UDP is faster, simpler and more efficient than TCP.
Retransmission of lost packets is possible in TCP, but not in There is no retransmission of lost packets in User Datagram
UDP. Protocol (UDP).
TCP has a (20-80) bytes variable length header. UDP has a 8 bytes fixed length header.
TCP is heavy-weight. UDP is lightweight.
TCP doesn’t supports Broadcasting. UDP supports Broadcasting.
 Internet Service Provider (ISP)
• An Internet service provider (ISP) is a company that provides
customers with Internet access. Data may be transmitted using
several technologies,
• Typically, ISPs also provide their customers with the ability to
communicate with one another by providing Internet email
accounts, usually with numerous email addresses at the
customer’s discretion. Other services, such as telephone and
television services, may be provided as well. The services and
service combinations may be unique to each ISP.
• An Internet service provider is also known as an Internet
access provider (IAP).
 Search Engine

• Search engine is a service that allows Internet users

to search for content via the World Wide Web
(WWW). A user enters keywords or key phrases into
a search engine and receives a list of Web content
results in the form of websites, images, videos or
other online data.
• The list of content returned via a search engine to a
user is known as a search engine results page
 What is a Firewall?
• A firewall is a type of cybersecurity tool that is used to
filter traffic on a network. Firewalls can be used to
separate network nodes from external traffic sources,
internal traffic sources, or even specific applications.
Firewalls can be software, hardware, or cloud-based, with
each type of firewall having its own unique pros and cons.
• The primary goal of a firewall is to block malicious traffic
requests and data packets while allowing legitimate traffic
through.
 Software Firewalls
Software firewalls include any type of firewall that is installed on a
local device rather than a separate piece of hardware (or a cloud
server). The big benefit of a software firewall is that it's highly useful
for creating defense in depth by isolating individual network
endpoints from one another.
However, maintaining individual software firewalls on different
devices can be difficult and time-consuming. Furthermore, not
every device on a network may be compatible with a single
software firewall, which may mean having to use several different
software firewalls to cover every asset.
Hardware Firewalls
Hardware firewalls use a physical appliance that acts in a manner
similar to a traffic router to intercept data packets and traffic
requests before they're connected to the network's servers.
 HTTP Transactions

The above figure shows the HTTP transaction between client and server. The
client initiates a transaction by sending a request message to the server. The
server replies to the request message by sending a response message.
 Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
• A client that wants to access the document in an internet
needs an address and to facilitate the access of
documents, the HTTP uses the concept of Uniform
Resource Locator (URL).
• The Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is a standard way of
specifying any kind of information on the internet.
• The URL defines four parts: method, host computer, port,
and path.
•Method: The method is the protocol used to retrieve the document from a
server. For example, HTTP.
•Host: The host is the computer where the information is stored, and the
computer is given an alias name. Web pages are mainly stored in the
computers and the computers are given an alias name that begins with the
characters "www". This field is not mandatory.
•Port: The URL can also contain the port number of the server, but it's an
optional field. If the port number is included, then it must come between
the host and path and it should be separated from the host by a colon.
•Path: Path is the pathname of the file where the information is stored. The
path itself contain slashes that separate the directories from the
subdirectories and files.
 Computer Network Security
• Computer network security consists of measures taken by business
or some organizations to monitor and prevent unauthorized access
from the outside attackers.
• Different approaches to computer network security management
have different requirements depending on the size of the
computer network. For example, a home office requires basic
network security while large businesses require high maintenance
to prevent the network from malicious attacks.
• Network Administrator controls access to the data and software on
the network. A network administrator assigns the user ID and
password to the authorized person.
 What is Cryptography?
• Cryptography is used to secure and protect data during
communication. It is helpful to prevent unauthorized person
or group of users from accessing any confidential data.
Encryption and decryption are the two essential
functionalities of cryptography.
• A message sent over the network is transformed into an
unrecognizable encrypted message known as data encryption.
At the receiving end, the received message is converted to its
original form known as decryption.
 Encryption
• Encryption is a process which transforms the original
information into an unrecognizable form. This new form of
the message is entirely different from the original message.
That's why a hacker is not able to read the data as senders
use an encryption algorithm. Encryption is usually done
using key algorithms.
• Data is encrypted to make it safe from stealing. However,
many known companies also encrypt data to keep their
trade secret from their competitors.
 Decryption?
• Decryption is a process of converting encoded/encrypted
data in a form that is readable and understood by a human or
a computer. This method is performed by un-encrypting the
text manually or by using keys used to encrypt the original
data.
 Secure Socket Layer (SSL)
• Secure Socket Layer (SSL) provide security to the
data that is transferred between web browser and
server. SSL encrypt the link between a web server
and a browser which ensures that all data passed
between them remain private and free from attack.
Cloud Hosting
• The method of outsourcing an enterprise's processing
and storage capabilities to a service provider that
provides its networking services in a utility model is
cloud hosting.
• The cloud vendor supervised the setup, cloud storage,
protection and management, while customers will
configure hardware and applications and scale servers
online. Computing and storage services are dispersed
in a cloud computing configuration through hundreds
of virtual machines according to the load balance I / O
demand.
• A cheaper alternative to the conventional
dedicated server model that allows
enterprises to develop and maintain their
own data centers is the cloud storage
model. Servers with
dedicated hardware and virtual
infrastructure exist on-premises
throughout the conventional model, which
can be an expensive operational cost for
organizations.
• Top vendors/providers
• As a technology model, cloud computing systems have
fuelled a growth in the infrastructure under which a third-
party vendor, usually with a pay-per-use system, provides
a customer with the hardware, applications, servers,
storage and networking facilities.
• Amazon Web Services, the Google Cloud Portal, IBM Cloud
and Microsoft Azure are common providers who offer
cloud hosting. AWS, which provides comprehensive
storage facilities and more areas and zones than most
cloud vendors, is the leading competitor in the market. In
recent years, Azure and Google have gained momentum.
What is the GPU?
• GPU stands for Graphics Processing Unit. GPUs are also
known as video cards or graphics cards. In order to
display pictures, videos, and 2D or 3D animations, each
device uses a GPU. A GPU performs fast calculations of
arithmetic and frees up the CPU to do different things. A
GPU has lots of smaller cores made for multi-tasking,
while a CPU makes use of some cores primarily based
on sequential serial processing. In the world of
computing, graphics processing technology has
advanced to offer specific benefits. The modern GPUs
enables new possibilities in content creation, machine
learning, gaming, etc.
IoT (Internet of Things) Tutorial
• Let's us look closely at our mobile device which contains GPS Tracking,
Mobile Gyroscope, Adaptive brightness, Voice detection, Face
detection etc. These components have their own individual features,
but what about if these all communicate with each other to provide a
better environment? For example, the phone brightness is adjusted
based on my GPS location or my direction.
• Connecting everyday things embedded with electronics, software, and
sensors to internet enabling to collect and exchange data without
human interaction called as the Internet of Things (IoT).
• The term "Things" in the Internet of Things refers to anything and
everything in day to day life which is accessed or connected through
the internet.
• IoT is an advanced automation and analytics system which deals with
artificial intelligence, sensor, networking, electronic, cloud messaging
etc. to deliver complete systems for the product or services. The system
created by IoT has greater transparency, control, and performance.
• As we have a platform such as a cloud that contains all the data through
which we connect all the things around us. For example, a house,
where we can connect our home appliances such as air conditioner,
light, etc. through each other and all these things are managed at the
same platform. Since we have a platform, we can connect our car, track
its fuel meter, speed level, and also track the location of the car.
• If there is a common platform where all these things
can connect to each other would be great because
based on my preference, I can set the room
temperature. For example, if I love the room
temperature to to be set at 25 or 26-degree Celsius
when I reach back home from my office, then
according to my car location, my AC would start
before 10 minutes I arrive at home. This can be done
through the Internet of Things (IoT).
What is Big Data
• Data which are very large in size is
called Big Data. Normally we work on
data of size MB(WordDoc ,Excel) or
maximum GB(Movies, Codes) It is
stated that almost 90% of today's data
has been generated in the past 3 years.
Sources of Big Data
• These data come from many sources like
• Social networking sites: Facebook, Google, LinkedIn all these sites
generates huge amount of data on a day to day basis as they have
billions of users worldwide.
• E-commerce site: Sites like Amazon, Flipkart, Alibaba generates huge
amount of logs from which users buying trends can be traced.
• Weather Station: All the weather station and satellite gives very huge
data which are stored and manipulated to forecast weather.
• Telecom company: Telecom giants like Airtel, Vodafone study the user
trends and accordingly publish their plans and for this they store the
data of its million users.
• Share Market: Stock exchange across the world generates huge
amount of data through its daily transaction.
Artificial Intelligence
• In today's world, technology is growing very fast, and we are
getting in touch with different new technologies day by day.
Here, one of the booming technologies of computer science
is Artificial Intelligence which is ready to create a new
revolution in the world by making intelligent machines. The
Artificial Intelligence is now all around us. It is currently
working with a variety of subfields, ranging from general to
specific, such as self-driving cars, playing chess, proving
theorems, playing music, Painting, etc.
• AI is one of the fascinating and universal fields of Computer
science which has a great scope in future. AI holds a
tendency to cause a machine to work as a human.
• Artificial Intelligence is composed of two
words Artificial and Intelligence, where
Artificial defines "man-made," and intelligence
defines "thinking power", hence AI means "a
man-made thinking power.“
• So, we can define AI as:
• "It is a branch of computer science by which
we can create intelligent machines which can
behave like a human, think like humans, and
able to make decisions."
• Artificial Intelligence exists when a machine can have
human based skills such as learning, reasoning, and
solving problems
• With Artificial Intelligence you do not need to
preprogram a machine to do some work, despite that
you can create a machine with programmed algorithms
which can work with own intelligence, and that is the
awesomeness of AI.
• It is believed that AI is not a new technology, and some
people says that as per Greek myth, there were
Mechanical men in early days which can work and
behave like humans.
Automation
• Automation is the creation and application of
technologies to produce and deliver goods and
services with minimal human intervention. The
implementation of automation technologies,
techniques and processes improve the efficiency,
reliability, and/or speed of many tasks that were
previously performed by humans.
• Automation is being used in a number of areas
such as manufacturing, transport, utilities,
defense, facilities, operations and lately,
information technology.
What Is Cybersecurity?
• Cybersecurity is the practice of securing
networks, systems and any other digital
infrastructure from malicious attacks.
With cybercrime damages projected to exceed
a staggering $6 trillion by 2021, it’s no wonder
banks, tech companies, hospitals, government
agencies and just about every other sector are
investing in cybersecurity infrastructure to
protect their business practices and the
millions of customers that trust them with
their data.
Computer Network Security
• Computer network security consists of measures taken by
business or some organizations to monitor and prevent
unauthorized access from the outside attackers.
• Different approaches to computer network security
management have different requirements depending on the
size of the computer network. For example, a home office
requires basic network security while large businesses require
high maintenance to prevent the network from malicious
attacks.
• Network Administrator controls access to the data and
software on the network. A network administrator assigns the
user ID and password to the authorized person.
Aspects of Network Security:

Following are the desirable properties

to achieve secure communication:
• Privacy: Privacy means both the sender and the receiver expects
confidentiality. The transmitted message should be sent only to the intended
receiver while the message should be opaque for other users. Only the sender
and receiver should be able to understand the transmitted message as
eavesdroppers can intercept the message. Therefore, there is a requirement
to encrypt the message so that the message cannot be intercepted. This
aspect of confidentiality is commonly used to achieve secure communication.
• Message Integrity: Data integrity means that the data must arrive at the
receiver exactly as it was sent. There must be no changes in the data content
during transmission, either maliciously or accident, in a transit. As there are
more and more monetary exchanges over the internet, data integrity is more
crucial. The data integrity must be preserved for secure communication.
• End-point authentication: Authentication means that the
receiver is sure of the sender?s identity, i.e., no imposter has
sent the message.
• Non-Repudiation: Non-Repudiation means that the receiver
must be able to prove that the received message has come
from a specific sender. The sender must not deny sending a
message that he or she send. The burden of proving the
identity comes on the receiver. For example, if a customer
sends a request to transfer the money from one account to
another account, then the bank must have a proof that the
customer has requested for the transaction.
Digital Signature
• The Digital Signature is a technique which is used
to validate the authenticity and integrity of the
message. We know that there are four aspects of
security: privacy, authentication, integrity, and
non-repudiation. We have already discussed the
first aspect of security and other three aspects can
be achieved by using a digital signature.
• The basic idea behind the Digital Signature is to
sign a document. When we send a document
electronically, we can also sign it. We can sign a
document in two ways: to sign a whole document
and to sign a digest.
• The term HTTP stands for?
– Hyper terminal tracing program
– Hypertext tracing protocol
– Hypertext transfer protocol
– Hypertext transfer program
• A proxy server is used as the computer?
– with external access
– acting as a backup
– performing file handling
– accessing user permissions
• Which one of the following is a valid
email address?
– javat@point.com
– gmail.com
– tpoint@.com
– javatpoint@books
• The term FTP stands for?
– File transfer program
– File transmission protocol
– File transfer protocol
– File transfer protection
• Which one of the following is not a
network topology?
– Star
– Ring
– Bus
– Peer to Peer
• When the mail server sends mail to
other mail servers it becomes ___ ?
– SMTP client
– SMTP server
– Peer
– Master
• The length of an IPv6 address is?
– 32 bits
– 64 bits
– 128 bits
– 256 bits
• The term WAN stands for?
– Wide Area Net
– Wide Access Network
– Wide Area Network
– Wide Access Net
• Which layer of the TCP / IP stack
corresponds to the OSI model transport
layer?
– Host to host
– Application
– Internet
– Network Access
• The term IPv4 stands for?
– Internet Protocol Version 4
– Internet Programming Version 4
– International Programming Version 4
– None of these
• The term LAN stands for?
– Local Area Net
– Local Aera Network
– Local Array Network
– Local Array Net
• Which of the through is share the data
of two computer?
– Library
– Network
– Grouping
– Integrated system
• 1) A process is a _______.
– single thread of execution.
– program in the execution
– program in the memory
– task
• What is the decimal equivalent of the
binary number 10111?
– 21
– 39
– 42
– 23
• Which of the following is the smallest
visual element on a video monitor?
– Character
– Pixel
– Byte
– Bit
• Which of the following is an output
device?
– Keyboard
– Mouse
– Light pen
– VDU
• Which of the following is an input
device?
– Plotter
– Printer
– VDU
– Mouse
• BIOS is used?
– By operating system
– By compiler
– By interpreter
– By application software
• What is the mean of the Booting in the
system?
– Restarting computer
– Install the program
– To scan
– To turn off
• The central processing unit is located in
the _____.
– Hard disk
– System unit
– Memory unit
– Monitor
• Which type of program acts as an
intermediary between a user of a
computer and the computer hardware?
– Operating system
– User thread
– Superuser thread
– Application program
• What kind of language can computer
understand?
– Normal language
– Computer language
– Assembly language
– High-level language
• What is the speed of computer
measured in?
– Nanoseconds
– Kilo-seconds
– Gigahertz
– Megabytes
• What is the full form of RAM?
– Remote Access Memory
– Random Access Memory
– Remote Access Memory
– Random Access Memory
• What is the full form of DRAM?
– Dynamic Remote Access Memory
– Dynamic Random-Access Memory
– Dependent Remote Access Memory
– Dependent Random-Access Memory
• Which of the following is not
considered hardware?
– Operating system
– CPU
– Keyboard
– Hard disk
• Which of the following is exclusively a
sequential access storage device?
– Hard disk
– Floppy disk
– Magnetic tape
– DVD
• What is the full form of USB?
– Unshielded System Board
– Universal System Board
– Unidentified System Bus
– Universal System Bus
• Which one of the following is not a
form of data storage media?
– A database
– Magnetic tape
– Magnetic disc
– Optical disc
• What is five main components of a computer
system?
– CPU, CD-ROM, Mouse, Keyboard, Sound
card
– Memory, Video card, Monitor, Software,
Hardware
– Modem, Keyboard, Word Processor,
Printer, Screen
– CPU, Memory, System bus, Input, Output
• Which one of the following is not input
device?
• Keyboard
• Mouse
• Speaker
• Scanner
• Which one of the following is an
example of the browser software?
• Microsoft Word
• Notepad
• Internet navigator
• Internet explorer