DISCLAIMER

The content provided herein is created and owned by a third party service provider and licensed
to the Company. The Company disclaims all rights and liabilities in relation to the content.
The author of the content shall be solely responsible towards, without limitation, any liabilities,
damages or suits which may arise with respect to the same.
 UNIT ONE

India:
LOCATION AND EXTENT
India - Location • With the 30° difference or variation
between the longitudes, there is almost
• Located in the Northern Hemisphere in a difference of two hours time between
the continent of Asia and is a part of the easternmost and westernmost part
South Asia of the country.
• Extends from 8°4’N to 37°6’N latitude • To avoid any complications, the 82° 30’
and from 68° 7’E to 97° 25’E Longitude, E longitude is selected as the Indian
roughly about 30° distance or latitudinal Standard Meridian. The Indian Standard
and longitudinal extent. time is 5 hours and 30 minutes ahead of
• The tropic of Cancer at 23° 30’N cuts the Greenwich Meantime.
country in almost two equal halves
• Indian mainland extends from Kashmir India - Extent and Size
in the north to Kanyakumari in the south • India accounts for 2.4% of the total area
and from Arunachal Pradesh in the east in the world making it the 7th largest
to Gujarat in the west.
country in the world
• The northernmost point is Indira Col
• It comprises a total area of 3.28 million
in Siachen Glacier in the eastern part
sq.km.
Karakoram ranges and the Southernmost
point is Indira Point in the Nicobar • India has 7516.6 sq.km. of coastline
Islands in the Andaman sea (inclusive of the coastlines of the islands
of Andaman and Nicobar in the Bay of
• The tiny town of Kibithu in Arunachal
Bengal and that of Lakshadweep in the
Pradesh is the easternmost point of India.
The Lohit River enters India from Kibithu. Arabian Sea)

• The westernmost point of India is the • 6100 km is the coastline only of the
small inhabited village of Ghuar Moti, Indian Mainland
located in Kutch District of Gujarat. • 15,200 sq.km. of land boundary
• Distance from North to South is 3214 km • India’s great size has blessed India with
and that from west to east is 2933 km great physical diversity. India is guarded
• Latitudes are equidistant. The distance by the mighty Himalayas in the North; the
between 2 latitudes is 111 km. forested hills in the North East, Peninsular
block in the South and the great sandy
• Longitudes are not equidistant. They expanse of Marusthali in the West.
bulge at the equator and converge at
the poles. The average distance between • The Himalayas are bounded by Hindukush
2 longitudes is 100 km. and Suleiman ranges in the north-west,
the Purvanchal Hills in the northeast and
• Note that the distance between two
by the Great Indian Ocean in the south.
longitudes decreases towards the poles
This entire area taken together forms
whereas the distance between the two
the geographic entity called “The Indian
latitudes remains the same.
Subcontinent”.
• The southern part of the country, below
central India, lies within the tropics and • The Indian subcontinent includes
the northern part of the country lies in the countries like Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan,
subtropical zone or the warm temperate and Bangladesh and of course the
zone. mainland of India.

2
• The Tropic of Cancer passes through
eight states in India: Gujarat (Jasdan), India’s Neighbours
Rajasthan (Kalinjarh), Madhya Pradesh • International borders: Bangladesh and
(Shajapur), Chhattisgarh (Sonhat), Myanmar (East) Bhutan, Nepal and
Jharkhand (Lohardaga), West Bengal China (North), Pakistan and Afghanistan
(Krishnanagar), Tripura (Udaipur) and (North-west)
Mizoram (Champhai).
• Neighbouring island countries: Sri Lanka
and the Maldives
• States with International borders: Gujarat,
Rajasthan, Punjab, Jammu and Kashmir,
Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Sikkim,
Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland,
Manipur and Mizoram
• Coastal states: Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Kerala, Odisha,
Karnataka, West Bengal and Goa (in
decreasing order of Coastline)
• Ocean bodies: Arabian Sea, Bay of
Bengal, Indian Ocean
• Gulf of Mannar and Palk Strait divides
Sri Lanka and India

I ndia : E xtent and S ize

Bordering Length of the No. of Indian Names of Indian states having common borders
country common border states having
(in km) common borders
Bangladesh 4096.7 5 West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram

China 3488 5 Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal

Pradesh and Union territories of Ladakh (Previously
under state of Jammu & Kashmir)
Pakistan 3323 4 Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat

Nepal 1751 5 Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal,

Sikkim
Myanmar 1643 4 Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram

Bhutan 699 4 Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh

Afghanistan 106 1 Jammu & Kashmir (POK)

3
Strategic Importance • The maritime location of India establishes
close contact with West Asia, Africa and

of India’s Location Europe from the Western coast and with

the south-east and south Asia from
• The maritime location of peninsular India Eastern Asia
has provided links to its neighbouring • The vast coastline and the natural
regions through sea and air routes. harbours have benefitted India in
• Strategic importance due to trans- carrying out trade and commerce with
Indian ocean routes which connect the its neighbouring and distant countries
countries of Europe in the west and the • It has given India a distinct climate than
countries of East Asia the rest of Asian countries like the way
monsoons have a unique effect on the
climate of India.

F ig : L ocation of I ndia with respect to trade routes with neighbouring regions . S ource : NCERT

4
 UNIT TWO

INDIA:
STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOGRAPHY
Introduction: Satpura block mountains are examples
• Peninsula consists mostly of relics and
• Indian Subcontinent is the result of residuals like Aravali ranges, Nallamala
interplay of endogenic and exogenic hills, Javadi hills, Veliconda hills, Palkonda
forces and lateral movement of range and Mahendragiri hills.
plates through which the geomorphic
• Many rivers flow through this Peninsular
processes and geological structure of
block. The east flowing rivers like
the subcontinent came into being.
Mahanadi, Krishna and Godavari form
• Based on the different geological delta in Bay of Bengal.
structure and formations, India is divided
• The west flowing rivers like Narmada,
into three geological divisions, as follows:
Tapi etc do not form any delta because
ŠŠ The Peninsular Block
ŠŠ The slope of the Western Ghats is
ŠŠ The Himalayan and other Peninsular steep and that is the reason that these
mountains rivers have a rapid flow. Due to this,
ŠŠ Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra plains the rivers carry their silt into deep sea.

Peninsular Block ŠŠ There is very less silt deposition. At the

same time, the Narmada and Tapti
• The northern limit of peninsular block is rivers flow via the rift valleys and while
the Kachchh region, running along the doing so the eroded material carried
western flanks of the Aravali range and by them gets deposited in the fractures
then runs parallel to Yamuna and Ganga of the fault zones. Thus, they don’t form
to as far as Rajmahal Hills and Ganga deltas.
delta.
ŠŠ Moreover, the tides are also one
• The Karbi Anglong and the Meghalaya reason that the rivers of western side
Plateau in North east India are also an don’t form deltas. The west flowing
extension of this block rivers form estuaries instead.
• This north eastern part of the block is The Himalayan and other
separated from the main block by the
Malda Fault in West Bengal in Chota
Peninsular Mountains
Nagpur Plateau • These mountains are young fold
• Parts of Rajasthan desert are also an mountains and their geological structure
extension of this peninsular block is much weaker and more flexible than
the old and stable peninsular block
• Peninsular block is formed by ancient
gneisses and granites and has been a • The exogenic and endogenic interplay
rigid mass of block standing since the results in the formation of different kinds
cambrian period except for the western of folds, faults and thrust plains.
part, where a part of it is submerged • These mountains are the result of tectonic
beneath the sea activities.
• The block was a part of Indo-Australian • In fact, these mountains lying on the
plate zones of convergence along the tectonic
• During tectonic activity, vertical plate boundaries are still undergoing the
movements resulted in faulting. The rift tectonic activities and are still in their
valleys of Narmada, Mahanadi, Tapi and process of formation

6
• The rivers cut across these mountains • The plain was the result of sediments
during their youthful stage resulting brought and filled by Himalayan and
into marvellous features like gorges, Peninsular region
V-shaped valleys, rapids, waterfalls etc. • These plains are mostly formed of alluvial
before they descend into the plains deposits and therefore are extremely
• The several Himalayan rivers like Ganga, fertile and the depth of deposits vary
Yamuna, Brahmaputra etc cuts across between 1000-2000m
the lofty Himalayas as very fast flowing
streams in their upper reaches. Such fast India - Physiography
movement of running water causes more • Physiography of an area is the outcome
vertical erosion that lateral erosion and of the geologic structure, geomorphic
causes valleys to deepen. processes and stage of development of
• The rivers of Western Ghats too form landforms. India has great diversity in
spectacular gorges and V-shaped valleys terms of physical features. The north is
which are the result of the vertical characterized by the rugged mountain
erosional activities of peninsular rivers topography with high peaks, beautiful
like Krishna, Ghataprabha, Tungabhadra, valleys and deep canyons. The southern
Periyar etc. Many waterfalls like part is the solid block of rigid landmass
Dudhsagar, Sivasamudram, Jog falls which is very stable and is dissected by
are the resultant erosional features of plateaus, denuded rocks and resultant
Western Ghats. scarps. The middle part is characterized
by vast rolling plains.
Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plains
• As the name suggests, the floodplains • India is divided into 6 physiographic
of the three most important Himalayan divisions:
rivers forms the third geological division: ŠŠ The Northern and the North Eastern
Ganga, Brahmaputra and Indus Mountains
• This flood-plain came into being about ŠŠ The Northern Plains
64 million years ago when it originally ŠŠ The Peninsular Plateau
was a geo-synclinal depression.
ŠŠ The Indian Desert
The ‘Geosynclines’ are major structural ŠŠ The Coastal Plains
and sedimentation all units of the earth’s
crust. They are elongated trough-like ŠŠ The Islands
depressions submerged beneath the sea
water. They are potential site of mountain
building activity and Fold Mountains.
These basins become filled with great
thickness of sediments and along with the
accumulation of pile of sediments; there
occurs progressive subsidence of the
basin floor resulting into plain formation
at a much later geological stage.

• The depression reached maximum

development during the third phase of
the Himalayan mountain formation
7
 • They form an arc over the Indian
subcontinent, which covers a distance of
about 2,400 Km in length with varying
width from 400 Km in Kashmir to 160 Km
in Arunachal Pradesh
• The altitudinal variations are greater in
the eastern part than in the western side.
• These mountains act as a physical
barrier between Central and East Asian
countries and India and protect the
Indian subcontinent from the icy cold
winds of Central Asia.
• They act as climatic, drainage and
cultural divide
• The northern mountain system is
divided into three parts, called – The
Himalayas, The trans-Himalayas and
The Northern and The Purvanchal Hills

North Eastern Himalayan Mountain System

Mountains 1.1 Himalayas:

These set of mountains consist of Himalayas • The Himalayas can be classified on
and the North Eastern hills. Let us first learn many basis. There is the most common
about Himalayan mountain system in detail.
classification based on their north-south
The Himalayan Mountain System alignment. This is called the longitudinal
division of Himalayas. There is also a
• First it is to be noted that the Himalayas
west to east division of Himalayas based
and the Himalayan mountain system are
on region and height of the mountains.
not the same. Himalayas are just one part
of the 3 parts of the Himalayan mountain • There are three parallel ranges in the
system Himalayas (longitudinal division)
• They are young and structurally fold ŠŠ Himadri or the Greater Himalayas
mountains and stretch over the northern (They are the inner most mountain
borders of India. ranges)
• The Himalayas run in a west-east direction ŠŠ Himachal or the Lesser Himalayas
from the Indus to the Brahmaputra. (they are the middle Himalayas)
• They are formed by the tectonic collision ŠŠ Shiwaliks or the Outer Himalayas
of the Indian Plate with the Eurasian • The general orientation of these
Plate. mountains are northwest to southeast in
• They are the highest mountain ranges the north western side of India, towards
in the world and have the highest peaks, east-west direction in the North Bengal
deep valleys, gorges and glaciers. and Sikkim and towards southwest to
northwest direction in the Arunachal side

8
 and North-south direction in Mizoram, Himalayas to the northeast and Siwalik
Nagaland and Manipur region. range to the southeast.
• The Himalayan mountains from North- • The average height of these mountains
east to Nepal are covered with lush green are 3700 – 4500m and average width is
thick forest but the forest cover decreases 50 km.
west from Nepal following the general • Himachal extended for some 2,400
pattern of rainfall which decreases east km northeast to southeast across the
to west. northern limit of the Indian subcontinent.
1.1.1 Greater Himalayas or Himadri • Areas included are Nepal, Bhutan,
• The Greater Himalayas run for 2400km Kashmir, Indian states of Himachal,
from west to east and their width is about Uttarakhand, and Sikkim.
160-400km. • Pirpangal, Nag Tibba, Dhauladhar,
• Greater Himalayas or Himadri or Himagiri Mahabharat are some of the important
comprises all major mountain ranges of ranges.
the Himalayas. • The Middle Himalayas are famous for
• The average height of these mountains their valleys like Kulu, Kashmir, Kangra
is 6000m and average width is around etc.
120 – 190 km. • Most popular hill stations are in these
• They are the most continuous range mountains like Shimla, Ranikhet,
consisting of the loftiest peaks and Darjeeling, Nainital etc
contain all the prominent Himalayan 1.1.3 Shiwalik or the Outer
peaks. The core of this part of Himalayas Himalayas
is composed of granite.
• Shiwalik ranges are the southernmost
• They are perennially snowbound, and
hills of the Himalayas.
a number of glaciers descend from this
range • It is separated from the Lesser Himalayas
at some places by flat-bottomed Valleys.
• Mount Everest (8850m) – the highest peak
in the world, Mt. Kanchenjunga (8586m), • The ancient name of this range was
Mt. Makalu (8481m), Mt. Dhaulagiri ‘Upgiri’.
(8172m) are some of the important peaks • The Outer Himalayas makes almost a
of this mountain range. continuous chain of more than 2400 km
• Other prominent Ranges include Kamet, from the Indus gorge in the northwest to
Nanga Parbat and Annapurna. the Brahmaputra in Assam.
• The Ganga and the Yamuna, two rivers • The width of Shiwaliks is 10 – 15 km and
originate from this Himalaya. the height seldom exceeds 1300 m.
• The southern slopes of Shiwalik range
1.1.2 Himachal or the Lesser
in Punjab and Himachal Pradesh are
Himalayas almost devoid of forest cover. These
• Lesser Himalayas or Middle Himalayas slopes are highly dissected by seasonal
or Himachal is the middle section of the streams called Chaos.
vast Himalaya Mountain. • There exist many longitudinal valleys
• The range lies between the Great between the Shiwaliks and Himachal,

9
 running parallel to the mountains and and Dhaola Dhar are the main ranges of
are called ‘Duns’, like Dehradun, Kotli this section.
Dun, Patli Dun. • Zojila, Rohtang, BaraLacha la and
ShipkiLa are important passes.
Shivalik Hills were formed by the
accumulation of conglomerates (sand, • This area has the beautiful valleys of
stone, silt, gravel, debris etc). These Kullu, Kangra and Lahaul and Spiti
conglomerates, in the initial stages of • It is also home to the beautiful Kashmir
deposition, obstructed the courses of the Valley and the Dal lake.
rivers draining from the higher reaches
of the Himalayas and formed temporary • The Dal lake presents a very unique and
lakes. With the passage of time, these interesting physical feature. The Jhelum
temporary lakes accumulated more and river in the Kashmir valley is still in its
more conglomerates. The conglomerates youth stage and yet it forms meanders
were well settled at the bottom of the
lakes. When the rivers were able to cut Meanders are a physical feature which
their courses through the lakes filled with is associated with the mature stage
conglomerate deposits, the lakes were of evolution in the formation of fluvial
drained away leaving behind plains called landforms. In Kashmir valley the meanders
‘duns’ or ‘doons’ in the west and ‘duars’ in are caused by local base level of sediment
the east. (karewas) left by the formerly existing
large lake (which existed millions of years
On the basis of relief, alignment of ranges
ago) in that place leaving behind finer
and similar geomorphological features, the
sediments. The Dal lake we see now is a
Himalayas are divided into the following
smaller part of that former large lake.
subdivisions.
• Kashmir or North-western Himalayas • Siachen and Baltoro glaciers are found
• Himachal and Uttaranchal Himalayas in this region
• Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas • Kumaon or Central Himalayas
• Arunachal Himalayas • The Himalayas lying in between Satluj
and Kali rivers (320 km) is known as the
• Eastern Hills and Mountains
Kumaon or Central Himalayas and is
On the basis of regions, from west to east, extensively in the state of Uttarakhand.
three regions have been demarcated by the
ŠŠ Its western part is called Garhwal
presence of river valleys.
Himalaya while the eastern part is
Kashmir and Himachal Himalayas known as Kumaon Himalaya
• The Himalayan region between Indus ŠŠ The general elevation is higher as
and Sutlej rivers (560km) is traditionally compared to Punjab Himalayas
known as the Punjab Himalayas but ŠŠ Nanda Devi, Kamet, Trishul are
regionally is known as Kashmir and important peaks.
Himachal Himalayas.
ŠŠ The sources of sacred rivers like the
• The northern slopes are gentler and are Ganga and Yamuna are located in the
bare and show plains with lakes, while the Kumaon Himalayas
southern slopes are rugged and forested.
ŠŠ Nainital, Sattal and Bhimtal are
• Karakoram, Ladakh, Pir Panjal, Zaskar important lakes
10
 ŠŠ The Valley of Flowers is also situated • This region has a moderate slope and
in this region the thick soil cover with very high organic
ŠŠ This region is famous for the formation content and has well distributed rainfall
of Duns. Dehradun1 is the largest and throughout the year. Taking advantage of
the most famous dun in this region. these physical conditions, the britishers
introduced tea plantations in this region.
ŠŠ The places of pilgrimage like Gangotri,
Yamunotri, Kedarnath and Hemkund • This place is characterized by the
Sahib are situated in this region presence of ‘Duars’, which are the same
as duns of West Himalayas.
Nepal Himalayas • The extreme east part of this region is
• The area between Kali and Tista rivers called Arunachal Himalayas. Important
(800 km) is the Nepal Himalayas peaks are Namcha Barwa and Kangtu.
• This is the tallest section of the Himalayas • The Brahmaputra flows through this
and is crowned by several peaks of region along with many tributaries like
perpetual snow Kameng, Subansiri, Dibang, Lohit and
Dihang.
• Mainly in Nepal, this part comprises of
all three ranges of Himalayas : Himadri, • These extreme eastern parts of the
Himachal and Shiwaliks Himalayas have the maximum potential
of hydro-electric power in the country.
• Important peaks in this region are Mount
Everest, Kanchenjunga, Lhotse I, Makalu, • The Arunachal Himalayas have numerous
Dhaula Giri and Annapurna ethnic tribal communities inhabiting this
region like Monpa, Daffla, Mishmi, Abor,
• Kathmandu is a famous valley in this
Nishi and Nagas. These communities
region
practice shifting or Jhum cultivation.
• The higher reaches of this region are
• This region is extremely rich in biodiversity.
inhabited by the Lepcha tribes.
Assam Himalayas
• The Himalayan part between Tista
and Dihang rivers is called the Assam
Himalayas.
• The Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas
are a part of this region. It is a relatively
smaller area but is characterized by
fast flowing rivers like Tista and deep
valleys.
• This region has a mixed population of
Nepalis, Bengalis and tribal population.
1 The valleys of the Great Himalayan region are
inhabited by Bhotias who are a nomadic group
who practice trans-humance. In the wsummers
they migrate to the Bugyals which are the summer
grasslands of higher reaches and then during the
winter months they return to the valleys to avoid the
cold harsh winters of the higher reaches.

11
Important Mountain Passes in • Zoji La Pass: It is a high mountain pass in
Himalayas Kashmir, located on the Indian National
Highway 1D between Srinagar and Leh
• Banihal Pass: This mountain pass in the western section of the Himalayan
separates the Kashmir Valley in the Indian mountain range.
State of Jammu and Kashmir from the
Outer Himalayas and plains to the south. 1.2 The Trans-Himalayan
• Jelep La Pass: It is a high mountain pass Mountains
between India and Tibet in Sikkim. The
pass connects Lhasa (Tibet) to India • Himalayan Ranges immediately to the
north of the Great Himalayan Range are
• Karakoram Pass: The Karakoram pass is
called the Trans Himalayas.
between India and China and is located
in the Karakoram Range. • It includes the mountain ranges of
Karakoram, Zanskar, Ladakh and
• Mana Pass: It is a mountain pass in the
Kailash ranges.
Himalayas on the border between India
and Tibet. It is located in Uttarakhand • It is also called the Tibet Himalayas
because most of it lies in the Tibet region.
• Nathu La Pass: It connects the Indian
state of Sikkim with China’s Tibet • It stretches 1000km from east to west
Autonomous Region. This pass is of and average height is about 3000m.
strategic importance in respect with
1.2.1 Karakoram Range
Indo-China relations.
• It forms India’s frontier with Afghanistan
• Rohtang Pass: It connects the Kullu valley
and China. It is the northernmost range
with Lahaul and Spiti valleys of Himachal
in the Trans-Himalayan Mountains.
Pradesh. Manali-Leh Highway, a part of
NH 21, transverses Rohtang Pass. • The average width of this range is 120
– 140 km. Most peaks hardly ever fall
• Shipki La Pass: It is a mountain pass and
below 5,500 m. Some of the peaks are
border post on the India-Tibet border.
more than 8,000 m above sea level.
The river Satluj enters India from Tibet
through this pass. • K2 is the 2nd highest peak in the world
& the highest in India. It is also known as
Godwin Austen.
1.2.2 Ladakh Range
• This part of the Trans Himalayan Ranges
lies to the north of Leh.
• The Ladakh Plateau lies to the north-
east of the Karakoram Range. It has
been dissected into a number of plains
and mountains. It is the highest plateau
of Indian Union and has many plains like
Soda plains and Aksai Chin.
• This range merges with the Kailash range
in Tibet.

12
1.2.3 Zanskar Range: chain to Sunda.
• This part of Trans Himalayas is situated in • The elevation of the Eastern Hills
the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir. decreases from north to south and it is
characterized by rough terrain, dense
• The average height is about 6000 m. forests and swift streams. All these
• This range separates Zanskar from Ranges are generally 2,000m or less in
Ladakh. height.
1.2.4 Kailash Mountain Range • This region receives the most of
monsoonal rainfall and therefore is
• Kailash range is one of the highest and covered with lush dense green forests.
most rugged parts of the Trans Himalayas.
It is located in the southwestern part of • Such green cover in the hills often makes
the Tibet. them inaccessible.

• Mount Kailash is an important holy site • Mawsynram, a village near Cherrapunji in

for both Hindus and Buddhist. Meghalaya is the wettest place on earth,
receiving the highest annual rainfall.
• It is the origin of the river Indus.
• These hills are inhabited by tribal groups
who practice jhum cultivation
It comprises of the following hills –
• Mishmi hills – Contains the loftiest range
of the Purvanchal. Dapha Bum is its
highest peak.
F ig :T rans -H imalayan M ountains • Patkai Bum Range – It is the northernmost
range forming the easternmost limit
1.3 The Purvanchal Or Eastern of the Great Himalaya Mountains, has
synclinal structure and is made up of
Hills And Mountains Tipam sandstone.
• After crossing the Dihang gorge • Naga Hills – It lies south to the Patkai
(Brahmaputra gorge) in Arunachal Bum and Saramati (3826m) is its highest
Pradesh, the Himalayas suddenly peak. Patkai Bum and Naga hills form the
turn southward and form a series of watershed between India and Myanmar.
comparatively low hills running in the
shape of a crescent with its convex side • Manipur Hills – It is south to Naga hills
pointing towards the west. and form boundary between Manipur
and Myanmar. Its central part is a large
• These hills are collectively called the basin which appears to be bed of an old
Purvanchal because they are located in lake, a remnant of which occupies the
the eastern part of the country. It extends south-east corner of the basin and is
from Arunachal Pradesh in the north to known as Loktak Lake. The Barail Range
Mizoram in the south and form boundary separates Naga Hills from Manipur hills.
between India and Myanmar.
• Mizo Hills (Lushai Hills) – It lies south to
• The Indo-Burma hill range is a part of the the Manipur hills and its highest point is
Arakan Yoma Suture zone that stretches the Blue Mountain (2157m) in the south.
south through Andaman – Nicobar island Mizoram is known as the Molassis basin

13
 which is made up of soft unconsolidated westerly jet streams into two branches
deposits. such that the southward branch entering
India plays a significant role in bringing
the monsoon.
• Source Region of Rivers: The Himalayas
is the abundant reservoir of Great
Indian rivers such as Ganga, Indus and
Brahmaputra. The snow melt in summer
and precipitation in winter makes
them perennial rivers. i.e, having water
throughout the year. The abundant
waterfall, huge snowfield and large
glaciers feed these drainage systems.
The Himalayan Rivers give life to the
northern India.
• Fertility of Soil: The entire northern
Significance of Northern Mountains plains were made by the Himalayas. The
Himalayan Rivers carry slits on their way
• Physical barriers: It acts as a compound
down and deposit in the northern plain.
wall that separates India from central
These alluvial deposits are responsible for
and East Asian countries. It also accounts
the high fertility of this land. Therefore, it
for the difference in climatic and weather
is often said that northern great plain is a
patterns between Indian sub-continent
gift of Himalayas.
from the rest of Asia.
• Hydro Electric Power Projects: The
• Natural frontier: The Himalayas acts as a
Himalayan valley with natural waterfalls
defense barrier and have been protecting
offers the best location for construction
India from foreign invasions since early
of dams. The vast potential of Himalayan
times. History gives us the evidence
Rivers offers a great range for construction
that no invaders attacked India after
of many mainstream dams.
crossing the Himalayas. Even though
China’s aggression is an exception, the • Biodiversity and Vegetation: The
significance of Himalayas cannot be Himalayan ranges are famous for its
ignored completely. rich biodiversity. There is altitudinal
zonation of vegetation from the tropics
• Climatic Influence: The Himalayas play
to the alpine. The forests provide fuel
a very important role in influencing the
wood, medicinal plants and various raw
climate of India. India is a monsoon
materials that are needed for the forest
land only because of the presence of
based industries.
Himalayas. It traps the monsoon winds
from Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal • Agriculture: The Himalayas does not have
and forces them to shed their moisture much flat lands but offer slopes that are
content within the Indian sub-continent terraced for cultivation. The major crop
in the form of snow and rain. It also blocks is rice. Crops like wheat, maize, potatoes,
the cold winter storms of East Asia from ginger, and tobacco are also cultivated.
entering India, thus protecting us from Tea is a unique crop which grows only on
severe cold. The Himalayas splits the hill slopes. Many fruits such as apples,
pears, peaches, mulberries, cherries
14
 along with citrus fruits are grown in the about 5, 80,000 sq km.
Himalayan region. • The Great Plains of Northern India
• Mineral Resources: Himalayan region was formed by the sediments or
contains many valuable mineral resources. alluvial deposits brought down by the
The tertiary rocks have vast potential Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputra and their
of mineral oil. Coal is found in Kashmir. tributaries and it of the Himalayas.
Also minerals such as Copper, Cobalt, • The rivers which were previously flowing
Nickel, Zinc, Lead, Antimony, Tungsten, into Tethys sea (Before Indian Plate
Limestone, Gypsum and Magnetite are collided with Eurasian Plate) deposited
also present in the Himalayan locality. huge amount of sediments in the Tethys
Gold, Silver and other semi-precious and Geosyncline.
precious stones are also found in the
feature of Himalayan region. • After the upliftment of the Himalayas,
sediments and debris brought down by
• Tourism: The beautiful landscapes the rivers, began to accumulate there to
on Himalayan mountain offer a great form the vast alluvial plain of northern
tourist spots. Increasing popularity of India.
winter sports, snowfall and the cool
climate, when neighboring places are • This extensive plain is level and
under the scorching heat of summer monotonous; it is characterized by some
attracts millions of tourists from different local diversities
parts of the world. Hill stations such as
Mussouri, Shimla, Kulu, Manali, Nainital, 2.1 From north to south, these
Chamba, Ranikhet, Almora, Darjeeling, plains can be divided into three
Mirik, Gangtok etc provide huge scope of
tourism due to its scenic beauty as well
major zones:
as healthy environment. 2.1.1 Bhabar
• Pilgrimage: The Himalayas is known • Bhabar is a porous narrow belt found in
as the house of Gods. Apart from its the northern-most stretch of the Great
tourist places, the region is studded Plains.
with sanctified shrines. Kedarnath,
Badrinath, Vaishnodevi, Kailash, • It is about 8-16 km wide running in an
Amarnath, Tungnath, Uttarkashi, east-west direction along the foothills
Gangotri, Yamunotri etc which are at (alluvial fans) of the Shiwaliks.
high altitudes are famous pilgrim centers • Rivers descending from the Himalayas
in the Himalayas. deposit their load along the foothills in
the form of alluvial fans. These alluvial
The Northern Plains fans have merged together to build up
the bhabar belt.
• The Great Plains of Northern India lies on
• The porosity of bhabar is the most unique
the south of the Himalayas. It is, in fact,
feature. This porosity is due to deposition
bounded by the Himalayas in the north
of huge number of pebbles and rock
and the Deccan plateau on the south.
debris across the alluvial fans.
• This plain stretches for about 3,200 km
• The streams disappear once they reach
from east to west and 200 to 400 km
the bhabar region because of this
from north to south. It covers an area of

15
 porosity. Therefore, the area is marked • The Brahmaputra plains are famous
by dry river courses except in the rainy for the riverine islands and sandbars.
season. These areas are very prone to floods and
• The Bhabar belt is comparatively narrow shifting river courses.
in the east and extensive in the western • Bhanger:
and north-western hilly region. ŠŠ The Bhangar is the older alluvium
• The area is not suitable for agriculture along the river beds forming terraces
and only big trees with large roots thrive higher than the floodplain.
in this belt. ŠŠ The terraces are often impregnated
2.1.2 Terai with calcareous concretions known as
‘Kankar’.
• South of the Bhabar belt is the Terai belt.
ŠŠ ‘The Barind plains’ in the deltaic region
• Terai is an ill-drained, damp (marshy) and of Bengal and the ‘bhur formations’ in
thickly forested narrow tract to the south the middle Ganga and Yamuna doab
of Bhabar running parallel to it. are regional variations of Bhangar.
• The Terai is about 15-30 km wide. ŠŠ Bhur denotes an elevated piece of land
• The underground streams of the Bhabar situated along the banks of the Ganga
belt re-emerge in this belt. river, especially in the upper Ganga-
Yamuna Doab. This has been formed
• This thickly forested region provides
due to accumulation of wind-blown
shelter to a variety of wildlife. Jim
sands during the hot dry months of the
Corbett National Park in Uttarakhand
year.
and Kaziranga National Park in Assam
lie in terai region. • Khadar:
• The Terai is more marked in the eastern ŠŠ The Khadar is composed of newer
part than in the west because the eastern alluvium and forms the flood plains
parts receive comparatively higher along the river banks.
amount of rainfall. ŠŠ A new layer of alluvium is deposited by
• Most of the Terai land, especially in river floods almost every year.
Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand, ŠŠ This makes them the most fertile soils
has been turned into agricultural land of Ganges.
which gives good crops of sugarcane,
rice and wheat. • It is in these plains that the world’s largest
delta is formed. The Sundarbans delta is
2.1.3 Alluvial Plains one of the most important examples.
• The south of Terai belt is characterized • Apart from these features, the Northern
by deposits of new and old alluvium Plains are overall very featureless with
deposit. Now alluvial plains are divided general elevation of only 100-150m above
into Bhanger and Khadar. the mean sea level.
• These plains have characteristic features • The State of Delhi and Haryana forms a
of mature stage of fluvial erosional and water divide between the Indus and the
depositional features such as sandbars, Ganga river system.
meanders, oxbow lakes and braided • Due to soil fertility and thriving
channels. agriculture in this region, it supports a

16
 large population. alluvium deposited near the river banks
of these rivers forms a plain called Bet.
2.2.2 The Ganga plain drained by
the Ganga
• It extends from the eastern margin of
the Punjab in the west to Bangladesh
border in the east. This is an extensive
plain encompassing states such as Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal.
• It is divided into Rohilkhand Plains,
Awadh Plains and Bihar Plains.
• It is drained by the rivers such as Yamuna,
Ganga, Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi and
Tista from the Himalayas in the north
and Chambal, Betwa, Son and Damodar
from the plateau in the south. The entire
region slopes towards south and south-
east.
2.2 On the basis of region, the
• It is monotonous alluvial plain with little
Great Plains may be classified undulation. The lower reaches of the
into three divisions Ganga plain is slightly above the sea-
level; however, the upper portion rises
2.2.1 The Punjab plain drained by up to 200 meters. The Ganga forms a
the Indus great delta on its mouth. Its deltaic part
presents the three distinctive features of
• The Western part of the Northern plain is
delta formation, such as, the mori­bund
known as the Punjab plain.
delta, mature delta and active delta.
• The plain is drained by the Indus and its
tributaries, such as, the Sutlej, Beas and Divisions of the Ganga Plains
Ravi. Only a part of the Indus basin lies • Upper Ganga plain: It stretches from the
in India. Yamuna river in the west to Allahabad
city in the east,
• The plain slopes gently down towards the
south-west; hence the rivers follow the • Middle Ganga plain: It stretches from
slope of the land. Allahabad in the west to Rajmahal hills
in the east.
• The plain is mostly made of silts. The soil
is porous. The plains that are formed by • Lower Ganga plain: It stretches from
the deposition of new alluvium near the Rajmahal hill to the Bay of Bengal.
river banks is called Bet.
2.2.3 The Brahmaputra plain
• Large boulder, gravel, sand and clay drained by the Brahmaputra
cover the foot-hill regions of the Punjab
plain and they are known as ‘Bhabar’ • It lies in the north-eastern part of the
plain or bhabar soil. country and is hemmed between the
Arunachal Himalayas in the north and
• This soil cannot hold water. The new

17
 the Meghalaya Plateau in the south. shape & surrounded by hills, composed
• The valley presents a flat plain. It is of the oldest rocks as it was formed from
formed by the debris brought down by the the drifted part of Gondwanaland.
river Brahmaputra and its innumerable • It is a tableland composed of old
tributaries. The plain seldom rises above crystalline, igneous and metamorphic
100 meters above the sea-level and rocks
slopes gently towards the west. • It has broad & shallow valleys and
• Ranges of hills are found standing on rounded hills are the characteristic
both sides of the river. features of this plateau.
• Innumerable Sandbars and islets are • This peninsular plateau is bordered by
found on the Brahmaputra and the river Western Ghats in the west, Eastern Ghats
flows out in different channels avoiding in the east, Satpura, Maikal and Mahadeo
obstacles of sandbar. hills in the north.
• Majuli Island is by far the largest sandbar • The plateau can be broadly divided into
ever formed on any other river bed in the two regions, viz. the Central Highlands
world. The green Brahmaputra valley is and the Deccan Plateau.
noted for tea plantation.
Significance of Northern Plains: 3.1 Central Highlands:
• This one fourth of the land of the country • The Central Highlands lies to the north
hosts half of the Indian population. of the Narmada River & covers the major
• Fertile alluvial soils, flat surface, slow portion of the Malwa plateau which
moving perennial rivers and favorable lies in Madhya Pradesh b/w Aravali and
climate facilitate intense agricultural Vindhyas
activity. • The Satpura range is formed by scarped
• The extensive use of irrigation has made plateaus on the south having an
Punjab, Haryana and western part of elevation varying between 600-900m
Uttar Pradesh the granary of India. above the mean sea level and forms the
northernmost boundaries of the Deccan
• The entire plain has a close network of Plateau.
roads and railways which has led to large
scale industrialization and urbanization. • The rivers in this region flow from
southwest to northeast; which indicates
• Cultural tourism: There are many the slope of this region.
religious places along the banks of the
sacred rivers like the Ganga and the • It is wider in the west and narrower in the
Yamuna which are very dear to Hindus. east.
Here flourished the religions of Budha • Most tributaries of Yamuna have their
and Mahavira and the movements of origin in the Vindhyan and Kaimur
Bhakti and Sufism. ranges.
• Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand mark
The Peninsular the eastward extension of this plateau.
They lie along the borders of UP & MP
Plateau and has been transformed into ravines
• The peninsular plateau is triangular in by extensive erosional activities of river
Chambal & its tributaries.
18
• The plateau further extends eastwards • Average elevation of 300-600m above
into the Chota Nagpur plateau located sea level, this area slopes down from
at the NE part of Peninsular plateau. It the Vindhyan Scarp toward the Yamuna
extends upto Rajmahal hills. It includes River.
the states of Jharkhand, parts of • The area is marked by a chain of hillocks
Chhattisgarh & WB. Its highest Peak is (small hill) made of granite and sandstone.
Parasnath. Chotanagpur is famous as
Patland plateau & known as Ruhr of • The erosional work of the rivers flowing
India. here have converted it into an undulating
area and rendered it unfit for cultivation.
• There are many major and minor plateaus
in this region, as follows: • Streams like Betwa, Dhasan and Ken
flow through the plateau.
3.1.1 Mewar or Marwar Plateau
3.1.3 Malwa Plateau
• It is the plateau of eastern Rajasthan.
• The Malwa Plateau roughly forms a
• Note that Marwar Plain is to the west of triangle based on the Vindhyan Hills,
Aravalis whereas Marwar plateau is to bounded by the Aravali Range in the
the east. west and Madhya Bharat Pathar to the
• The average elevation is 250-500 m north and Bundelkhand to the east.
above sea level and it slopes down • This plateau has two systems of drainage;
eastwards. one towards the Arabian sea (Narmada,
• It is made up of sandstone, shales and Tapi and Mahi), and the other towards
limestones of the Vindhyan period. the Bay of Bengal (Chambal and Betwa,
• The Banas river, along with its tributaries joining the Yamuna).
(Berach river, Khari rivers) originate in • In the north it is drained by the Chambal
the Aravali Range and flow towards and many of its right bank tributaries like
the northwest into Chambal river. The the Kali, Sindh and the Parbati. It also
erosional activity of these rivers make includes the upper courses of Sindh, the
the plateau top appear like a rolling plain Ken and the Betwa.
with less undulations. • It is composed of extensive lava flow and
3.1.2 Bundelkhand Plateau is covered with black soils.

• This plateau is bounded by Yamuna River • The general slope is towards the north
to the north, Madhya Bharat Pathar to (decreases from 600 m in the south to
the west, Vindhyan Scarplands to the less than 500 m in the north)
east and south-east and Malwa Plateau • This is a rolling plateau dissected by
to the south. rivers. In the north, the plateau is marked
• It is the old dissected (divided by a by the Chambal ravines.
number of deep valleys) upland of the 3.1.4 Baghelkhand Plateau
‘Bundelkhand gneiss’ comprising of
granite and gneiss rocks. • North of the Maikal Range is the
Baghelkhand.
• It is spreads over five districts of Uttar
Pradesh and four districts of Madhya • It is made of limestones and sandstones
Pradesh. on the west and granite in the east.
• It is bounded by the Son River in the
19
 north. • The Ranchi Plateau to the south of the
• The central part of the plateau acts as a Damodar Valley rises to about 600 m
water divide between the Son drainage above mean sea level. Most of the surface
system in the north and the Mahanadi is rolling in nature.
river system in the south. • At places it is interrupted by monadnocks
• The region is uneven with general (an isolated hill or ridge of erosion-
elevation varying from 150 m to 1,200 m. resistant (wind) rock rising above a
peneplain) and conical hills.
• The Bhanrer and Kaimur are located
close to the trough-axis. • The Rajmahal Hills forming the north
eastern edge of the Chotanagpur
• The general horizontality of the strata Plateau are mostly made of basalt and
shows that this area has not undergone are covered by lava flows.
any major disturbance.
• They run in a north-south direction and
3.1.5 ChotaNagpur Plateau rise to average elevation of 400 m.
• Chotanagpur plateau represents the
north-eastern projection of the Indian 3.2 Deccan Plateau
Peninsula. • It is the largest plateau in India, making
• It is located mostly in Jharkhand, northern up most of the southern part of the
part of Chhattisgarh and Purulia district country, lies to the south of the Narmada
of West Bengal. River & shaped as downward-pointing
triangle.
• The Son river flows in the north-west of
the plateau and joins the Ganga. • Surrounded by Satpura hills, Mahadeo
hills, Maikal range, Amarkantak hills
• The average elevation of the plateau is
and Rajmahal hills in the north; Western
700 m above sea level.
Ghats in the west and the Eastern Ghats
• This plateau is composed mainly of in the east.
Gondwana rocks.
• Volcanic in origin, made up of horizontal
• The plateau is drained by numerous layers of solidified lava forming trap
rivers and streams in different directions structure with step like appearance.
and presents a radial drainage pattern. Sedimentary layers are also found in
• Rivers like Damodar, Subarnrekaha, between the layers of solidified lava,
North Koel, South Koel and Barkar have making it inter-trapping in structure.
developed extensive drainage basins. • The average elevation of Western Ghats
• The Damodar river flows through the is 900 – 1600 metres; compared to 600
middle of this region in a rift valley from metres in case of Eastern Ghats.
west to east. • It is the home of thick dark soil (called
• Gondwana coal fields which provide bulk regur), suitable for cotton cultivation
of coal in India are located in this region. • Dissection of the plateau by different
• North of the Damodar river is the rivers has further created subdivisions in
Hazaribagh plateau with an average the Deccan Plateau. They are as follows:
elevation of 600 m above mean sea level. 3.2.1 Maharashtra Plateau
This plateau has isolated hills. It looks like
a peneplain due to large scale erosion. • It forms the northern most part of the

20
 plateau. covered with dense forests.
• Much of the region is dominated by ŠŠ The Maidan on the other hand is
basaltic rocks of lava origin as a result formed of rolling plains with low
of the fissure eruptions millions of years granite hills.
ago. • The plateau tapers between the Western
• The region is exposed to intensive Ghats and the Eastern Ghats in the south
weathering and due to this the region and merges with the Nilgiri hills there.
looks like a rolling plain.
3.2.3 Telangana Plateau
• The horizontal lava sheets have led to
the formation of typical Deccan Trap • The Telangana plateau consists of
topography Archaean gneisses1.
• It’s average elevation is 500-600 m
The Deccan Traps are a Large Igneous • The southern part is higher than its
Province i.e. an extremely large northern counterpart.
accumulation of igneous rocks, including
volcanic rock formations, arising when hot • The region is drained by three river
magma extrudes from inside the Earth systems:Godavari, Krishna and Penneru.
and flows out. The term "trap" has been • The entire plateau is divided into Ghats
used in geology since 1785–95 for such and the Peneplains.
staircase like rock formations.They consist
of multiple layers of solidified flood 3.2.4 Chhattisgarh Plains
basalt. Deccan Trap is prominent on the • It is a saucer shaped depression is
Maharashtra Plateau, Western India. drained by the upper Mahanadi.
• The broad and shallow valleys of • The whole basin lies between the Maikal
Godavari, Bhima and Krishna are flanked Range and the Odisha hills.
by flat-topped steep sided hills and • The basin is laid with nearly horizontal
ridges. beds of limestone and shales.
• The entire area is covered by black cotton • The general elevation of the plain ranges
soil known as regur which is extremely from 250 m in the east to 330 m in the
beneficial for the growth of cotton. west.
3.2.2 Karnataka Plateau
• The Karnataka Plateau is also known as
the Mysore plateau and lies to the south
of the Maharashtra plateau.
• The area has an average elevation of
600-900 m.
• It is highly dissected by numerous rivers 1 Peninsular Gneiss is a term coined to highlight the
rising from the Western Ghats. older gneissic complex of the metamorphics found
all over the Deccan Plateau. Archean Gneiss and
• The plateau is divided into two parts schists are the oldest rock in this region. Archean
called Malnad and Maidan. is one of the four geologic eons which occurred
about 4000 million years ago. The archean gneiss
ŠŠ The Malnad in Kannada means hill is a metamorphic rock that was formed during that
country. It is dissected into deep valleys period.

21
 3.3 Northeastern Plateau:
Now a very important component of the • It is basically an extension of the main
Deccan Plateau is the Western and the
peninsular plateau.
Eastern Ghats:

Western Ghats Eastern Ghats

They stretch from river Tapi in the north to They stretch from Mahanadi valley in the
Kanyakumari in the south, running parallel north to Nilgiris in the south, following the
to the west coast of India east coastline
Average width: 50-80km Average width: 100-200km
Most peninsular rivers have their origin in No major river has their origin in the Eastern
the Western Ghats ghats
They are continuous and can be crossed They comprise of discontinuous and low hills.
only through passes
Average elevation: 900-1000m Average elevation: 600m
Therefore elevation is higher Elevation is lesser than western ghats
Western ghats receives orographic type of Eastern ghats lie parallel to the direction
rainfall. The South-west monsoon coming of monsoons of Bay of Bengal branch and
from the Arabian sea brings heavy rainfall therefore does not cause much rainfall.
Western Ghats are locally known Eastern ghats are known as Maliya and
as Sayhadris (Maharashtra), Nilgiri Madugula Konda ranges in Odisha,
(Karnataka and Tamil Nadu) Annamalai Nallamalai and Palkonda ranges in Andhra
and cardamom hills (Kerala) Pradesh
Southwards they are presented as detached
low hills like Javadi, Chevroy, Panchaimalai,
Sirumaial, Varushnad hills.
Highest peak: Anai Mudi Highest peak: Jindhagadha

22
• The force exerted during the movement • The topography is undulating with
of the Indian plate created a huge predominance of longitudinal dunes or
fault between Rajmahal hills and the barchans1.
Meghalaya Plateau called the Malda • Other features include mushroom rocks,
fault. shifting dunes and oasis.
• It comprises of Meghalaya and Karbi • It is the 9th largest desert in the world.
Anglong plateau which are detached The vegetation in the Thar is semi-arid
from the main block. type with thorny bushes.
• The Meghalaya plateau is divided into • Luni is the only prominent river but some
three parts- Garo hills, Khasi hills and streams appear during the rainy season.
Jaintia hills named after the predominant
tribals in those areas • The subtropical desert climate there
results from persistent high pressure and
• The Meghalaya plateau receives subsidence at that latitude. The prevailing
maximum rainfall and stands devoid of southwest monsoon winds that bring rain
any permanent vegetation cover. to much of the subcontinent in summer
• It is also rich in mineral resources like tend to bypass the Thar to the east.
coal, iron-ore, limestone, uranium etc. • The name Thar is derived from thul, the
general term for the region’s sand ridges.
Indian Desert • The surface consists of aeolian (wind-
• Thar Desert, also called Great Indian deposited) sand that has accumulated
Desert, arid region of rolling sand hills over the past 1.8 million years.
on the Indian subcontinent. It is located • The desert presents an undulating
partly in Rajasthan, northwestern surface, with high and low sand dunes
India, and partly in Punjab and Sindh separated by sandy plains and low barren
provinces, eastern Pakistan and covers hills, or bhakars, which rise abruptly from
some 200,000 square km. the surrounding plains. The dunes are in
• This region gets scanty rainfall which is continual motion and take on varying
less than 150 mm in a year, Hence they shapes and sizes.
climate is arid and vegetation is scanty. • Older dunes, however, are in a semi-
• These physical conditions lend it the stabilized or stabilized condition, and
name of Marusthali. many rise to a height of almost 150 metres
above the surrounding areas. Several
• It is believed that during the mesozoic playas (saline lake beds), locally known
era this entire region was submerged as dhands, are scattered throughout the
under the sea corroborated by the fact region.
that wood fossils and marine deposits
were discovered at Aakal and Bhramsar • The soils consist of several main groups—
near Jaisalmer, respectively. desert soils, red desert soils, sierozems
(brownish gray soils), the red and yellow
• The underlying rock structure of the soils of the foothills, the saline soils of the
desert is an extension of the peninsular
plateau but the surface features have 1 Barchans are crescent shaped sand dunes. They
face the wind, appearing convex and are produced
been carved heavily due to wind erosion by wind action predominantly from one direction.
and weathering. They are a very common landform in sandy deserts
all over the world and are arc-shaped.

23
 depressions, and the lithosols (shallow into Western and Eastern Coastal Plains.
weathered soils) and regosols (soft loose
soils) found in the hills. 5.1 Eastern Coastal Plains:
• All those soils are predominantly coarse- • The east coastal plain begins from the
textured, well-drained, and calcareous north with the plains formed by the
(calcium-bearing). A thick accumulation Subarnarekha River to extend to the
of lime often occurs at varying depths. south till Kanyakumari. It thus stretches
The soils are generally infertile and for nearly 1500 km, with nearly a width
because of severe wind erosion, are of 100 km.
overblown with sand.
• To the east of this plain lies the extensive
• The desert vegetation is mostly blue waters of the Bay of Bengal and to
herbaceous or stunted scrub; drought- the west of the plain lies the Eastern Ghat
resistant trees occasionally dot the hills. Compared to the Western Coastal
landscape, especially in the east. On the Plain, the East Coastal Plain is wider.
hills, gum arabic acacia and euphorbia
may be found. The khajri tree grows • The deltas of the Mahanadi, Godavari,
throughout the plains. Krishna and Kaveri rivers have formed
nearly 25% of the area of this plain. The
• Rajasthan Desert comprises the three soil of the deltas is very fertile therefore
cities - Jaisalmer, Bikaner and Jodhpur agriculture is very productive. Specially
which is commonly known as the desert and delta of the river Krishna is very
triangle. fertile and is known as the ‘Granary of
• Based on orientation, the desert is divided South India’.
into northern (sloping towards Sindh) and • The East coastal plains show the
southern part (sloping towards Rann of presence of many sand dunes, lagoons
Kachchh). and varieties of marshland. They are
connected to the sea very slightly, e.g. –
The Coastal Plains Chilka Lake in the Utkal coast, Kolleru
and Pulicat lakes in the Andhra coast.
• The Peninsular plateau is flanked by
stretch of narrow coastal strips which run • The East Coastal Plain can be subdivided
along the Arabian Sea on the west and into: Coromandel Coast and North
along the Bay of Bengal on the east. Sircar Coast
While according to states, it can be divided
• India has a total coastline of 6100km
into:
along the mainland.
• The straight and regular coastline of 5.1.1 Orissa or Utkal coastal plain:
India is the result of faulting of the • Utkal coast extends between Chilika
Gondwanaland during the Cretaceous Lake and Kolleru Lake.
period. As such the coast of India does
• These coastal plains are much wider
not offer many sites for good natural
than the western coastal plains.
harbours.
• The region is vastly affected by immense
• The coastal plains in India are situated
rainfall.
parallel to the Arabian Sea and the Bay
of Bengal. On the basis of location and • It is also vulnerable to cyclones.
active geomorphic processes, it is divided • In this region, rice, coconut and banana
24
 are widely cultivated. the major ones.
5.1.2 Andhra coastal plain: • The Kerala coast has some lakes, lagoons
and backwaters, the largest being the
• Andhra coast extends between Kolleru Vembanad Lake.
Lake and Pulicat Lake.
• The western coastal plains are an example
• The region is a basin area of two very of submerged coastal plain. Because
important rivers- Krishna and Godavari. of this submergence, it is a narrow belt
Due to this, the region is very fertile. and provides natural conditions for the
• These coastal plains are very wide. development of ports and harbours.
Following are the subdivisions of the West
5.1.3 Tamil Nadu coastal plain:
Coastal Plain:
• Coromandel coast extends between
Pulicat Lake and Kanyakumari in Tamil
5.2.1 The Coastal Plains of Gujarat
Nadu. • This forms the north portion of the west
• This region remains dry in summer and coast.
receives rainfall in the winter from the • This region is also called Kachchh or
north-east monsoons. Kathiawar coast
• It is quite wide.
5.2 Western Coastal Plains
• The lowland was formed due to the
• It stretches from the Rann of Kachchh in deposition of silt brought mainly by the
the north to Kanyakumari in the South. Indus which drained into this region in
• To the East it is bounded by the steep the past.
slopes of the Western Ghat and to the • The lowland in the Kachchh region form
west lays the Arabian Sea. marshes and are called Rann. In the
• Compared to the East Coastal Plain, this monsoon this entire Rann region lies
West coastal plain is narrower. under water.
• The west coastal plain becomes narrower • Kachchh is divided into Great Rann in
gradually from the Kachchh coast to the north and Little Rann in the east.
Kanyakumari. • Between Great Rann and Rocky mainland
• Unlike the East coastal plain which has lies the Banni Plains.
large rivers and their wide mouths or • Kathiawar is situated to the south of
large deltas, the west coast has short Kachchh.
rivers coming down swiftly from the
• The plains of Gujarat are made up of
western slopes of the Western Ghat,
black soil.
draining into the Arabian Sea without
forming any deltas. 5.2.2 The Coastal Plain of the Konkan
• The coastal plain is dotted with a large • From Daman in the north to Goa in the
number of coves (very small bay), creeks south lays the Konkan Coastal Plain.
(a narrow, sheltered waterway such as an
• This plain extends for 500 km but is very
inlet in a shoreline or channel in a marsh)
narrow and broken.
and a few estuaries.
• The Konkan coast is characterised by
• The estuaries of Narmada and Tapi are
subduction and erosional features.

25
• The lowlands in the region are marked by • There has been a slight emergence in this
low hills separated by river courses which part of the western coast.
end in creeks and estuaries near the sea.
Comparison between the two coasts:
• In this region, rice and cashew are
important crops. Western Coastal Plains Eastern Coastal Plains
• Through the northern part of this coast They extend They extend from
flows the Baitarani River. from Kachchh to Sunderbans to
Kanyakumari. Kanyakumari.
5.2.3 The Coastal Plains of They are parallel to the They are parallel to the
Karnataka Western Ghats. Eastern Ghats.
• South of the Konkan coast starts the They are further They are further
coastal plains of Karnataka between Goa divided into coastal divided into coastal
in the north and Mangalore in the south, plains of Kachchh, plains of Utkal, Andhra
Konkan, Kannada and and Coromandel.
for 225 km, also called the Kannada coast
Malabar.
• Though this coastal plain starts narrow, it
They are narrower and They are broader than
is wider near Mangalore. elongated. the western coast.
• At many places along the coast, the plain These are submerged These are emergent
is sandy and at some places the Western coastal plains. coastal plains.
Ghat reaches the sea. To the east of this
The rivers flowing Well-developed delta
plain lies the highest waterfall of India,
through western formed by the rivers
called Jog or Gersoppa (275 meters.) coastal plains do not flowing through the
which falls across the Sharavati River. form any delta. eastern coastal plains.
• The region is rich in iron deposits. Important natural ports Less number of ports
are located on the and harbours are
5.2.4 The Coastal Plains of Malabar western coast- Kandla, there like Chennai,
• The extreme southern part of the west Jawaharlal Nehru Visakhapatnam
Port Trust, Marmagao,
coast plain lies in the state of Kerala and
Mangalore, Cochin.
is called the Malabar Coast.
• Compared to the Konkan and Karnataka
Coastal plains this is the widest at 25 km
on average.
• There are lagoons in the area which runs
parallel to the coast in southern Kerala.
• There are many sand dunes, lakes or
lagoons along the Malabar Coast. The
local people call these lagoons Kayal like
the 80 km long Vembanad Kayal near
Kochi and the Ashtamudi Kayal near
Kollan (Quilon) are famous.
• The kayals receive the water from a large
number of rivers before discharging to
the sea with which they are connected
with narrow openings.

26
Significance of Coastal Plains
Region The Islands
• In the physiography of India, there are
• These plains are agriculturally very two major Island groups. They are in the
productive. The western coast grows Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea.
specialized tropical crops while eastern
coasts witnessed a prompt growth in rice • There are a number of small and large
production. islands, some of which are of volcanic
origin, while some are of coral origin.
• The delta regions of eastern coastal
plains have a good network of canals • The coastal line of these islands has coral
across the river tributaries. deposits and beautiful beaches.
• Coastal plains are a source of salt, • They have equatorial type of vegetation
monazite (used for nuclear power) and and receive convectional rainfall.
mineral oil and gas as well as centres of • These islands are mostly flat and hardly
fisheries. a few metres above sea level.
• Although lacking in adequate natural
harbours, with a number of major and 6.1 The Bay of Bengal Islands
minor ports, coastal plains are centres • They are situated between 6°N-14°N and
of commerce and have attracted dense 92°E-94°E and consists of 572 islands.
human settlements.
• Andaman and Nicobar Islands are of
• The coastal regions of India are noted for volcanic origin. The Andaman is in North
tourist centres, fishing and salt making. and Nicobar is in South of each other.
• Coconut trees grow all along the coast. • They are separated by Ten Degree
• The entire length of the coast is dotted Channel.
with big and small ports which help in • The two principal groups of islets include
carrying out trade. Ritchie’s archipelago and Labyrinth
Coastline of emergence and Submergence Island.
• Coastline of emergence is formed either • These islands are elevated portions of
by an uplift of the land or by the lowering submarine mountain.
of the sea level. Coastline of submergence
• Barren Island is the only active volcano
is an exact opposite case.
in India and is situated in the Nicobar
• Bars, spits, lagoons, salt marshes, Islands.
beaches, sea cliffs and arches are the
typical features of emergence. 6.2 The Arabian sea Island
• The east coast of India, especially its Group
south-eastern part (Tamil Nadu coast),
appears to be a coast of emergence. The • They are known as Lakshadweep and
west coast of India, on the other hand, is Minicoy Islands.
both emergent and submergent. • They are located near the Malabar
• The northern portion of the coast is coast (280-480km off the Kerala coast)
submerged as a result of faulting and the between 8°N-12°N and 71°E-74°E
southern portion, that is the Kerala coast, • They are built entirely on coral deposits.
is an example of an emergent coast.

27
• Out of the 43 islands, Minicoy is the • The islands of this archipelago have storm
largest. beaches consisting of unconsolidated
• The entire group of islands is broadly pebbles, shingles, cobbles and boulders.
divided by Eleven degree Channel, north
of which is Amini island and to the south
is Cannanore islands.

28
 UNIT THREE

INDIA: DRAINAGE
Introduction Antecedent
• Drainage: The flow of water through well
defined channels is known as drainage.
Drainage
• The rivers that existed before the
• Drainage system: The network of such
upheaval of the Himalayas and cut their
channels (rivers and their tributaries) is
courses southwards by making gorges in
called a drainage system.
the mountains are known as antecedent
• River basin: A river basin is the portion of rivers.
land drained by a river and its tributaries.
• A part of a river slope and the surrounding
It encompasses the entire land surface
area gets uplifted and the river sticks
dissected and drained by many streams
to its original slope, cutting through the
and creeks that flow downhill into one
uplifted portion like a saw and forming
another.
deep gorges: this type of drainage is
• Water divide: The line which separates called Antecedent drainage.
two adjacent drainage basins is known
• Example: Indus, Sutlej, Brahmaputra
as water divide. It is often marked by
and other Himalayan rivers that are older
an elevated area like a mountain or a
than the Himalayas
plateau.
• Watershed: The catchment area
for rainfall that is delineated as the
drainage area producing run-off is called
watershed. Generally considered as the
area contained within a divide above a
specified point on a stream.
Drainage Patterns
• Over time, a stream system achieves a
particular drainage pattern to its network
of stream channels and tributaries as is
determined by local geologic factors.
• Drainage patterns are classified on the Consequent Drainage
basis of their form and texture. Their • Consequent streams are the first streams
shape or pattern develops in response to be originated in a particular region.
to the local topography and subsurface
geology. • These streams have their courses in
accordance with the initial slope of
• Drainage channels develop where the land surface. In other words, the
surface runoff is enhanced and rock consequent streams follow the regional
materials provide the least resistance to slope. These are also called dip streams.
erosion.
• The rivers which follow the general
• The texture is governed by soil infiltration, direction of slope are known as the
and the volume of water available in a consequent rivers.
given period of time to enter the surface
• The longest stream of the whole system
of consequent streams is called master

30
 consequent.
• Most of the rivers of peninsular India are
consequent rivers. For example, rivers like
Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery.
Subsequent Drainage
• A tributary stream that is eroded along
an underlying belt of non-resistant
rock after the main drainage pattern
(Consequent River) has been established
is known as a subsequent river.
• The streams originated after the master Dendritic Pattern
consequent stream and following the • Dendritic or tree-shaped drainage
axis of the anticlines or ridges and the pattern is the most common and
strikes of beds are called subsequent widespread pattern to be found on the
streams. earth’s surface.
• The Chambal, Sind, Ken, Betwa, Tons and • The pattern is called dendritic on the
Son meet the Yamuna and the Ganga at ground that the network of tributaries
right angles. They are the subsequent of various orders and magnitudes of
drainage of the Ganga drainage system. the trunk or master stream resembles
• These streams have generally developed the branches and roots and rootlets of
after the original stream. a tree.
• The dendritic pattern is associated with
Superimposed the areas of homogeneous lithologies,
horizontal or very gently dipping strata,
Drainage flat and rolling extensive topographic
surface having extremely low reliefs.
• Superimposed stream means a drainage
that is formed when the nature and
characteristics of the valleys and flow
direction of a consequent stream
developed on the upper geological
formation and structure are superim­
posed on the lower geological formation
of entirely different characteristics.
• When a river flowing over a softer rock
stratum reaches the harder basal rocks
but continues to follow the initial slope, it
seems to have no relation with the harder
rock bed. This type of drainage is called
superimposed drainage.

31
Trellised Pattern of weaknesses (e.g. faults and fractures
and joints) of the rocks in the rectangular
• Trellised drainage patterns are formed pattern.
by the network of tributaries and master
consequent streams which follow the • The second line of difference between
regional slope and are well adjusted to these two drainage patterns is re­
the geological structures. lated to the spacing of streams i.e. the
rectangular pattern is characterized by
• Such patterns are developed in the area widely spaced tributaries while trellised
of simple folds characterized by parallel pattern has a dense mesh of closely
anticlinal ridges alternated by parallel spaced tributaries.
synclinal valleys.
• Several streams develop on both flanks
of the ridges and join the longitudinal
synclinal streams at right angle. These
tributary streams are called lateral
consequent streams.
• Thus the resultant network of numerous
longitudinal streams and transverse or
lateral consequents is called trellised
pattern.

Radial Pattern
• Radial drainage pattern, also known as
centrifugal pattern, is formed by the
streams which diverge from a central
higher point in all directions.
• The streams emerge at the central point
of the aforesaid reliefs and drain down
the slopes in all directions. Since the
streams follow the slopes and hence
they are basically consequent streams.
• These streams resemble the spokes of a
wheel or the radii of a circle.

Rectangular Pattern
• Rectangular pattern shows some degree
of resemblance to trellised drainage
pattern as tributary streams in both
the patterns join their master streams
almost at right angle but the confluence
angle is guided by the strikes and dip
angle of the rock beds in case of Trellised
pattern while it is determined by the lines

32
Centripetal Drainage
• Centripetal or inland drainage pattern is
opposite to the radial drainage pattern
because it is characterized by the streams
which converge at a point which is
generally a depression or a basin.
• This pattern is formed by a series of
streams which after emerging from
surrounding uplands converge in a
central low land which may be a
depression, or a basin or a crater lake.

Drainage System in India

• Indian drainage system can be divided
into various bases.
• On the basis of discharge of water, it may
be divided into Arabian Sea Drainage
and the Bay of Bengal Drainage. They
are separated from each other by the
Delhi Ridge, Aravalis and the Sahyadris.
• On the basis of the size of watershed,
drainage basins in India are grouped into:
major river basins with catchment area
Annular Pattern of more than 20,000 km sq (drainage
basins like Ganga, Brahmaputra, Krishna,
• Annular pattern, also known as ‘circular Tapi, Narmada etc), drainage basins with
pattern’ is formed when the tributaries catchment area between 2000-20,000
of the master consequent streams are km sq (like the drainage basins of river
developed in the form of a circle. Such Kalindi, Periyar, Meghna) and minor river
pattern is developed over a mature and basins with catchment area less than
dissected dome mountain characterized 2000 km sq.
by a series of alternate bands of hard
and soft rock beds. • On the basis of the mode of origin, nature
and characteristics, the drainage system
• The differential erosion of hard and soft in India is classified into the Himalayan
rock beds results in the truncation of Drainage and the Peninsular Drainage.
the beds which produces ringed belted
structure wherein relatively resistant
beds project outward whereas the weaker 1. The Himalayan
(soft) beds form circular clefts.
Drainage
• The Himalayan drainage system has
evolved through a long geological history.

33
• Most of the Himalayan river system are entire length (longitudinal extent) of the
perennial in nature (rivers are fed by Himalayas from Assam to Punjab Plains,
melting of snow and precipitation) which onwards to Sindh and finally discharged
means they have water throughout the into Gulf of Sindh during the Miocene
year. period (5-24 million years ago)
• They receive water through melted • The remarkable continuity of Shivalik
snow from the Himalayas and also from and its lacustrine (associated with lakes )
abundant rainfall. and alluvial deposits consisting of sand,
• The two major Himalayan Rivers, the clay, boulders support this viewpoint.
Indus and the Brahmaputra originate • It is believed that in due course of time this
from the north of the mountain ranges mighty Indo-Brahma river dismembered
(trans-Himalayan Rivers). into three main drainage systems: Indus
• They have cut through the mountains with its five tributaries in the west, the
making gorges. Ganga with its several tributaries in the
central part and the Brahmaputra in the
• The Himalayan Rivers have long courses eastern part.
from their source to the sea.
• This dismemberment was due to the
• These rivers pass through giant gorges Pleistocene upheaval in the western
carved out by erosional activities carried Himalayas, including the uplift of the
on simultaneously with the uplift of the Delhi Ridge, which acted as the water
Himalayas. divide between the Indus and Ganga
• Other erosional features like V-shaped drainage systems.
valleys, rapids and waterfalls are • Similarly the down-thrusting of the
formed. Depositional features like oxbow Malda gap area between the Rajmahal
lakes, flood plains, braided channels are hills and Meghalaya plateau during mid-
formed in the middle and lower courses pleistocene period, separated the Ganga
of these rivers. river system from the Brahmaputra and
• The Himalayan Rivers have a very winding diverted these two river flows towards
and rapid course in the upper reaches but Bay of Bengal.
they show strong meandering tendency
and shift in their courses in the plain 1.2 The River Systems Of The
regions1. Himalayan Drainage
1.1 Evolution of the Himalayan 1.2.1 Indus River System
Drainage • Area: 11, 65,000 sq km (in total). In India,
• The geologists believed that there it is 321,289 sq km.
was once a mighty river called Indo- • It flows for a total length of 2880 km (1114
Brahma or Shiwalik that traversed the km in India).
1 The Kosi river (Ganga River System) frequently • The river originates in Bokhar Chu glacier
changes it course causing floods all over Bihar, in Mt. Kailash range near Mansarovar
earning the title of ‘sorrow of Bihar’. The Kosi brings Lake in Tibet at an altitude of 4164 m.
huge quantities of sediments from its upper reaches
and deposits them in the plains. In this way, due to • It is known as Singi Khamban or lion’s
overdue of sediments its course gets blocked and mouth in Tibet.
consequently the river changes it course.

34
• It flows westwards and enters into in Himachal. Chenab or Chandrabhaga
India in Jammu and Kashmir (between flows for 1180 km before entering Pakistan.
Ladakh and Zanskar ranges), further • The Ravi rises west of Rohtang pass in
flows through Himachal Pradesh, Punjab the Kullu hills of Himachal Pradesh. It
and enters Pakistan near Chillar in the flows through the Chamba valley of
Dardistan region. Himachal. It enters Pakistanand joins the
• It cuts across the Ladakh range and river Chenab at Sarai Sindhu and drains
forms a spectacular gorge at Gilgit in the area lying between the south eastern
J&K. part of Pir Panjal and the Dhauladhar
ranges.
• It has a large number of tributaries in
both India and Pakistan and has a total • The Beas originates from Beas Kund
length of about 2880 km from the source near Rohtang pass at an elevation of
to the point near Karachi where it drains 4000m. The river flows through the Kullu
into the Arabian Sea valley and forms gorges at Kati and Largi
in Dhauladhar range. It enters the Punjab
• It enters Indian territory in Jammu and
plains where it meets the Satluj river near
Kashmir by forming a picturesque gorge
Harike.
• It flows between the Ladakh Range and
• The Satluj originates near the Rakas lake
the Zaskar Range
near Mansarovar at an altitude of 4555
• It crosses the Himalayas through a 5181 m in Tibet, where it is known as Langchen
m deep gorge near Attock, which lies Khambab. It flows parallel to Indus for
north of the Nanga Parbat 400 km before entering India and comes
• In the Kashmir region, it joins with many out of a goge at Rupar. It passes through
tributaries – the Zaskar, the Shyok, the Shipki La pass and enters the Punjab
Nubra and the Hunza (left bank) and plains. It is an antecedent river just like
Khurram, Tochi, Sangar and Gomal Indus and is a very important tributary.
(right bank). This river feeds the canal system of
Bhakra Nangal Project.
• River flows southwards to meet
‘Panchnad’ i.e. Satluj, Ravi, Beas, Chenab Indus Water Treaty
and Jhelum, a little above Mithankot
• It is a water distribution treaty between
• The Indus river system consists of the India and Pakistan.
following rivers: Sutlej, Ravi, Beas, Chenab
• The treaty was signed in Karachi on
and Jhelum , Zanskar, Nubra and Shyok and
September 19th 1960.
Hunza
• It was signed by Jawaharlal Nehru from
• Jhelum is an important tributary of Indus
India and Pakistan President Ayub khan
rising from a spring in Verinag in South-east
Kashmir valley. It flows through Srinagar and • According Indus water treaty 20% of
Wular Lake before entering Pakistan through total water discharged by Indus can be
a deep narrow gorge. It joins Chenab near utilized by India.
Jhang in Pakistan. • As per treaty three “eastern” rivers was
• Chenab is the largest tributary of Indus. given to India while control over the three
It is formed by two streams Changra and “western” rivers was given to Pakistan.
Bhaga which joins at Tandi near Keylong • Beas, Ravi and Sutlej — was given to

35
 India RudraPrayag.
• Indus, Chenab and Jhelum — to Pakistan • But before Devprayag is reached,
Pindar, Mandakini, Dhauliganga and
Bishenganga rivers pour into the
Alaknanda and the Bheling flows into the
Bhagirathi
• The combined waters of the Bhagirathi
and the Alaknanda flows in the name of
the Ganga below Devprayag.
• After travelling 280 km from its source,
the Ganga reaches Haridwar, debouches
from the hills and enters plain area.
• From here it flows in south and south-
east direction for a distance of 770 km
1.2.2 The Ganga River System to reach Allahabad. Here it is joined by
• The Ganga river system consists of the the Yamuna which is its most important
master river Ganga and a large number tributary
of its tributaries This system drains a very • It sweeps another 300 km eastwards to
large area comprising the middle part of reach the Bihar plain. Near Rajmahal
the Himalayas in the north, the northern Hills it turns to the south­east and south
part of the Indian Plateau in the south of Farakka, it ceases to be known as the
and the Ganga Plain in-between. Ganga.
• The total area of the Ganga basin in • It bifurcates itself into Bhagirathi-Hugli
India is 861,404 sq km which accounts in West Bengal and Padma-Meghna in
for 26.3% of the geographical area of Bangladesh.
the country
• After traversing 220 km further down in
• This basin is shared by ten states. Bangladesh, the Brahmaputra (or the
These states are Uttaranchal and Uttar Jamuna as it is known here) joins it at
Pradesh (34.2%), Madhya Pradesh Goalundo and after meeting Meghna
and Chhattisgarh (23.1%), Bihar and 100 km downstream, the Ganga drains
Jharkhand (16.7%), Rajasthan (13.0%), into the Bay of Bengal
West Bengal (8.3%), Haryana (4.0%) and
• Before entering the Bay of Bengal, the
Himachal Pradesh (0.5%). The Union
Ganga, along with Brahmaputra, forms
Territory of Delhi accounts for 0.2% of
the largest delta of the world between
the total area of the Ganga Basin.
two arms: the Bhagirathi / Hugli and the
• The Ganga originates as the Bhagirathi Padma / Meghna covering an area of
from the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh 58,752 sq km
in UttarKashi District of Uttaranchal at
• The delta front of the Ganga is a highly
an elevation of 3900 metres
indented area of about 400 km. The
• Alaknanda joins it at Devprayag. The delta is made of a web of distributaries
other tributaries of Alaknanda like the and islands and is covered by dense
Pindar joins Bhagirathi at KarnaPrayag forests called the Sunderbans. A major
while Mandakini meets Bhagirathi at part of the delta is a low- lying swamp

36
 which is flooded by marine water during Chambal is famous for its badland
high tide. topography called the Chambal Ravines.
• The total length of the Ganga River from • Gandak which is a major left bank
its source to its mouth (measured along tributary originates near the Tibet-
the Hugli) is 2525 km, of which 310 km in Nepal border receives a large number
Uttaranchal, 1,140 km in Uttar Pradesh, of tributaries in Nepal Himalaya, the
445 km in Bihar and 520 km in West most outstanding being the Kali. Others
Bengal. are the Mayangadi, Bari and Trishuli.
• The remaining 110 km stretch of the The Gandak comprises of two streams -
Ganga forms the boundary between Kaligandak and Trishulganga and enters
Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The river flows the Ganga plain in Champaran district
majestically from Gangotri to Bay of of Bihar and joins Ganga at Sonpur near
Bengal with an average gradient of 9.5 Patna.
cm per km. • The Ghaghra River originates near
• The Ganga is joined by a large number the Gurla Mandhata peak, south of
of tributaries both from the left as well as Mansarovar in Tibet. Obviously it is a
from the right. Majority of them originate river of the trans-Himalayan origin and
in the Himalayan ranges but some of carries sufficient water. It is known as the
them have their sources in the Peninsular Karnaili in Western Nepal. It first flows
plateau. south-east and then south-southwest
cutting across the Great Himalaya
• Right bank tributaries are the Yamuna through a succession of steep defiles. Its
(which is a major river), and Son. major tributaries are Tila, Seti and Beri.
• Left bank tributaries: Gomti, Ghaghara, • The Kosi River is an antecedent river with
Gandak, Kosi, Ramganga. its source to the north of Mt. Everest in
• The Yamuna is the largest and the most Tibet and consists of seven streams and
important tributary of the Ganga. It is popularly known as Saptkaushiki or
originates from the Yamunotri glacier Saptakoshi. These streams flow through
on the Bandarpunch Peak in Garhwal in a large part of eastern Nepal which is
Uttaranchal, a source which is very close known as the Sapt Kaushik region. Soon
to that of the Ganga itself. The main after debouching onto the plain the
tributaries joining the river include the river becomes sluggish and large scale
Hindon, Betwa, Ken and Chambal. The deposition of eroded material takes
Tons is the largest tributary of the Yamuna. place. The river channel is braided and
The catchment of the river extends to it shifts its course frequently. This has
the states of Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, resulted in frequent devastating floods
Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan and and has converted over 10,000 sq km
Madhya Pradesh. of cultivable land into waste land in
• The Chambal river rises near Mhow in Bihar. Thus the river is often termed as
the Malwa Plateau of Madhya Pradesh. the ‘Sorrow of Bihar’. In order to tame
And flows northwards through a gorge this river, a barrage was constructed in
upwards of Kota in Rajasthan where the 1965 near Hanuman Nagar in Nepal.
Gandhisagar dam has been constructed. Embankments for flood control have
From Kota, the Chambal river traverse been constructed as a joint venture of
down to finally meet the river Yamuna. India and Nepal.

37
• The Ramganga River rises in the Garhwal Amarkantak plateau. After forming series
district of Uttaranchal at an altitude of of waterfalls at the edge of the plateau, it
3,110 m and enters the Ganga Plain near joins Ganga at Arrah, west of Patna.
Kalagarh. It joins the Ganga at Kannauj
after traversing a distance of 596 km. 1.2.3 The Brahmaputra River System
The Khoh, Gangan, Aril, Kosi, and Deoha • The Brahmaputra originates in the
(Gorra) are important tributaries which Mansarovar lake in Tibet.
join the Ramganga.
• It is slightly longer than the Indus, but
• The Kali River also rises in the high most of its course lies outside India.
glaciers of snow covered region of Milam
• It flows eastward, parallel to the
glacier of the trans-Himalaya. It has
Himalayas.
several feeders in the high ranges and
forms the boundary between Nepal and • Reaching Namcha Barwa (7757 m), it
Kumaon for most of its transit across the takes a U-turn around it and enters India
mountains. It is known as the Sarda or in Arunachal Pradesh and known as
Sarayu or Chauka after it reaches the Dihang.
plains near Tanakpur. Below this point it • The undercutting done by this river is of
takes a south-easterly course and joins the order of 5500 metres. In India, it flows
the Ghaghara. through Arunachal Pradesh and Assam,
• Damodar occupies the eastern margins and is joined by several tributaries.
of the Chota Nagpur plateau where it • The river is known as the Tsangpo in
flows through a rift valley and finally Tibet. It receives less volume of water
joins the river Hugli. Barakar is its main and has less silt in the Tibet region. The
tributary. Once Damodar was known Rango Tsangpo is the major right bank
as the Sorrow of Bengal because of tributary in Tibet.
frequent floods. But with Damodar Valley
• But in India, the river passes through a
Corporation, a multi-purpose project,
region of heavy precipitation and as
the problem of flooding by damodar has
such, the river carries large amount water
been addressed.
during rainfall and a significant amount
• The Mahananda is another tributary of of silt.
Ganga rising in the Darjeeling hills. It
• It is known for creating the calamity in
joins Ganga as its left bank tributary in
Assam and Bangladesh.
West Bengal.
• The Brahmaputra has a braided channel
for most of its passage through Assam.
There is a constant shifting of the river
channels and the sandy shoals. Majuli
which is the largest river island in Asia
lies in this river, in Assam.
• Tributaries: Buri Dihang, Dhansiri (left
bank tributaries), Subansiri, Manas,
Lohit, Kameng, Tista (right bank
tributaries)
• The Son is another important right bank • The river then enters Bangladesh under
tributary of Ganga originating in the the name of Jamuna where it merges

38
 with the river Padma 2.1 Evolution of Peninsular
• It discharges into the Bay of Bengal Drainage
• Three major past geological events have
shaped the present drainage system of
peninsular India:
ŠŠ Subsidence of the western flank of the
peninsula leading to its submergence
below the sea during early tertiary
period which has disturbed the
symmetrical plan of the river on either
side of the watershed.
ŠŠ Upheaval of the Himalayas when the
northern flank of peninsular block

2. The Peninsular
was subjected to subsidence and
consequent trough faulting. Narmada

River System and Tapi flows through these trough

faults and fill the original cracks with
• Most of the Peninsular Rivers flow detritus (waste) material. Hence there is
eastwards and enters into the Bay of a lack of alluvial and deltaic deposits
Bengal, following the general slope of in these rivers.
the land. ŠŠ Slight tilting of the peninsular block
• Only Narmada, Tapti and Sabarmati from northwest to southeastern
rivers flows westwards of the Western directions gave the orientation of the
Ghats. entire drainage system towards the
• They are good for generating hydropower Bay of Bengal.
because these rivers form rapids and
waterfalls. 2.2 Rivers of Peninsular
• They are not perennial in nature unlike Drainage System
the Himalayan Rivers.
2.2.1 Godavari River Basin
• The major peninsular rivers are Mahanadi,
• Godavari rises in Trimbakeshwar in
Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri.
the Western Ghats in Nasik district of
Maharashtra.
• It is the largest peninsular river. Its length
is about 1500 km.
• Its drainage basin is also the largest
among the peninsular rivers.
• Because of its length and the area it
covers, it is also known as the ‘Dakshin
Ganga’. Also is called Vridha Ganga.
• It flows southeast across south-central
India through the states of Madhya

39
 Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and and Tamil Nadu
Orissa, and drains into the Bay of Bengal. • Finally it reaches the Bay of Bengal in the
• The basin covers parts of Maharashtra south of Cuddalore in Tamil Nadu.
(about 50 per cent of the basin area • The river Kaveri makes the second
lies in Maharashtra), Madhya Pradesh, biggest waterfalls in India, known as
Odisha and Andhra Pradesh. Sivasamudram.
• Some of the important tributaries of • The river has many tributaries called
Godavari are Purna, Wardha, Pranhita, Arkavathy, Shimsha, Hemavati,
Manjra, Wainganga and Penganga. Amaravati, etc.
• It is a seasonal river, dried during the
summers and widened during the 2.2.4 Mahanadi River Basin
monsoons. • The Mahanadi originates from the
• The river forms a fertile delta at Satpura Range of central India and is a
Rajahmundry. river in the eastern India. Mahanadi River
rises in the Chhattisgarh basin.
• The banks of this river have many
pilgrimage sites, Nasik, Bhadrachalam, • Total length of the river is 885 km
and Triyambak. • It flows east to the Bay of Bengal. River
• The Asia’s largest rail-cum-road bridge drains of the state of Maharashtra,
which links Kovvur and Rajahmundry is Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Orissa.
located on the river Godavari. • Cuttack city is located at the apex of the
Mahanadi delta
2.2.2 Krishna River Basin
• The largest dam, the Hirakud Dam is
• The River Krishna rises from a spring near built on the river.
Mahabaleshwar in the Western Ghats.
• Its drainage basin is shared by 2.2.5 Narmada River Basin
Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra • The Narmada rises in the Amarkantak of
Pradesh. the Maikala hills in Madhya Pradesh.
• It flows around 1300 km and finally drains • It is also known as lifeline of Madhya
into Bay of Bengal. Pradesh.
• The Tungabhadra, the Koyna, the • It flows towards the west in a rift valley
Ghataprabha, the Musi and Bhima are formed due to faulting.
some of its tributaries.
• On its way to the sea, the Narmada
• Tungabhadra River is the main tributary creates many picturesque locations.
which itself is formed by the Tunga
• It outlines the traditional frontier between
and Bhadra rivers that originate in the
North India and South India. It is one of
Western Ghats.
the major rivers of peninsular India.
2.2.3 Kaveri/Cauvery River Basin • The river flows through the states
• The Kaveri rises in the Brahmagiri range of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and
of the Western Ghats Maharashtra.
• Total length of the river is about 760 km • It drains into the Arabian Sea in the
Bharuch district of Gujarat.
• Its basin drains parts of Karnataka, Kerala

40
• Currently, three dams have been built • The principal tributaries of Tapi River are
in Madhya Pradesh and one is under Waghur, Aner, Girna , Purna, Panzara
construction in Gujarat : the Sardar and Bori.
Sarovar, Indira Sagar and Maheshwar
dams.
• Local citizens formed the Narmada
Bachao Andolan (Save the Narmada
Movement), a grassroot coalition of
farmers, fisherfolks, landless farmers and
urban citizens in India, strongly opposed
to the projects and political agenda on
water and energy of the Governments of
the three Indian States.
2.2.6 Tapi River Basin
• It is one of the most important rivers of
peninsular India with the run from east
to west. 3. Smaller Rivers
• It originates in the Eastern Satpura Range
of southern Madhya Pradesh state. And Lakes
• It flows in a westward direction, draining • Beside the major rivers of India, there are
some important historic places like some smaller rivers, both of Himalayan
Madhya Pradesh’s Nimar region, East and Peninsular origin.
Vidarbha region and Maharashtra’s • The Damoder, Brahmani, Baitarani,
Khandesh in the northwest corner of Sabarmati, Luni and Subarnarekha are
the Deccan Plateau and South Gujarat some notable examples.
before draining into the Gulf of Cambay • There are many lakes in India formed out
of the Arabian Sea. of different origins like volcano lakes,
• The River Basin of Tapi River lies mostly crater lakes, tectonic lakes etc.
in eastern and northern districts of • Divisions are also made on the basis of
Maharashtra. freshwater lakes or saline lakes, natural
• The river also covers some districts of lakes or artificial lakes, inland lakes or
Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat as well. lagoons.

Difference Between Himalayan and Peninsular Rivers

Himalayan River System Peninsular River System
Most Himalayan rivers are perennial in nature. They They are seasonal in nature and are not perennial
always have water throughout the year
They receive water from the rain as well as from They receive water only from rain
melting of snow
They have long courses from source to the sea They have shorter courses from source to sea
Antecedent and consequent drainage leading to Superimposed and rejuvenated pattern resulting into
dendritic pattern radial, trellis and rectangular pattern
Very large basins Comparatively smaller basins

41
3.1 Smaller River Flowing • It flows for a length of 395 km before
outfalling into the Bay of Bengal.
Towards the East
• The major part of the basin is covered
3.1.1 Damodar River with agricultural land.
• The Damodar River rises in the Palamau 3.1.3 Baitarani - Brahmani Rivers
hills of Chota Nagpur at an elevation of
about 609 m. • The Baitarani is one of the important
east flowing rivers of peninsular India and
• It flows in a south-easterly direction joining the Bay of Bengal. The river rises
entering the deltaic plains below in the hill ranges of Keonjhar District of
Raniganj. Orissa at an elevation of about 900m.
• The catchment area of the river above The basin is surrounded by the Brahmani
the confluence is fan shaped and as such on the south and west, the Subarnarekha
is susceptible to the concentration of on the North, the Burhganbalang and
flood flows but the catchment below the the Bay of Bengal on the east. The river
confluence is narrow. is flashy in nature having a total length
of 355 km, with the upper reach up to
• The upper catchment is rough hilly areas
Anandpur in the hilly reason.
denuded of forest and vegetal cover
and is subject to erosion while the lower • The Brahmani is a major inter-state east
catchment is silt covered and fertile. flowing river amongst the peninsular
rivers in India. The basin is bounded in the
• There are no irrigation facilities in the
North by Chota Nagpur plateau, in the
upper catchment and the cultivation is
West and South by the Mahanadi basin
solely dependent on monsoon rains.
and in the East by the Bay of Bengal.
• The river is famous all over the world for The basin flows through Jharkhand,
the Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC). Chhattisgarh and Orissa and drains into
3.1.2 Subarnarekha River the Bay of Bengal.

• The Subarnarekha basin extends 3.1.4 Sabarmati River

over states of Jharkhand, Odisha and • The Sabarmati basin extends over states
comparatively smaller part in West of Rajasthan and Gujarat having an area
Bengal having a total area of 29,196 of 21,674 Sq.km with maximum length
Sq.km with a maximum length and width and width of 300 km and 150 km.
of about 297 km and 119 km.
• The basin is bounded by Aravalli hills
• Situated in the north-east corner of on the north and north-east, by Rann
Peninsular India, the basin is bounded by of Kutch on the west and by Gulf of
the Chota Nagpur plateau on the north Khambhat on the south.
and the west, by the ridges separating it
• The basin is roughly triangular in shape
from Baitarani basin on the south, by the
with the Sabarmati River as the base
Bay of Bengal on the south-east and by
and the source of the Vatrak River as the
the Kasai Valley of Kangsabati River on
apex point.
the east.
• Sabarmati originates from Aravalli hills
• The Subarnarekha River rises near
at an elevation of 762 m in Rajasthan.
Nagri village in the Ranchi District of
Jharkhand at an elevation of 600 m. • The total length of the river from origin

42
 to outfall into the Arabian Sea is 371 km • Dal Lake, Kashmir – Freshwater lake in
and its principal tributaries joining from Srinagar. Contains Char Chinar & Nami
left are the Wakal, the Hathmati and the islands
Vatrak whereas the Sei joins the river • Mansar Lake, Jammu – On the Katra
from right. highway, freshwater lake, Natural lake
used mainly for fishing
3.2 Smaller Rivers Flowing
• Naini Lake, Uttarakhand – Freshwater lake
towards the West
• Sambhar Lake, Rajasthan – most saline
• The rivers flowing towards Arabian Sea lake in India, Listed in Ramsar as a wetland
have smaller and short courses.
• Pushkar Lake, Ajmer (Rajasthan) - A
• The Shetrunji is one such river which rises freshwater lake
in the dalkahwanin Amreli district.
• Pachpadra Lake, Badmer (Rajasthan) -
• The river Bhadra originates near Anaiali a saline lake
village in rajkot district.
• Dhebar Lake, Rajasthan – Largest
• The Dhadhar rises near Ghantar village artificial lake of India, a freshwater lake
in Panchmahal district. This river rises
• Nakki Lake - A bowl shape lake, located
from the Trimbak hills in Nasik district at
in Mt. Abu (Rajasthan)
an elevation of 670m.
• Nal Sarovar Lake - Saline water lake
• Kalinadi rises from Belgaum district and
located in Gujarat, largest bird century
falls in the Karwar Bay.
of Gujarat
• The source of Bedti river lies in Hubli
• Nokrek Lake - Fresh water lake located
Dharwar and transverse a course of 161 km.
in Meghalaya, famous for its Biodiversity,
• The Sharavati originates in Shimoga Nokrek National Park & Biosphere reserve
district of Karnataka and drains a
• Loktak Lake, Manipur – Largest
catchment area of 2209 sq km.
freshwater lake located in NE India,
• Mandovi and Juari are two important Floating island – Phundis
rivers in Goa.
• Bhoj Wetland - A highly polluted lake
• Bharathapuzha rises in the Annamalai surrounded by city of Bhopal
hills in Kerala. Also known as Ponnani, it
• Kankaria Lake - Biggest artificial lake of
drains a catchment area of about 5397
Ahmedabad, built by Sultan Ahmed Shah
sq km.
• Lonar Lake - Crater lake, located at
• The Periyar is the second largest river in
Maharashtra
Kerala with catchment area of 5243 sq km.
• Chilka Lake - Saline water lagoon
• Another Important river is Pamba
located at Orissa, Siberian bird migrate
which drains into Vembanad lake after
here in winters
traversing a course of 177 km.
• Usman Sagar - Artificial lake of Hyderabad,

4. Lakes of India
by creating a dam on river Musi
• Kolleru Lake - Freshwater lake, Situated
• Wular Lake, Kashmir – India’s largest between deltas of Godavari & Krishna,
freshwater lake, formed by tectonic A bird sanctuary & a wetland under the
forces, forms Delta with river Jhelum Ramsar list.

43
• Pulicat Lake - Salt water lagoon
located at the coast of Andhra Pradesh,
Separated from the sea by Sriharikota
island
• Sholavaram - A rainfed reservoir, located
at Thanjavur in Chennai, due to scanty
rainfall for the last few years, lake looks
like a pond
• Vembanad, Kerala - A lagoon, famous
for boat competition
• Ashtamudi, Kerala - A lagoon, under
Ramsar convention
• Pangong Lake, Ladakh – Located
between India & China (Tibet), Nearby
Changla Pass
• Tsomoriri Lake - Largest high altitude
lake, located at Ladakh
• Chandra Tal - A high altitude lake, located
at Lahaul & Spiti districts of Himachal
nearby Kunzum Pass, Chandra river, a
major tributary of Chenab originated
from Chandra Tal, Declared as a wetland
under the Ramsar Convention
5. River Regimes
• The pattern of flow of water in a river
• Suraj Tal - Located below Baralacha pass
channel over a year is known as its
at Lahaul & Spiti districts of Himachal,
regime.
remains frozen during the greater part of
the year • The climatic condition of any place or
region controlled the flow of the river
• RoopKund - Mystery lake of Uttarakhand,
system. The River Regime is the pattern
also known as Skeleton lake since 672
of the seasonal flow of water in any
Skeletons has been found in this shallow
river. In other words, the geographical
lake.
pattern of rivers like width, depth,
• Sukhna Lake, Chandigarh – Artificial slope, distribution, and its flow and
freshwater lake deposition characters all together can
• Sat Tal - Quiet & calm group of 7 pristine be considered as river regimes.
lakes in lower Himalayan range situated • The rivers in North India originating from
near Bhimtal in Uttarakhand the Himalayas are perennial as they are
fed by melting snow from glaciers and
also due to adequate rainfall during the
monsoons.
• The rivers in south of India which
originates in the peninsular region sees
more fluctuations in terms of perenniality.

44
 They receive water only through rainfall when the snow melts, there is sizeable
during the monsoons. Therefore river flow in Ganga, before the monsoon rains
regimes in South India see different river begin.
regimes which vary from one part of • The maximum discharge of the Ganga is
the plateau to the other depending on at Farakka which is about 55000 cusecs
rainfall. while the minimum discharge is only 1300
• The river discharge is the volume of cusecs. This contrast is due to maximum
water that flows through the river in discharge being noted right after
a particular time period. It is either monsoons and the minimum discharge
measured in cusecs (cubic feet per during the hottest summer months.
second) or cumecs (cubic meters per • The rivers of Peninsular India are also
second). interesting in their pattern of river regime.
• The river Ganga has its minimum The Narmada has a very low volume of
flow during the months of January to discharge from January to July and it
June. The maximum flow is attained suddenly rises in August when the river
in monsoon months of August and has maximum flow. The water flow
September. After September there’s a again suddenly falls during the month of
steady decline in the flow. The river thus October once the monsoon is over.
have a monsoon regime during the rainy • The river Godavari has a minimum
season. discharge in the month of May and
• There is a striking difference between maximum in the months of July-August.
the river regimes of eastern and western After August, the flow of the river declines
parts of the Ganga basin. Right after but it is still steady and more than that of
the winters in the early parts of summer, January-May.

Difference between Peninsular River regime and the Himalayan River regime
Basis of
Reason
differences
The Peninsular rivers rise at much lower heights in the Western Ghats whereas the
Origin
Himalayan river originates at high elevations.
The Himalayan rivers are perennial which means they receive water from glacier and
Source rainfall whereas the Peninsular rivers are non-perennial which means they are seasonal-
dependent on monsoon.
Catchment The Peninsular river have narrow catchment area whereas the Himalayan rivers have large
Area catchment area. Larger catchment area ensures maximum flow of water.
The Peninsular rivers have huge variations due to uneven rainfall in the Plateau region
Variations
whereas all the Himalayan rivers maintain a sizeable flow.
Gradual The Himalayan rivers has a minimum flow during Jan-June and maximum flow during
Increase/ August /September and gradual steady fall afterwards, whereas the Peninsular rivers has
Decrease in very low flow from January-July and a sharp rise in August and again a sudden fall in
flow October.
The Peninsular river flows from the rocks of peninsular region which are hard and
Supply of
impermeable, where supply of groundwater is limited whereas Himalayan rivers pass
Groundwater
through plains whose alluvial soils act as a huge reservoir of groundwater.

45
6. Extent of Usability lasting disputes and this puts a cap on
water usability.

of Water ŠŠ Shrinking of channels due

extension of settlement towards the
to
• The extent of usability of water depends river - Often due to overpopulation,
on a lot many things. Since rivers and overcrowding and overuse of water
river waters are unevenly distributed over resources the channels start shrinking.
both time and space, usability of water is As much as built up area increases
also variable. near the streams and channels, the
• It depends on the following groundwater retention reduces and the
ŠŠ No availability in sufficient quantity - channels begin to dry up and shrink.
This depends on the discharge of the
water, whether the river is perennial or
seasonal.
7. Irrigation Projects
• The methods of irrigation used in India
ŠŠ River water pollution - If the river water can be broadly classified into major,
is extremely polluted, it is deemed unfit medium and minor irrigation schemes.
for consumption and any other utility
like agricultural purposes, drinking • Irrigation projects having Culturable
purposes, industrial or household Command Area (CCA) of more than
purposes. 10,000 hectares are classified as major
projects. Those having a CCA between
ŠŠ Load of silt in the river water - If the 2,000 hectares and 10,000 hectares fall
level of silt in the river increases, it under the category of medium irrigation
causes lower carrying capacity of the projects. And the projects which have
river. The amount of water discharge a CCA of less than 2,000 hectares are
is reduced and thus usability is less. classified as minor irrigation schemes.
However often it happens that when
the carrying capacity of the river is • For the purpose of analysis the major and
reduced due to excess silt and the river medium irrigation projects are generally
discharge is high, such situations often grouped together. These projects
results in flooding activities on the river comprise a network of dams, bunds,
bank. canals and other such schemes. Such
projects require substantial financial
ŠŠ Uneven seasonal flow of water - Flow outlay and are, therefore, constructed
of water depends on the availability of by the government or any other agency
the source of water, climate and terrain which may draw financial assistance
of the region. Lesser water flow means form the government and financial
less usability of water. institutions.
ŠŠ River water disputes between states • The minor irrigation projects, on the
- The disputes between river water other hand, comprise all ground water
usability arises when two states fight development schemes. Minor irrigation
over the usability of water. Generally if projects or the groundwater development
a river is flowing through many states, schemes are essentially people’s
there is often an agreement between programmes implemented primarily
the states on how much water each through individual and cooperative
state can use. This often results in long efforts with finances obtained mainly

46
 through institutional sources. flood control and power generation in
• Creation for irrigation potential of 10 West Bengal and Bihar. It comprises
million hectares was targeted under multipurpose dams at Konar, Tilaiya,
Bharat Nirman during 2005-06 to 2008- Maithon and Pancher; hydel power
09. As per information provided by stations at Tilaiya, Konar, Maithon
State Governments, the total irrigation and Panchet; barrage at Durgapur;
potential created during the period is 7.31 and thermal power houses at Bokaro,
million hectares against the target of 10 Chandrapura and Durgapur. The project
million hectares. is administered by Damodar Valley
Corporation.
7.1 Some Irrigation and • Dulhasti Power Project (Jammu &
Kashmir): It is a 390 MW power project in
Multipurpose Projects
Kishtwar region of Jammu & Kashmir on
• Bargi Project (Madhya Pradesh): It is Chenab river. Work for this project started
a multipurpose project consisting of a in 1981. The foundation stone was laid on
masonry dam across Bargi river in the April 15, 1983 by the then Prime Minister,
Jabalpur district and a left bank canal. Indira Gandhi. Work on this project was
• Beas Project (Joint venture of Haryana, suspended due to threats of kidnapping
Punjab and Rajasthan): It consists of and killings by Kashmiri militants resulting
Beas-Sutlej Link and Beas Dam at Pong. in long delay in completion of project.
• Bhadra Project (Karnataka): A • Farakka Project (West Bengal): The
multipurpose project across the river project was taken up for the preservation
Bhadra. and maintenance of Calcutta port and for
improving the navigability of the Hoogly.
• Bhakra Nangal Project (Joint project of It comprises a barrage at Jangipur across
Haryana, Punjab, and Rajasthan): India’s the Bhagirathi and a feeder channel
biggest, multipurpose river valley project taking off from the Ganga at Farakka
comprises a straight gravity dam across and tailing into the Bhagirathi below the
the Sutlej river at Bhakra, the Nangal Jangipur barrage.
dam, the Nangal hydel channel, two
power houses at Bhakra dam and two • Gandak Project (Joint project of Bihar
power stations at Ganguwal and Kotla. and Uttar Pradesh): Nepal also derives
irrigation and power benefits from this
• Bhima Project (Maharashtra): Comprises project.
two dams, one on the Pawana river near
Phagne in Pune district and the other • Ghataprabha Project (Karnataka): A
across the Krishna river near Ujjaini in project across Ghataprabha in Belgaum
Sholapur district. and Bijapur districts.
• Chambal Project (Joint project of • Hirakund (Odisha): World’s longest dam
Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan): The is located on the Mahanadi River.
project comprises Gandhi Sagar dam, • Kahalgaon Project (Bihar): The 840-MW
Rana Pratap Sagar dam and jawahar Kahalgaon Super Thermal Power Project,
Sagar dam. a joint venture between National Thermal
• Damodar Valley Project (West Bengal Power Corporation and the Russian State
and Bihar): A multipurpose project for Enterprise Foreign Economic Association,
the unified development of irrigation, was on August 12,1996 commissioned and

47
 put into commercial operation. capacity has been commissioned on the
• Kakrapara Project (Gujarat): On the Tapti Bango dam.
River near Kakrapara, in Surat district. • Nagarjunasagar (Andhra Pradesh): On
• Kosi Project (Bihar): A multipurpose the Krishna river near Nandikona village
project, which serves Bihar and Nepal. (about 44 km from Hyderabad).

• Koyna Project (Maharashtra): It is built • Parambikulam Aliyar (Joint venture of

on a tributary of river Krishna with a Tamil Nadu and Kerala): The integrated
capacity of 880 MW. It feeds power to harnessing of eight rivers, six in the
Mumbai-Pune industrial belt. Annamalai Hills and two in the plains.

• Krishna Project (Maharashtra): Dhom • Pong Dam (Punjab): It is an important

dam near Dhom village on Krishna and hydro-electric project located on Beas
Kanhar dam near Kanhar village on river.
Varna river in Satna district. • Rajasthan Canal (Indira Gandhi Canal-
• Kukadi Project (Maharashtra): Five Rajasthan): The Project uses water
independent storage dams, i.e. released from Pong dam and provides
Yodgaon, Manikdohi, Dimbha, Wadaj irrigation facilities to the north-western
and Pimpalgaon Jog. The canal system region of Rajasthan, i.e., a part of the Thar
comprises (i) Kukadi left bank Canal, (ii) desert. It consists of Rajasthan feeder
Dimbha left bank canal, (iii) Dimbha right canal (with the first 167 km in Punjab
bank canal, (iv) Meena feeder and (v) and Haryana and the remaining 37 km in
Meena branch. Rajasthan) and 445 km Rajasthan main
canal entirely in Rajasthan.
• Kundoh Project (Tamil Nadu): It is in Tamil
Nadu whose initial capacity of 425 MW • Rajghat Dam Project (Madhya Pradesh):
has since been expanded to 535 MW. The Rajghat Dam and Rajghat Hydro
Electric Projects are Inter-State projects
• Mahanadi Delta Scheme (Odisha): The of MP and UP. The Rajghat Dam is
irrigation scheme will utilize releases almost complete. All the three units of
from the Hirakud reservoir. Rajghat Hydro-Electric Project had been
• Mahanadi Reservoir Project (Madhya synchronized during 1999 and power
Pradesh): It has three phases: (1) generation has been continuing ever
Ravishankar Sagar Project and feeder since.
canal system for supply of water of Bhilai • Ramganga (Uttarakhand): A dam across
Steel Plant and Sandur dam across Ramganga, a tributary of the Ganga river
Sandur village. (2) Extension of Mahanadi located in Garhwal district. The project
feeder canal. (3) Pairi dam. has, besides reducing the intensity of
• Mahi Project (Gujarat): A two –phase floods in central and western Uttar
project, one across the Mahi river near Pradesh, provided water for the Delhi
Wanakbori village and the other across water supply scheme.
Mahi river near Kadana. • Ranjit Sagar Dam (Thein Dam) (Punjab):
• Minimata Bango Hasdeo Project A multi-purpose highest dam in the
(Madhya Pradesh): This project is located country, built on the Ravi river for the
at Hasdeo Bango river in Korba district benefit of Punjab, Haryana and Jammu
and envisages construction of a masonry and Kashmir.
dam. A hydel power plant of 120 MW

48
• Rihand Project (Uttar Pradesh and
Madhya Pradesh): It is the largest man- Linkages
made lake in India on the borders of • This is the largest ever thought of project
Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh with of linking all major rivers of India with the
a capacity of 300 MW annually. help of a network of canals. The idea of
• Sabarmati (Gujarat): A storage dam linking rivers across India to solve flood,
across Sabarmati river near Dhari Village drought, power and other water related
in Mehsana district and was a barrage problems of the country is not new.
near Ahmedabad. • Sir Arthur Cotton, who pioneered the
• Salal Project (Jammu & Kashmir): With development of water resources in
the successful completion of the 2.5-km Southern India from 1839 onwards, had
long tailrace tunnel, the 690-MW Salal proposed a plan for interlinking of Indian
(Stage I and II ) project in Jammu and rivers for inland navigation.
Kashmir became fully operational on • In August, 1980, a National Perspective
August 6, 1996. Plan (NPP) for interlinking of rivers was
• Sarda Sahayak (Uttar Pradesh): A framed by the Ministry of Water Resources.
barrage across the river Ghaghra, a link A National Water Development Agency
channel, a barrage across River Sarda (NWDA) was set up in July, 1980 to carry
and a feeder channel of two major out further studies.
aqueducts over rivers Gomti and Sai. • The project envisages linking 26 major
• Sharavathi Project (Karnataka): It is rivers of India by constructing 30 different
located at the Jog Falls with a capacity link canals. The National Perspective
of 891 MW. It primarily feeds Bengaluru Plan as well as the NWDA studies has two
industrial region and also Goa and Tamil components of the project - Himalayan
Nadu. Rivers Development Component
and Peninsular Rivers Development
• Tehri Dam Project (Uttarakhand): Earth
Component. The two can be linked on
and rock-fill dam on Bhagirathi river in
the Mahanadi.
Tehri district.
• There are many smaller river and
• Tungabhadra Project (Joint Project of
canal linkage schemes, which are very
Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka): On the
important from agricultural, economic
Tungabhadra River.
and environmental points of view. They
• Ukai Project (Gujarat): A multipurpose are as follows.
project across Tapti river near Ukai
village. 8.1 Periyar Diversion Scheme
• Uri Power Project (Jammu & Kashmir): It • The Periyar Valley Irrigation scheme
is located on the river Jhelum in the Uri in Ernakulam district envisages the
Tehsil of Baramulla district in Jammu & utilization of the discharge from the
Kashmir. It is a 480-MW hydroelectric completed Hydel scheme in the
project which was dedicated to the Muthirapuzha tributary of river Periyar
nation of February 13, 1997. together with the controlled release from
Ennackal dam constructed by the Kerala
8. Interbasin State Electricity Board under Hydel
scheme across the Idamalayar tributary

49
 and the dependable run off from the Satluj River near its confluence with the
uncontrolled catchment of Periyar river. Beas River in Punjab, Rajasthan Main
• It is intended for irrigating an area of Canal and its distributaries.
32800 Ha (hectare) of land lying on • The Indira Gandhi Canal, when
the left bank of Periyar river through a completed, would provide irrigation
network of canal system and controlling to about 12.58 lakh hectares of land in
devices. Ganganagar, Bikaner, and Jaisalmer
• The scheme helps in stabilization of first districts of Rajasthan.
and second crops in an area of 32800 • The main positive effects of Indira Gandhi
Ha and raising an additional crop in an Canal Project after the commencement
area of 20000 Ha of 3rd crop (Puncha). of irrigation in 1961 include:
• Thus the gross potential ayacut (The ŠŠ The canal water is available for
area served by an irrigation project such drinking and other domestic uses.
as a canal, dam or a tank) of the scheme ŠŠ The crops can be grown every year
will be 85600 Ha and is spread over with the help of canal water.
in Kothamangalam, Muvattupuzha ,
Kunnathunadu, Aluva, Kanayannur and ŠŠ Change in socio-economic conditions
Paravur Taluk in Ernakulam district. of the people and spurt in all economic
activities.
• Apart from Irrigation on left bank of
Periyar, the scheme also enables in the ŠŠ Improvement in house­ hold income
right bank of Periyar, supply of water to and expenditure structure.
the state, supply of minimum quantity ŠŠ Change in attitude and life style of
of water through the river to check the people resulting into greater urge for
intrusion of salinity at lower reaches as education and rise in mobility and
well as to meet the requirements of many communication.
lift Irrigation scheme of river Periyar. ŠŠ Increase in ‘heterogeneity’ of
• Supply of water for drinking, industrial population, enhanced inter and intra
purposes etc are met by a portion community interaction and quicker
of storage water by the barrage of diffusion and adoption of technology
Bhoothathankettu. The project was of irrigated farming.
completed during the year 1992. ŠŠ Control over drought conditions.

8.2 Indira Gandhi Canal Project ŠŠ Change in the fauna of the area and
introduction of fisheries.
• Indira Gandhi (Rajasthan) Canal Project
ŠŠ Improvement in the micro-climate
is the largest irrigation project in the
and decrease in the incidence of sand
world to provide irrigation to semi-arid
storms.
and arid areas of Rajasthan and give a
face lift to its economy and economic ŠŠ Rise in ground water table at the rate
development. of 0.8 meter per year. But it is also to
be noted that excessive use of canal
• The project utilises the waters of the
water in certain areas is causing the
Pong barrage built over the Beas River.
problem of salinity and water logging.
• It comprises Rajasthan Feeder taking
off from the Harike barrage across the 8.3Kurnool-Cuddapah Canal
50
• Kurnool-Cuddapah canal (KC Canal) the Sutlej River in Punjab to Yamuna
off-takes from Sunkesula anicut on canal in Haryana. However there are a
Tungabhadra River, traverses through lot of controversies in the news about the
Kurnool and Kadapa (Cuddapah) districts project.
and finally terminates at Cuddapah. This • Besides water transfer, the canal will
canal is connected to the natural streams also cater to the irrigation needs of the
Nippulavagu, Galeru and Kunderu agriculture based villages of Rupar and
through controlling structures on these Patiala districts.
streams viz. Lock-In-Sula, Santajutur
anicut and Rajoli anicut respectively. • Two hydel projects are also planned to
generate power.
• As a result, the nearby areas of these
streams are benefited by this project. The • Another major advantage is that the
total ayacut registered originally under canal would make available shipping
this canal is 122200 ha which is reduced to from India’s east coast to the west coast,
110482 ha due to foreshore submergence thus drastically reducing the freight
of Srisailam and urban agglomeration. related expenditure.
Out of 110482 ha, Kurnool and Cuddapah • The canal comes under the Bhakra- Beas
districts are having ayacut of 75879 ha Management Board, BBMB, constituted
and 34603 ha respectively. under the Punjab Reorganisation Act,
• Alternate water supply from Srisailam 1966, which is a central legislation
reservoir is provided via Srisailam right
main canal constructed under Telugu 8.5Ganga-Cauvery Link Canal
Ganga project. • This project was prepared by the United
• Also water can be pumped and fed to K.C. Nations team at the request of the
Canal from the recently commissioned Government of India. It was proposed by
Muchumarri lift or Handri-Neeva lift the then irrigation minister Dr. K.L Rao in
canal pump house from the Srisailam 1950s.
reservoir when its water level (up to 798 • The project aimed at reducing the impact
ft msl) is below the minimum drawdown of floods in the Ganga basin and supply
level of Pothireddypadu head regulator water to central and eastern parts of
which also feeds Telugu Ganga, Srisailam the country which suffer from chronic
right bank canal and Galeru Nagari problem of water shortage.
projects.
• Flood waters of the Narmada and
• Thus this 150-year-old canal is provided Godavari could also be used. However, it
with reliable water supply to meet the was pleaded that water from the Ganga
drinking water needs of Rayalaseema for the inter-basin transfer could be
region even during acute drought years. drawn only during four months of rainy
• KC Canal has been modernised during season from July to October when the
1996-2004 at a cost of more than 2000 flow of water in the Ganga river exceeds
crore rupees. 1,00,000 cusecs.
• The proposed Ganga-Cauvery Link
8.4Beas-Satluj Link Canal Canal was to have been 2,640 km long,
• Sutlej-Yamuna Link Canal (SYL Canal) is withdrawing 60,000 cusecs from the
a 214 km water way proposed to connect flood flows of the Ganga for about 150

51
 days in the year, and would have involved • However, the idea survives in the popular
a lift of a substantial part of water over mind and comes up whenever water
450 metres. scarcity is felt and conflicts (such as
• The scheme has been thoroughly Cauvery dispute) become acute.
examined and found impractical
because of the huge financial costs
and very large energy requirements.
Moreover environmental issues put great
hindrances in the way of this project.

52
 UNIT FOUR

INDIA: CLIMATE
1. Introduction radio, television and newspapers so that
people can prepare to save themselves
• Temperature, pressure, wind, humidity and their property from its hazards.
and precipitation, interact with each • The weather office collects data on
other. They influence the atmospheric temperature, wind, cloud cover, rainfall
conditions like the direction and velocity and other atmospheric phenomena
of wind, the amount of insolation, cloud- through its numerous observation
cover and the amount of precipitation. centres.
These are the elements of both weather
• The analysis of these data thus collected,
and climate. The influence of these
helps in forecasting weather conditions
elements differs from place to place and
for the next 48 hours or even for a week.
time to time.

3. Seasons
• We very often describe this influence in
the name of weather such as sunny, hot,
warm, cold, fine, etc depending upon the • A year is divided into seasons depending
dominant element of weather at a place upon variations in atmospheric
and at a point of time. conditions. Season is a period of the
• Therefore, weather is the atmospheric year characterized by a particular set
condition of a place for a short duration of weather conditions resulting from the
with respect to its one or more elements. inclination of the earth’s axis and the
Two places even a short distance apart revolution of the earth round the sun.
may have different kind of weather at • Four seasons, each of three months
one and the same time. duration have been recognized in
• Climate is the state of the atmosphere temperate regions. They are spring,
over long time periods, such as over the summer, autumn and winter.
years, decades, centuries or greater. • The Indian Meteorological Department
has recognized four main seasons. They
2. Weather Forecast are cold weather season, hot weather
seasons, rainy season, and retreating
• It is important to know by some means, monsoon season.
the coming weather in advance. That is
• The rays of the sun are more or less direct
why newspapers publish weather reports
on the equator throughout the year.
and weather forecasts along with a map
Hence, equatorial regions experience
showing this information.
the same temperature all year round.
• Now, better weather forecasts are Therefore, seasons are insignificant on
available with the use of weather or near the equator. Near the coast, the
satellites. Weather conditions are oceanic influence reduces the seasonal
televised every day. variations. In the Polar Regions, there
• When a cyclone or dangerous weather are only two seasons i.e. long winters
is expected, warnings are issued over the and short summers.

54
4. Weather Vs Climate
Weather Climate
Weather is the study of atmospheric Climate is the study of the average weather
conditions for short duration of a limited conditions observed over a long period of
area. time for a larger area.
Weather is influenced by anyone of its Climate is the collective effect of all its
predominant elements i.e., temperature or elements.
humidity.
The weather changes very often It is more or less permanent.
It is experienced over small areas of a It is experienced over large areas of the
country. continent.
A place can experience different types of A place can experience only one type of
weather conditions in a year. climate.

5. Factors Affecting height of a place. For a vertical rise

of 165 metres there is an average

Climate decrease in temperature at the rate of

1°C. Thus the temperature decreases
• Latitude or Distance from the Equator with increase in height
ŠŠ The places near the equator are ŠŠ E.g.: Shimla situated on a higher
warmer than the places which are far altitude is cooler than Jalandhar,
away from it. This is because the rays although both are almost on the same
of the sun fall vertically on the equator latitude.
and slantingly in the temperate and • Continentality or the Distance from the
polar regions. Sea
ŠŠ The vertical rays are concentrated over ŠŠ The water is a bad conductor of heat
a small area than the slanting one. i.e. it takes longer to heat and longer
Again, the vertical rays pass through time to cool. Due to this moderating
a shorter distance in the atmosphere effect of the sea, places near the
before reaching the earth’s surface. coast have low range of temperature
Therefore, lower the latitude higher is and high humidity.
the temperature and vice versa.
ŠŠ The places in the interior of the continent
ŠŠ E.g. Malaysia which is near the equator do not experience moderating effect
is warmer than England which is far of the sea. These places have extreme
away from the equator temperatures.
• Altitude or the Height from the mean sea ŠŠ The places far from the sea have
level higher range of diurnal (daily) and
ŠŠ We all know that mountains are cooler annual temperatures.
than the plains. ŠŠ Mumbai has relatively lower
ŠŠ The temperature decreases with the temperature and higher rainfall than

55
 Nagpur, although both are almost air to the interior and create fog and
situated on the same latitude mist.
• Nature of the Prevailing Winds ŠŠ Port Bergen in Norway is free from
ŠŠ The on-shore winds bring the moisture ice even in winter due to warm North
from the sea and cause rainfall on the Atlantic Drift while Port Quebec in
area through which they pass. The off- Canada remains frozen during winter
shore winds coming from the land are months due to the chilling effect of the
dry and help in evaporation. Cold Labrador Current in spite of the
fact that Port Quebec is situated in
ŠŠ In India, the on-shore summer much lower latitude than Port Bergen.
monsoon winds bring rains while
off-shore winter monsoon winds are • Direction of Mountain Chains
generally dry. ŠŠ The mountain chains act as a natural
• Cloud Cover barrier for the wind. The on-shore
moisture laden winds are forced
ŠŠ In areas generally of cloudless sky as to rise after striking against the
in deserts, temperature even under mountain; and give heavy rainfall
shade are very high because of the hot on the windward side. These winds
day time sunshine. descending on the leeward side cause
ŠŠ At night this heat radiates back from very low rainfall.
the ground very rapidly. It results in a ŠŠ The great Himalayas check the
large diurnal range in temperature. moisture laden monsoon winds from
ŠŠ On the other hand under cloudy skies crossing over to Tibet. This mountain
and heavy rainfall at Trivandrum chain also checks biting polar cold
(Kerala) the range of temperature is winds from entering into India. This
very small. is the reason for which the northern
• Ocean Currents Ocean plains of India get rains while Tibet
remains a perpetual rain shadow area
ŠŠ Waters move from one place to with lesser amount of rainfall.
another partly as an attempt to
equalize temperature and density • Slope and the Aspect
of water. Ocean currents are large ŠŠ The concentration of heat being
movements of water usually from a more on the gentler slope raises the
place of warm temperature to one of temperature of the air above them.
cooler temperature or vice-versa. Its lesser concentration along steeper
ŠŠ The warm ocean currents raise slopes lowers the temperature.
the temperature of the coast and ŠŠ At the same time, mountain slopes
sometimes bring rainfall, while the facing the sun are warmer than the
cold currents lower the temperature slopes which are away from the sun’s
and create fog near the coast. rays. The southern slopes of Himalaya
ŠŠ The on-shore winds passing over a are warmer than the northern slopes.
warm current carry warm air to the • Nature of the Soil and Vegetation Cover
interior and raise the temperature of ŠŠ The nature of soil depends upon its
the inland areas. Similarly, the winds texture, structure and composition.
blowing over cold current carry cold These qualities vary from soil to soil.

56
 ŠŠ Stony or sandy soils are good interior or continental location away
conductors of heat while black clay from the oceanic influence.
soils absorb the heat of the sun’s rays • Winds: The climate and associated
quickly. The bare surface radiates the weather conditions in India are governed
heat easily. The deserts are hot in the by the following atmospheric conditions:
day and cold at night.
ŠŠ Pressure and surface winds
ŠŠ The forest areas have lower range of
temperature throughout the year in ŠŠ Upper air circulation
contrast to non-forested areas. ŠŠ Western cyclonic disturbances and
tropical cyclones
6. Factors Affecting ŠŠ The influence of the monsoon winds
in India is overwhelming. In Arabic
India’s Climate language the word `Mausim’ means
The climate of a country depends upon season and if the wind changes its
several factors such as location, size, direction seasonally, then it is called
altitude, wind, distance from the sea, the a monsoon wind. India remains under
alignment of hills and mountains etc. The the domain of a humid oceanic South-
influence of these factors on the climate of west monsoon in summer and a dry
India is briefly described below: North-east Monsoon of land origin in
winter.
• Location: The Tropic of Cancer passes
through the middle of India and the ŠŠ Besides, in winter some cyclones of
country north of the line lies in the the Mediterranean, called Western
temperate belt and south of it in the Disturbances, enter India from the
tropical belt. However, the northern wall north-west via Iran and Afghanistan
of the Himalayas prevents the influx and travel eastward causing a small
of cold north wind. As a result, the amount of rainfall in North India.
temperature does not fall appreciably • Alignments of hills and mountains: The
over North Indian Plains even in winter. moisture laden South-west Monsoon
India is generally treated as a hot wherever faces a mountain is forced to
country. rise and brings about heavy relief rain on
• Size: India is a vast country and it is the windward slope of the mountains. As
natural that South India lying closer to for example, the South-west Monsoon is
the equator is warmer than the northern forced to ascend the south facing steep
counterpart, especially in winter. slope of the Meghalaya plateau. This
factor combined with the funneling
• Altitude: Although average temperature
action of the wind caught between
remains generally high throughout India,
the Meghalaya Plateau and the Indo-
owing to altitudinal effect the Himalayas
Burmese Bordering Hills make the
and other high mountains have lower
Cherrapunji-Mawsynram area the,
temperatures even in summer.
rainiest corner of the world with an
• Distance from the sea: The oceanic winds average annual rainfall of about 1100 cm.
have a moderating effect on temperature But Shillong, being situated in the rain
and the coastal places experience lower shadow area of the southern face of the
range of temperature, both diurnal and Meghalaya Plateau, experiences a much
seasonal in comparison to places of lower rainfall of 225 cm.

57
7. Factors Related to 90 m/sec (200 miles per hour) along
hundreds of kilometres at their centres,

to Air Pressure and but velocities fall off very sharply both
laterally and vertically, so that the high
Wind speeds are limited to narrow bands at
heights between 6 and 14 km (20,000
• To understand the differences in local and 45,000 feet).
climates in India, the mechanism of the
• The jet stream results from horizontal
following three factors are needed to be
differences in temperature that exist
understood.
over a considerable vertical distance
ŠŠ Distribution of air pressure and winds through the troposphere. These
on the surface of the earth temperature differences produce a
ŠŠ Upper Air circulation caused by horizontal pressure gradient that drives
factors controlling global weather and geostrophic and gradient winds. The
the inflow of different air masses and greater the horizontal temperature
jet streams difference, the stronger the jet stream.
ŠŠ Inflow of western cyclones generally • Jet streams encircle the Earth in
known as disturbances during the meandering paths, shifting position as
winter season and tropical depressions well as speed with the seasons. During
during the southwest monsoon period the winter their positions are nearer
into India, creating weather conditions the equator and their speeds higher
favourable to rainfall. than during the summer. There are often
two, sometimes three jet-stream systems

Jet Streams
in each hemisphere. One is related to
the Polar Front, lying in mid-latitudes
• Jet streams are relatively narrow bands where the air-mass contrasts (the fronts)
of strong winds in the upper levels of the promote the formation of squalls,
atmosphere. The winds blow from west storms, and cyclones.
to east in jet streams but the flow often • The other distinct system, the
shifts to the north and south. Jet streams Subtropical Jet Stream, lies above the
follow the boundaries between hot and subtropical high-pressure belt and is
cold air. usually associated with fair weather.
• Since these hot and cold air boundaries During summer, a third system occurs
are most pronounced in winter, jet over Southeast Asia, India, the Arabian
streams are the strongest for both the Sea, and tropical Africa. This tropical
northern and southern hemisphere jet stream affects the formation and
winters. duration of Indian and African summer
monsoons.
• Jet streams are characterized by wind
motions that generate strong vertical
shearing action, which is thought to 9. Western Cyclonic
be largely responsible for clear air
turbulence. Disturbance
• First discovered by airmen during World • In the winter season, the subtropical jet
War II, the jet streams have speeds of up (STJ) is bifurcated into two branches due

58
 to physical obstruction of the Himalayas climate, recognized by land winds, dry
and Tibetan Plateau. One branch is flows air, large diurnal range and scanty
to the south of the Himalayas, while the rainfall. The Indian Ocean, on the other
second branch is positioned to the north hand, contributes a tropical character
of the Tibetan Plateau. to the Indian climate characterized by
• The ridge of the jet stream creates anti- uniformity of temperature throughout
cyclonic (with clockwise air circulation) the year, short diurnal range, damp air,
conditions over North-West India. and frequent rainfall.
Consequently, the winds tend to descend • The monsoon system of the Indian
over the north-western parts of India, subcontinent differs considerably from
resulting into the development of that of the rest of Asia. The centres of
atmospheric stability and dry conditions action, air masses involved, and the
(anticyclonic condition = no rainfall). mechanism of precipitation of the Indian
• But the subtropical jet (STJ) causes monsoon are altogether different from
periodic changes in general weather other monsoon systems.
conditions. The STJ drives the temperate
low pressures over Mediterranean 10.1 Classical Theory or
Sea towards east across Afghanistan, Thermal Concept of Indian
Pakistan and reach north-west India.
Monsoons:
• These storms are residual frontal
• According to this theory, the differential
cyclones which move at the height of
heating of land and sea at the time when
2000 metres from the mean sea level. On
the sun makes an apparent northward
an average, 4 to 6 cyclonic waves reach
movement is the main cause of the
north-western India between October
Indian monsoonal regime.
and April each year.
• Two factors are mainly responsible for this

10. The Indian very strong development of monsoons:

ŠŠ Vast size of the Indian subcontinent
Monsoons and adjacent seas
• Monsoon is actually a wind regime ŠŠ Very high and extensive mountain
operating at a level of 20 km from the systems of the Himalayas in the north,
earth’s surface. It is characterized by thus posing a formidable physical
seasonal reversal of wind direction at barrier between tropical and polar air
regular intervals. masses.
• Although the monsoon is a global • The second factor is of great
phenomenon influenced by a variety of meteorological significance.
factors. The monsoon rains cover mainly • The high mountain chains of the
the South Asian region, represented by Himalayas which border the subcontinent
India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, on three sides work as both a break
Bhutan and parts of Southeast Asia. and motor at the same time. During
• Besides the monsoons, the Indian the winter season, they prevent the
climate is influenced substantially penetration of the cold polar air masses
by two more factors. The Himalayas from Siberia into the subcontinent, while
contribute a continental nature to the in summer, the Himalayas do not allow

59
 the equatorial maritime air masses to rotation. Now, the originally south-
cross the Himalayas and force them to east trade winds become south-west
curve round the north-west. The mighty monsoons blowing towards the north-
Himalayas produce hydro-dynamic east.
effects that determine the type of • At this juncture, the Inter- Tropical
precipitation in India. Convergence Zone (ITCZ) also shifts
• According to the thermal concept, during northwards. The ITCZ is the hypothetical
the period following the Spring Equinox line where the north-east trade winds
(March 23), the sun starts its apparent from the northern hemisphere and the
northward shift. As a result, the areas south-east trades from the southern
lying north of the equator (tropics and hemisphere meet. The south-west winds
sub-tropics)- get a progressive high now approaching the Indian peninsula
incidence of solar radiation. have to travel a long distance over the
• The effect of this phenomenon on the Indian Ocean.
Indian subcontinent is seen in the form • During their long journey, these winds
of intense heating of the vast northern pick up large amounts of moisture and
plains and the adjoining highlands. As by the time they reach India they are
a result, a massive low pressure trough oversaturated. Here, they are known as
is formed extending from the Punjab the south-west monsoons which get
plains in the north-west to the Bengal divided into the Arabian Sea Branch
delta in the east. and the Bay of Bengal Branch because
• This low pressure zone attracts wind of the shape of peninsular India. There
regimes from the adjoining areas, from moisture-laden winds cause heavy
short distances in the beginning. But as rainfall on the windward sides.
the level of solar incidence reaches its
peak during May-June, the pressure
gradient between this low pressure
trough and the adjoining seas is so
great that it attracts winds from as far as
the south of the equator. Accompanying
this process and helping this pull of wind
regimes is the development of some high
pressure centres—in the Indian Ocean,
Arabian Sea and over Australia (it being
the winter season in Australia).
• The wind patterns which are prevalent
south of the equator are actually the
south-east trade winds which blow from
the south-east to the north-west. These
winds, attracted by the low pressure
trough over the Indian subcontinent,
while moving north of the equator, turn
in a clockwise direction (or towards the
right), following Ferrel's law. This shift in 10.2 The Arabian Sea Branch
direction is brought about by the earth’s

60
• This branch of the south-west monsoons prevail.
strikes the highlands of the Western ŠŠ Although a few air currents from the
Ghats at almost right angles. The main Arabian Sea branch are diverted
windward slopes of the Western Ghats northward towards Kachchh and the
receive heavy orogenic precipitation. Thar Desert, these currents continue
Although the western currents of the upto Kashmir without causing rain
monsoon penetrate further into the anywhere on their way. In fact, an
Indian mainland the intensity of rainfall east-to- west line drawn near Karachi
goes on decreasing on the leeward side. in Pakistan practically marks the limit
• While the windward slopes of the of the monsoon rainfall.
Western Ghats are the areas receiving
the highest rainfall, the leeward slopes 10.3 Bay of Bengal Branch
form a well-marked rain-shadow belt
which is drought-prone. For instance, the • Like the Western Ghats of India in the case
average annual rainfall at Mumbai and of the Arabian Sea branch, the windward
Pune is 188 cm and 50 cm respectively, slopes of the West Coast Mountains
despite the fact that they are only 160 of Myanmar (Arakan and Tenasserim
km apart. mountains) get heavy rainfall when the
main monsoon currents of this branch
• After crossing the Western Ghats, the strike the Myanmarese coast. As in the
rain- bearing air currents descend case of the leeward sides of the Western
the eastern slopes where they get Ghats in India, here too, the rain shadow
warmed up adiabatically. This results effect is pronounced on the leeward side.
in a pronounced rain-shadow area.
The higher the mountains-, the larger • A northern current of this branch strikes
is the rain-shadow effect. Towards the the Khasi hills in Meghalaya and causes
north, where the Western Ghats are not very heavy rains. Mawsynram (near
very high, the difference in the amount Cherrapunji), situated on the southern
of rainfall between the windward and slopes of Khasi hills, has the distinction
leeward side is rather negligible. of recording the highest annual average
precipitation in the world.
• Why no Precipitation in Kachchh and
Western Rajasthan? • This is because of its peculiar geographical
location. Mawsynram is flanked on all
ŠŠ There is no mountain barrier to tap the sides by the Garo, Khasi and Jaintia hills
advancing winds. As the Aravalis have except for a gap through which the rain-
an almost north-south axis, they fail to bearing winds enter and are forced to
block the passage of these monsoon rise, thus yielding the heaviest rainfall.
currents (which rather blow parallel to Shillong, a mere 40 km away on top of
the Aravalis) and lift them. the Khasi hills, receives only about 140
ŠŠ The monsoon currents heading cm of rainfall during June-September.
towards Rajasthan are rather shallow • Another current of the Bay of Bengal
and are superimposed by stable anti- branch takes a left turn at the eastern
cyclonic air. end of the low pressure trough (roughly
ŠŠ These conditions are unfavourable for the Bengal delta). From here, it blows in a
precipitation in Kachchh and western south-east to north-west direction along
Rajasthan where desert conditions the orientation of the Himalayas. This

61
 current causes rainfall over the northern
plains.
• The monsoon rainfall over the northern
plains is assisted by west-moving
monsoon or cyclonic depressions
called ‘westerly disturbances’. These are
formed in the Bay of Bengal and move
along the southern fringe of the northern
plains causing copious rains there which
are vital for the rice crop.
• The intensity of rainfall decreases from
east to west and from north to south in the
northern plains. The decrease westwards
is attributed to the increasing distance
from the source of the moisture. The
decrease in rainfall intensity from north
to south, on the other hand, is due to
increasing distance from the mountains
which are responsible for lifting the
moisture-laden winds and causing
orogenic rainfall in the plains, especially
in the foothills.

10.4 Retreating Or North-East

Monsoons
• Towards the end of September, the low
pressure centre in the north-west begins
to disintegrate and eventually shifts
to the equatorial region. The cyclonic

62
 conditions are replaced by anti-cyclonic the retreat of the south-west monsoons
ones. As a result, winds start blowing are not capable of causing precipitation
away from the northern region. Similar because they are free of moisture.
anticyclonic winds blow from the Tibetan Instead, these winds produce dry and
highlands and beyond. fine weather. However, certain areas in
• This is also the time when the sun makes the north get winter precipitation: from
an apparent movement south of the sources far away.
equator. The ITCZ also moves equator- • The north-western parts of India—
wards. Now the winds that dominate the Punjab and Ganga plains—are invaded
sub continental landscape are the ones by shallow cyclonic disturbances moving
which move from the north-east to the from west to east and having their origin
south-west. in the Mediterranean Sea. These are
• These conditions continue from October called “Westerly Disturbances” which
until mid-December and are known as travel across West Asia and Afghanistan
the Retreating monsoons or the north- before they reach India. These
east monsoons. By December end, the disturbances come with cloudiness and
monsoons have completely withdrawn rising temperature in the front and cold
from India. The retreat of the monsoons wind in the rear.
is markedly gradual in contrast to • These disturbances cause upto 5 cm
the ‘sudden burst’ of the south-west rainfall in Punjab and Kashmir and up
monsoons. to 2.5 cm over the Uttar Pradesh plains.
• The retreating monsoons over the Bay These showers are very good for the rabi
of Bengal pick up moisture on their crop, especially wheat and gram, and
way which is dropped over eastern or are very effective because of less run­off,
coastal Orissa, Tamil Nadu and parts of less evaporation (because of low winter
Karnataka during October-November. temperatures) and the fact that moisture
This is the main season of rains over from these showers is confined to the
these areas as they almost always lie in root area of the crops.
the rain-shadow area of the south-west
monsoons.
• During October, easterly depressions
occur at the head of the Bay of Bengal
which move southwards and in November
get sucked into Orissa and Tamil Nadu
coasts causing heavy rain—sometimes
with destructive cyclonic winds in coastal
and interior areas. The depressions
weaken southwards and towards the
interiors.

10.5 Winter Rainfall due to

Western Disturbance
• The stable, dry anticyclonic winds
prevailing over the subcontinent after

63
 and due to changes in air pressure, the
surface water moves eastwards to the
coast of northern South America. The
central and eastern Pacific regions
warm up for over six months and result
in an El Nino condition. The temperature
of the water could rise up to 10 degrees
Fahrenheit above normal.
• Warmer surface waters increase
precipitation and bring above-normal
rainfall in South America, and droughts
to Indonesia and Australia.
• This change of wind direction leads to
warmer winters and summers and a
decrease in rainfall during the monsoon.
Most of the time, it also leads to drought.
• There is also an opposite of an El Nino,
called La Nina. This refers to times when
10.6 El Nino/La Nina (Enso) and waters of the tropical eastern Pacific
are colder than normal and trade winds
Monsoons blow more strongly than usual.
• The Sea surface temperatures play • Collectively, El Nino and La Nina are
a major role in global weather which parts of an oscillation in the ocean-
influences two extreme phases of a atmosphere system called the El Nino-
naturally occurring climate cycle. I.e., El Southern Oscillation or ENSO cycle.
Nino/Southern Oscillation and La Nina.
• El Nino affects global weather. It favors
• Both terms refer to large-scale changes eastern Pacific hurricanes and tropical
in sea-surface temperatures across the storms.
eastern tropical Pacific and the most
powerful phenomenon of the Earth. • It recorded unusual rainfall in Peru,
Chile, and Ecuador which are linked to
• These are best known for altering the the change in climate pattern.
climate across more than half of the
planet that also impact the weather • El Nino reduces the upwelling of cold
patterns. water, decreasing the uplift of nutrients
from the bottom of the ocean. This
• El Nino refers to the unusual warming of affects marine life and sea birds. The
the central and east-central equatorial fishing industry is also affected.
Pacific Ocean which affects global
weather. The warmer waters of the • Drought caused by El Nino can be
Pacific Ocean cause the winds in various widespread, affecting southern Africa,
regions to reverse, like the trade winds India, Southeast Asia, Australia, and the
that come towards India. Pacific Islands. Countries dependent on
agriculture are affected.
• El Nino sets in when there is an anomaly
in the pattern. The westward-blowing • WHO report on the health consequences
trade winds weaken along the Equator of El Nino forecasts a rise in vector-

64
 borne diseases, including those spread • Sudden onset of the moisture-laden
by mosquitoes, in Central and South winds associated with violent thunder
America. Cycles of malaria in India are and lightning, is often termed as the
also linked to El Nino. “burst” of the monsoon.
• Over India, the El Nino has usually been • Tamil Nadu coast remains dry during the
the harbinger of drought and the La monsoon season because it is situated
Nina of rain. parallel to the Bay of Bengal branch of
• Effect on monsoon due to El Nino is southwest monsoon.
always adverse. Due to changing wind • The Bay of Bengal branch of monsoon
patterns, the rainfall reduces a great deal advances towards the eastern part of
and monsoon winds are also weakened India and causes heavy rainfall. North-
leading to a poor monsoon and often a east India receives heavy rainfall during
drought like condition. For India, where the monsoon season.
the entire agricultural and allied industry • Cherrapunji and Mawsynram (two places
is dependent on monsoon rainfall, a poor of Meghalaya) are world’s wettest place.
monsoon is extremely harmful.
• Though there are great spatial variations
• During La Nina years, rainfall is abundant in India; the average annual rainfall in
and it is considered a good monsoon India is 125 cm.
year. Therefore La Nina is beneficial for
Indian monsoons. • The whole of India has a monsoon type
of climate, but because of the regional
variations, there are various types of
10.7 Interesting Facts about
climate in India.
Monsoons/Pre Monsoon
• The shower causing coffee flowers
blossom in Kerala and nearby areas is
11. Seasons in India
known as blossom shower. • The monsoon type of climate is
characterized by a distinct seasonal
• NorWesters are the dreaded evening pattern.
thunderstorms in Bengal and Assam.
• The weather conditions greatly change
• The notorious nature of NorWesters from one season to the other. These
can be understood from the local changes are particularly noticeable in
nomenclature of Kalbaisakhi, meaning a the interior parts of the country.
calamity of the month of Baisakh.
• The coastal areas do not experience
• In Assam, NorWesters are known as much variation in temperature though
Bardoli Chheerha. there is variation in rainfall pattern.
• Hot, dry, and oppressing winds blowing • Four main seasons can be identified in
in the Northern plains from Punjab to India –
Bihar are known as Loo.
ŠŠ The cold weather season
• The rain in the southwest monsoon
season begins rather abruptly. ŠŠ The hot weather season
• During the south-west monsoon, the ŠŠ The advancing monsoon
period after having rain for a few days, if ŠŠ The retreating monsoon with some
rain fails to occur for one or more weeks, regional variations.
it is known as break in the monsoon.
65
11.1 Winter Season peaking around 20–25°C in mainland
India's southeast.
• Winter is the season between autumn
and spring. By the end of the monsoon • A common phenomenon during winters is
the temperature falls and it is the coldest “Western Disturbances” that causes rains
season of the year. in winters. The main cause behind Western
Disturbances is the prevailing of low
• Meteorological winter is the season that pressure near Mediterranean Sea. These
witnesses shortest days and the lowest winds then move towards India. These
average temperatures. winds cause heavy precipitation towards
• The year’s coldest months are December the Southern Himalayas especially in the
and January. states of Jammu & Kashmir, Uttarakhand,
Himachal Pradesh. Also, the two Himalayan
• In winter, temperatures average around
states of Assam and Sikkim also witness
10–15 °C in the northwest; temperatures
heavy snowfall.
rise as one proceeds towards the equator,

General
Duration Temperature Wind Disturbances Rainfall
Characteristics
Mid Clear skies, fine Mean daily High pressure Westerly disturbances cause
November weather, low temperature over northwestern rainfall in northern plains.
to February humidity below 21°C in India. Winds blow Rainfall decreases from west
North India. Some from northwest to to east in plains but increases
parts experience southeast. Around in north-east again as it
temperatures four or five westerly catches water from Bay of
below freezing disturbances are Bengal. Northeast monsoon
point. Temperature carried by westerly causes winter rainfall in
increases from north jet stream. southern Andhra Pradesh,
to south. Tamil Nadu etc

11.2 Summer Season exceed 40 °C. While entire India has

higher temperatures, the higher altitudes
• During summers the temperature or hill stations offer relief from heat due
increases due to Sun’s vertical rays to their as they have comparatively lower
directly reaching Tropic of Cancer. temperatures.
• Entire India witnesses summers from
March to June, while the Northern India 11.3 Monsoon Season
experiences it from April to July.
• Monsoon winds are strong and violent
• April is the hottest month in most of that often changes their direction
Southern and Central India while it’s May with season. These winds always flow
for Northern India. from colder regions to hotter regions.
• Norwesters (Pre monsoon Squall line Monsoons blow from the land toward the
thunderstorms) lead to hailstones being sea in winter and from the sea toward
dropped during this season. land in the summer.
• By May, most of the Indian interior • The rainfall in India is a result of the
experiences mean temperatures over South West trade winds that originate
32°C while maximum temperatures often from High Pressure areas.

66
• The South west monsoon winds arrive the Malabar Coast of Kerala. By June, it
in two branches, namely the Bay of reaches Mumbai; it appears over Delhi
Bengal Branch and Arabian Sea Branch. by 29 June.
The Arabian Sea Branch is three times • The Bay of Bengal branch, which initially
stronger than the Bay of Bengal Branch. tracks the Coromandel Coast northeast
• The monsoon typically breaks over from Cape Comorin to Orissa, swerves to
Indian Territory by around 25 May, when the northwest towards the Indo-Gangetic
it lashes the Andaman and Nicobar Plain. The Arabian Sea branch moves
Islands in the Bay of Bengal. It strikes northeast towards the Himalayas. By
the Indian mainland around 1 June near the first week of July, the entire country
experiences monsoon rain.

General Wind
Duration Temperature Rainfall
Characteristics Disturbances
June – Whole of India June is the hottest month. Winds are India receives its
September under southwest Temperature remains southwesterly 80% precipitation
monsoon. India faces low during July and over mainland in this season. There
severe cyclones, August which rises high in India. is decline of rainfall
thunderstorms etc. September with decreasing from east to west in
amount of precipitation. plains.

11.4 Post-Monsoons
• The months from October to December come under the Post-Monsoon season.
• During these months there is a different monsoon cycle called the North-east monsoon
brings dry and cool air masses to India.
• As South west monsoons begin to decrease, climate begins to be drier and the precipitation
also decreases. The North East monsoons carry winds that have already lost their moisture
while traveling across Central Asia.
• However, the states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala receive good precipitation during the
season. Parts of West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and North-East India
also receive minor precipitation from the northeast monsoon.

General Wind
Duration Temperature Rainfall
Characteristics Disturbances
October - Monsoon winds Day temperature is Winds are Southern Peninsular region
November are retreating high and the nights northeasterly. (Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and
gradually and are cool and pleasant. Clear skies and Southern Andhra Pradesh)
sudden rise of The average minimum gentle breeze are receives rain. Cyclonic
temperature with temperature falls characteristics of activities are more frequent
October heat. below 20°C. this season. in Peninsular region.

12. Traditional Indian Seasons

• In the Indian tradition, a year is divided into six two-monthly seasons.
• This cycle of seasons, which the common people in north and central India follow is
based on their practical experience and age-old perception of weather phenomena.
67
• However, this system does not match with the seasons of south India where there is little
variation in the seasons.

Months According to Indian Months According to English

Season
Calendar Calendar
Vasanta Chaitra-Vaisakha March-April
Grishma Jyaistha-Asadha May-June
Varsha Sravana-Bhadra July- August
Sharada Asvina-Kartika September-October
Hemanta Margashirsa-Pausa November-December
Shishira Magha- Phalguna January-February

13. Distribution of Rainfall

Type
Rainfall
in cm
Regions

Annual Rainfall Heavy

rainfall
More Western coast, western
than 200 ghats, sub-Himalayan
• The distribution of average annual cm region of north-east,
rainfall in India is shown. Garo, Khasi and Jaintia
hills of Meghalaya. In
• A glance on this map indicates that the some parts, rain exceeds
distribution of rainfall in India is uneven. 1000 cm

• On the basis of the distribution of rainfall, Moderate Between 100 cm isohyet1 extends
rainfall 100-200 from Gujarat to south
India can be divided into the following
cm up to Kanyakumari
regions as shown. parallel to western
ghats. Northern Andhra
Pradesh, eastern part of
Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh, Odisha, some
parts of Jammu and
Kashmir
Low rainfall Between Most parts of Tamil
60-100 Nadu, Karnataka,
cm Andhra Pradesh, eastern
Rajasthan, southwestern
Uttar Pradesh
Inadequate Less Punjab, Haryana,
rainfall than 60 northwestern Rajasthan,
cm Kachchh, Kathiawar
1 Isohyet - an imaginary line on a map connecting
points having the same amount of rainfall in a
given period of time.

68
14. Variability of
Annual Rainfall
• Variability of rainfall refers to variations
in rainfall from the average amount. The
variability of rainfall is computed with
the help of the following formula:
C.V. = (Standard Deviation/Mean) x 100
(*Where C.V. is the coefficient of variation.)
• Study of variability of rainfall in an
agricultural country such as India is very
important. The rainfall in India is highly
variable. The actual rainfall of a place in
a year deviates from its average rainfall
by 10 to over 60 per cent.
• Description of annual rainfall’s variability
is detailed as:
• Variability of annual rainfall increases
ŠŠ The highest variability is found in
from the western coast to the interior
the areas where the average annual
of the Peninsular region and from West
rainfall is the lowest such as desert
Bengal and Odisha towards north and
areas of Rajasthan. Here, variability of
north-west.
rainfall is around 60 per cent.

15. Climatic Regions

ŠŠ Contrary to this, in the areas where the
average annual rainfall is over 200 cm
(Meghalaya plateau, Western Ghats),
the annual variability of rainfall is less of India
than 10 per cent. • India is often referred to as a country with
ŠŠ A very large part of India falls in tropical monsoon type of climate.
the category of 15 to 30 per cent • However, the large latitudinal extent, the
annual variability of rainfall. Tamil presence of Himalayas in the north, the
Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Indian Ocean in the south have resulted
Maharashtra etc. fall in this category. in great variations in the distribution of
temperature and precipitation in the
India.
• The climate of north is different from that
of south and so is the climate of east from
that of the west.
• To study the variations of climate in
various parts, India is divided into a large
number of climatic regions of small size.
• A climatic region is that area which
possesses a broad uniformity of

69
 climatic conditions caused by the
combined effects of climatic elements –
temperature, pressure, winds, humidity
and precipitation.

16. Koeppen’s Climate

Classification
• Temperature and rainfall are two
important elements which are considered
to be decisive in all the schemes of
climatic classification.
• Koeppen, based on his scheme of
Climatic classification on monthly
values of temperature and precipitation,
identified five major climatic types. They
are −
ŠŠ Tropical climates
ŠŠ Dry climates
17. Agro-Climatic
ŠŠ Warm temperate climates Classification
ŠŠ Cool temperate climates • The agro-climatic classification is
nothing but an extension of the climate
ŠŠ Ice climates (polar)
classification keeping in view the
• Climate Zones as per Koppen, identified suitability to agriculture.
in India:
• Generally, the climate types may be
ŠŠ E – Polar Type distinguished on the rainfall, temperature
ŠŠ Et – Polar type with no true summer and as these two characteristics are
influenced by altitude, the climate can
ŠŠ Bshw – Steppe
also be classified on the basis of the
ŠŠ BWhw – Hot Desert type above three parameters.
ŠŠ Cwg – Monsoon type with dry weather • National Commission on Agriculture
ŠŠ Aw – Tropical Savanna type (1971) classified the country into 127 agro-
climatic zones. The planning commission
ŠŠ Amw – Monsoon type with short dry
divided the country into 15 broad agro -
season
climatic zones based on physiography
ŠŠ As – Monsoon with dry summer season and climate.
ŠŠ Dfc – Cold humid winters with short • The emphasis was given on the
summers development of resources and their
optimum utilization in a suitable manner
within the framework of resource
constraints and potentials of each
region.

70
71
 UNIT FIVE

INDIA: VEGETATION,
WILDLIFE AND SOILS
 generally devoted to agriculture. The
Introduction undulating and rough terrains are
• Natural vegetation refers to the plants areas where grassland and woodlands
and trees that grow by themselves in a develop and give shelter to a variety of
particular area. wildlife.
• Plants that grow naturally in nature, ŠŠ Soil: The soils also vary over space.
without any human help, are called Different types of soils provide basis
natural vegetation. This natural for different types of vegetation. The
vegetation can form forests or jungles. sandy soils of the desert support cactus
and thorny bushes while wet, marshy,
• They follow the climatic variables. Due
deltaic soils support mangroves and
to a variety of climates, a wide range of
deltaic vegetation. The hill slopes with
natural vegetation grows in India. Types
some depth of soil have conical trees.
of natural vegetation vary according to
climate, soil and altitude. A study of the • Climate
distribution of the forests in India reveals ŠŠ Temperature, photoperiod and
that there is a marked relation between precipitation are the three climatic
the rainfall zones and their belts of factors which determine natural
natural vegetation. vegetation
• With over 47,000 plant species, India ŠŠ The character and extent of
occupies tenth place in the world vegetation are mainly determined by
and fourth in Asia in plant diversity. It temperature along with humidity in
includes 15000 or 6% of the world’s total the air, precipitation and soil. On the
flowering plants. slopes of the Himalayas and the hills
• India is one of the twelve mega of the Peninsula above the height of
biodiversity countries of the world. 915 metres, the fall in the temperature
affects the types of vegetation and its
• India has 89,000 species of animals as
growth, and changes it from tropical
well as a rich variety of fish in its fresh
to subtropical temperate and alpine
and marine waters.
vegetation.
• The term flora denotes plants and fauna
ŠŠ Period of exposure to sunlight varies
denotes species of animals in a specific
for different plants leading to their
region.
different rates of growth. Due to longer
duration of sunlight trees grow faster
Factors Affecting in the summer.

Natural Vegetation ŠŠ Areas of heavy rainfall have more

dense vegetation as compared to
• Relief other areas of less rainfall.
ŠŠ Land: Land affects the natural ŠŠ On the other hand, an area with scanty
vegetation directly and indirectly. The rainfall is suitable for thorny bushes.
nature of land influences the type of ŠŠ Temperature Characteristics in
vegetation. The fertile level land is Vegetation Zones

73
 Mean Annual Average Mean Temperature in
Vegetation Zones Remarks
Temp (° C) Jan (° C)
Tropical Above 24° C Above 18° C) No Frost
Subtropical 17° C-24° C 10° C - 18° C Frost is rare
Temperate 7° C - 17° C -1° C - (-10)° C Frost and some snow
Alpine Below 7° C Below -1° C Snow

• The main climatic factors are rainfall

and temperature. The amount of annual
rainfall has a great bearing on the type
of vegetation.
• Temperature is the major factor in the
Himalayas and other hilly regions with
an elevation of more than 900 metres.
As the temperature falls with altitude in
the Himalayan region, the vegetal cover
changes with altitude from tropical to
subtropical, temperate and alpine type

Importance of of vegetation.
• Soil is an equally determining factor in
Forests few regions. Mangrove forests, swamp
forests are some of the examples where
Forests are renewable resources that play
soil is the major factor. Topography is
a major role in enhancing the quality of
responsible for certain minor types e.g.
environment.
alpine flora, tidal forests, etc.
• They modify the local climate
• In India, Vegetation or Forests are widely
• Control soil erosion divided into these categories:
• Regulate stream flow ŠŠ Tropical Evergreen Rain Forests -
• Provide livelihood for many communities Rainfall more than 200 cm
• Offer panoramic or scenic view for ŠŠ Deciduous or Monsoon Type of Forests
recreation - Rainfall 100-200 cm
• It controls wind force, temperature and ŠŠ Dry Deciduous Forests - Rainfall 50-
bring rainfall 100 cm
• It provides humus to soil and shelter to ŠŠ Mountain Forests
wildlife. ŠŠ Littoral and Swamp Forest
ŠŠ Semi-Desert and Desert Vegetations -
Natural Vegetation Rainfall 25-50 cm

in India • Classification of Natural Vegetation

of India is primarily based on spatial
• Climate, soil and topography are the and annual variations in rainfall.
major factors that influence Natural Temperature, soil and topography are
Vegetation of a place. also considered.
74
• India’s vegetation can be divided into 5 main types and 16 sub-types as given below.

A. Moist Tropical B. Dry Tropical C. Montane D. Montane

E. Alpine Forests
Forests Forests Subtropical Forests Temperate Forests
1. Tropical Wet 1. Tropical Dry 1. Subtropical broad 1. Montane Wet 1. Sub-Alpine
Evergreen Evergreen leaved hill Temperate 2. Moist Alpine
2. Tropical Semi- 2. Tropical Dry 2. Subtropical moist 2. Himalayan Moist scrub
Evergreen Deciduous hill (pine) Temperate 3. Dry Alpine scrub
3. Tropical Moist 3. Tropical 3. Subtropical dry 3. Himalayan Dry
Deciduous Thorn evergreen Temperate
4. Littoral and Swamp

Natural Vegetation fruition. As such these forests appear

green all year round, hence earning the

and Distribution of title ‘evergreen’.

• Species found in these forests include
Forests in India - rosewood, mahogany, aini, ebony, etc.

Classification 1 • The semi evergreen forests are found

in the less rainy parts of these regions.
(For the sake of clarity, we will be studying Such forests have a mixture of evergreen
in details the broad classification of and moist deciduous trees. The under
forests and also the detailed classification. growing climbers provide an evergreen
Depending upon the marks of the question character to these forests.
that you are asked, you can choose either
• Main species are white cedar, hillock
of the classifications)
and kail
4.1 Tropical Evergreen and Semi • However, this kind of forest in India had
been subjected to rampant exploitation1.
Evergreen Forests
• These forests are found in the western 4.2 Tropical Deciduous Forests
slope of the Western Ghats, hills of the
northeastern region and the Andaman • These are the most widespread forests in
and Nicobar Islands. They are found in India. They are also called the monsoon
warm and humid areas with an annual forests. They spread over regions which
precipitation of over 200 cm and mean receive rainfall between 70-200 cm On
annual temperature above 22°C. the basis of the availability of water, these
forests are further divided into moist and
• Tropical evergreen forests are well dry deciduous.
stratified, with layers closer to the
1 The British were aware of the economic value of
ground and are covered with shrubs the forests in India; hence, large scale exploitation
and creepers, with short structured trees of these forests was started. The structure of forests
followed by tall variety of trees. In these was also changed. The oak forests in Garhwal and
forests, trees reach great heights up to Kumaon were replaced by pine (chirs) which was
60 m or above. needed to lay railway lines. Forests were also cleared
for introducing plantations of tea, rubber and coffee.
• There is no definite time for trees The British also used timber for construction activities
to shed their leaves, flowering and as it acts as an insulator of heat. The protectional
use of forests was, thus, replaced by commercial use.

75
• The Moist deciduous forests are more Pradesh.
pronounced in the regions which record • In these forests, plants remain leafless
rainfall between 100- 200 cm. These for most part of the year and give an
forests are found in the northeastern expression of scrub vegetation.
states along the foothills of Himalayas,
eastern slopes of the Western Ghats and • Important species found are babool, ber,
Orissa. and wild date palm, khair, neem, khejri,
palas, etc. Tussocky grass grows upto a
• Teak, sal, shisham, hurra, mahua, amla, height of 2 m as the undergrowth.
semul, kusum and sandalwood etc. are
the main species of these forests.
4.4 Mountain Forests
• Dry deciduous forest covers vast areas
of the country, where rainfall ranges • In mountainous areas, the decrease in
between 70-100 cm. temperature with increasing altitude
leads to a corresponding change in
• On the wetter margins, it has a transition natural vegetation.
to the moist deciduous, while on the drier
margins to thorn forests. • Mountain forests can be classified into
two types, the northern mountain forests
• These forests are found in rainier areas and the southern mountain forests.
of the Peninsula and the plains of Uttar
Pradesh and Bihar. • The Himalayan ranges show a succession
of vegetation from the tropical to the
• In the higher rainfall regions of the tundra, which change with the altitude.
Peninsular plateau and the northern
Indian plain, these forests have a parkland • Deciduous forests are found in the
landscape with open stretches in which foothills of the Himalayas. It is succeeded
teak and other trees interspersed with by the wet temperate type of forests
patches of grass are common. between the altitudes of 1,000-2,000 m.
In the higher hill ranges of northeastern
• As the dry season begins, the trees shed India, hilly areas of West Bengal and
their leaves completely and the forest Uttaranchal, evergreen broadleaf
appears like a vast grassland with naked trees such as oak and chestnut are
trees all around. predominant.
• Tendu, palas, amaltas, bel, khair, • Between 1,500-1,750m, pine forests are
axlewood, etc. are the common trees also well-developed in this zone, with
of these forests. In the western and Chir Pine as a very useful commercial
southern part of Rajasthan, vegetation tree. Deodar, a highly valued endemic
cover is very scanty due to low rainfall species grows mainly in the western
and overgrazing. part of the Himalayan range. Deodar
is a durable wood mainly used in
4.3 Tropical Thorn Forests construction activity. Similarly, the chinar
• Tropical thorn forests occur in the areas and the walnut, which sustain the famous
which receive rainfall less than 50 cm. Kashmir handicrafts, belong to this zone.

• These consist of a variety of grasses and • Blue pine and spruce appear at altitudes
shrubs. It includes semiarid areas of of 2,225-3,048 m. At many places in this
south west Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, zone, temperate grasslands are also
Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar found.

76
• But in the higher reaches there is a fleshy stems in which they store water to
transition to Alpine forests and pastures. survive during the long drought.
• Silver firs, junipers, pines, birch and • These vegetations are found in Rajasthan
rhododendrons, etc. occur between and parts of Gujarat, Punjab and
3,000- 4,000 m. However, these pastures Karnataka. The leaves of short trees,
are used extensively for transhumance shrubs, herbs and grasses that are found
by tribes like the Gujjars, the Bakarwals, in Thar Desert have high nutritional values.
the Bhotiyas and the Gaddis. • Thorny Shrubs grow where rainfall is low
• The southern slopes of the Himalayas the soil is dry.
carry a thicker vegetation cover because • Plants growing in such dry soil absorb
of relatively higher precipitation than water from the soil after a lot of search
the drier north-facing slopes. At higher and great difficulty. To conserve
altitudes, mosses and lichens form part this water, plants in dry areas adapt
of the tundra vegetation. themselves by not growing large leaves,
• The southern mountain forests include as transpiration or loss of water occurs
the forests found in three distinct areas of through them mainly; or the leavers are
Peninsular India viz; the Western Ghats, small in size or thorns occur. These thorns
the Vindhyas and the Nilgiris. act as leaves and at times protect it from
• As they are closer to the tropics, and only herbivorous animals.
1,500 m above the sea level, vegetation • In arid areas the natural vegetation
is temperate in the higher regions, and is mainly of cacti, babla, date, palm,
subtropical on the lower regions of the khair, babul, acacias, etc. In India the
Western Ghats, especially in Kerala, distribution of thorny bushes and scrubs
Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. are found in areas where rainfall is low,
• The temperate forests are called Sholas average annual rainfall varying between
in the Nilgiris, Anaimalai and Palani hills. 25-50 cm and temperatures are high.
Some of the other trees of this forest of E.g. – the semiarid regions – near
economic significance include magnolia, desert areas of Rajasthan, Kachchh
laurel, cinchona and wattle. Such forests – Kathiawad areas of Gujarat, rain-
are also found in the Satpura and the shadow area of the Deccan, i.e. interior
Maikal ranges. of the Peninsula.

4.5Semi-deserts and Deserts 4.6 Littoral and Swamp

vegetation Forests
• These types of vegetation grow in areas • India has a rich variety of wetland
where rainfall is less than 50 cm. mostly habitats. About 70 % of this comprises
thorny bushes, acacia, babul and sand areas under paddy cultivation. The total
binding grasses (graminoids) are found area of wetland is 3.9 million hectares.
in this vegetation zone. The Indian wild • Two sites- Chilika Lake (Orissa) and
date, known as “Khejur” is common in Keoladeo National Park (Bharatpur)
these deserts. are protected as water-fowl habitats
• These plants grow far apart from each under the Convention on Wetlands
other. They have long roots and thick of International Importance (Ramsar
Convention).
77
• The country’s wetlands have been of plants. Criss crossed by creeks of
grouped into eight categories, viz. stagnant water and tidal flows, these
ŠŠ The reservoirs of the Deccan Plateau forests give shelter to a wide variety of
in the south together with the lagoons birds.
and other wetlands of the southern
west coast;
ŠŠ The vast saline expanses of Rajasthan,
Gujarat and the Gulf of Kachchh;
ŠŠ Freshwater lakes and reservoirs from
Gujarats through Rajasthan (Keoladeo
National Park) and Madhya Pradesh;
ŠŠ The delta wetlands and lagoons of
India’s east coast (Chilika Lake);
ŠŠ The freshwater marshes of the
Gangetic Plain;
ŠŠ The floodplains of the Brahmaputra;
the marshes and swamps in the hills
of northeast India and the Himalayan
foothills;
ŠŠ The lakes and rivers of the mountain
region of Kashmir and Ladakh; and
• Another classification of forests in India
ŠŠ The mangrove forest and other can also be attempted. This is much more
wetlands of the island arcs of the detailed than the previous classification.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Mangroves grow along the coasts in
the salt marshes, tidal creeks, mud 5. Natural
flats and estuaries1. They consist of
a number of salt-tolerant species Vegetation and
1 These forests grow along the coast and on the Distribution of
edges of the deltas, e.g. the deltas of the Ganga,
Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri. Tides play Forests in India -
Classification 2
an important role in the formation of mud and silt
along these coastal mangrove forests. They are called
‘Tidal Forests’ because their dense growth depends
upon tidal water which submerges the deltaic lands
during high tides. They are also known as Littoral 5.1. Moist Tropical Forests
Forests. In West Bengal these forests are known as
‘Sundarbans.’ The ‘sundri’ is the most significant tree 5.1.1 Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests
in these forests. The other notable trees of these or Rainforests
forests are hogla, garan, gewa, golpata, pasur, etc.
These forests supply timber and firewood. Palm and • Climatic conditions: Annual rainfall
coconut trees adorn the coastal strip. In India, the exceeds 250 cm, the annual temperature
mangrove forests spread over 6,740 sq. km which is
is about 25°-27°C, the average annual
7 % of the world’s mangrove forests. These forests
too, are being encroached upon, and hence, need humidity exceeds 77 % and the dry
conservation. season is distinctly short.
78
• Evergreen: Due to high heat and high • They are transitional forests between
humidity, the trees of these forests do tropical wet evergreen forests and
not shed their leaves together. tropical deciduous forests. They are
• Mesophytic: Plants adopted to neither comparatively drier areas compared to
too dry nor too wet type climate1. tropical wet evergreen forests.

• Lofty: The trees often reach 45 – 60 • Climatic Conditions: Annual rainfall is

metres in height. 200-250 cm, mean annual temperature
varies from 24°C to 27°C, the relative
• Thick Canopy: From the air, the tropical humidity is about 75 %. The dry season
rain forest appears like a thick canopy of is not short like in tropical evergreen
foliage, broken only where it is crossed by forests.
large rivers or cleared for cultivation.
• Such type of forest is found on the
• All plants struggle upwards for sunlight Western coast of India, Assam, lower
resulting in a peculiar layer arrangement. slopes of the Eastern Himalayas, Odisha
The entire morphology looks like a green and Andamans.
carpet when viewed from above.
• The semi-evergreen forests are less
• Less undergrowth: The sunlight cannot dense. They are more gregarious (living
reach the ground due to thick canopy. in flocks or colonies – more pure stands)
The undergrowth is formed mainly of than the wet evergreen forests.
bamboo, ferns, climbers, orchids, etc.
• These forests are characterized by many
• Such type of forests are found in Western species. Trees usually have buttressed
side of the Western Ghats (500 to 1370 trunks with abundant epiphytes2.
metres above sea level), some regions in
the Purvanchal hills and in the Andaman • The important species are laurel,
and Nicobar Islands. rosewood, mesua, thorny bamboo –
Western Ghats, white cedar, Indian
• The timber of these forests is fine- chestnut, champa, mango, etc. –
grained, hard and durable. Himalayan region.
• It has high commercial value but it is • Hardwood or timber is similar to that in
highly challenging to exploit due to the tropical evergreen forests except that
dense undergrowth, absence of pure these forests are less dense with more
stands and lack of transport facilities. pure stands (timber industry here is
• The important species of these forests better than in evergreen forests).
are mahogany, mesua, white cedar,
jamun, canes, bamboo etc.
5.1.3 Tropical Moist Deciduous
Forests
5.1.2 Tropical Semi-Evergreen
• Climatic Conditions: Annual rainfall 100
Forests to 200 cm, mean annual temperature of
about 27°C, the average annual relative
1 Unlike hydrophytic plants, such as water lily or
pondweed, that grow in saturated soil or water, 2 An epiphyte is an organism that grows on the
or xerophytic plants, such as cactus, that grows in surface of a plant and derives its moisture and
extremely dry soil, mesophytes are ordinary plants nutrients from the air, rain, water or from debris
that exist between the two extremes. Mesophytic accumulating around it. Epiphytes take part in
environments are marked by average to hot nutrient cycles and add to both the diversity and
temperatures and soil that is neither too dry nor too biomass of the ecosystem in which they occur, like
wet. any other organism

79
 humidity of 60 % to 75 %. Spring (between • Swamp forests are confined to the deltas
winter and summer) and summer are dry. of the Ganga, Mahanadi, Godavari,
• The trees drop their leaves during the Krishna and Cauvery.
spring and early summer when sufficient • Dense mangroves occur all along the
moisture is not available. coastline in sheltered estuaries, tidal
• The general appearance is bare in creeks, backwaters, salt marshes and
extreme summers (April-May). mudflats. It provides useful fuel wood.

• Heavily buttressed trees and fairly • The most pronounced and the densest is
complete undergrowth. the Sunderban in the Ganga delta where
the predominant species is Sundri.
• These forests occupy a much larger area
than the evergreen forests but large • Mangroves provide hard and durable
tracts under these forests have been timber which is used for construction,
cleared for cultivation. building purposes and making boats.

• Found in the belt running along the • The important species found in these
Western Ghats surrounding the belt forests are Sundri, agar, rhizophora,
of evergreen forests, a strip along the screw pines, canes and palms, etc.
Shiwalik range including terai and
bhabar from 77° E to 88° E, Manipur 5.2. Dry Tropical Forests
and Mizoram, hills of eastern Madhya
Pradesh and Chhattisgarh,Chota
5.2.1 Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests
Nagpur Plateau, most of Odisha, parts • Climatic Conditions: Annual rainfall
of West Bengal and Andaman and of 100 cm mostly from the north-east
Nicobar islands. monsoon winds in October – December),
• These provide valuable timer like Teak. mean annual temperature is about 28°C;
The main species found in these forests the mean humidity is about 75 %.
are teak, sal, laurel, rosewood, amla, • They are found along the coasts of Tamil
jamun, bamboo, etc. Nadu. The growth of evergreen forests in
• It is comparatively easy to exploit these areas of such low rainfall is a bit strange.
forests due to their high degree of • Short statured trees, up to 12 m high,
gregariousness (more pure stands). with complete canopy.
5.1.4 Littoral and Swamp Forests • Bamboos and grasses not conspicuous.
The important species are jamun,
• They can survive and grow both in fresh tamarind, neem, etc.
as well as brackish water (The mixture of
seawater and fresh water in estuaries is • Most of the lands under these forests
called brackish water and its salinity can have been cleared for agriculture or
range from 0.5 to 35 ppt). casuarina plantations1.

• Occur in and around the deltas, estuaries 1 Casuarina is the most popular farm forestry in the
and creeks prone to tidal influences states of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal,
(delta or tidal forests). Odisha, Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Karnataka.
They are rapid-growing, carefree species for sites
• Littoral (relating to or on the shore of the and climates as varied as coastal sand dunes, high
sea or a lake) forests occur at several mountain slopes, hot humid tropics, and semi-arid
places along the coast. regions. They have the ability to fix atmospheric
nitrogen. It grows 15 to 25 metres in height on average.

80
5.2.2 Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests and Euphorbias are very prominent.
• Annual rainfall is 100-150 cm. • The Indian wild date is common. Some
grasses also grow in the rainy season.
• These are similar to moist deciduous
forests and shed their leaves in the dry • Found in Rajasthan, south-western
season. The major difference is that they Punjab, western Haryana, Kachchh and
can grow in areas of comparatively less neighbouring parts of Saurashtra.
rainfall. • Here they degenerate into desert type in
• They represent a transitional type – moist the Thar desert.
deciduous on the wetter side and thorn • Such forests also grow on the leeward
forests on the drier side. side of the Western Ghats covering
• They have closed but uneven canopy. large areas of Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil
• The forests are composed of a mixture of Nadu.
a few species of deciduous trees rising up
to a height of 20 metres. • The important species are neem, babul,
cactii, etc.
• Undergrowth: Enough light reaches the
ground to permit the growth of grass
and climbers.
5.3 Montane Subtropical Forests
• They occur in an irregular wide strip 5.3.1 Sub-tropical Broad-leaved Hill
running from the foot of the Himalayas Forests
to Kanyakumari except in Rajasthan,
• Climatic conditions: Mean annual rainfall
Western Ghats and West Bengal.
is 75 cm to 125 cm, average annual
• The important species are teak, temperature is 18°-21°C, and humidity is
axlewood, rosewood, common bamboo, 80 %.
red sanders, laurel, satinwood, etc.
• Found in the Eastern Himalayas to
• Large tracts of this forest have been the east of 88°E longitude at altitudes
cleared for agricultural purposes. varying from 1000 to 2000 m.
• These forests have suffered from • Forests of evergreen species. Commonly
overgrazing, fire, etc. found species are evergreen oaks,
chestnuts, ash, beech, sals and pines.
5.2.3 Tropical Thorn Forests
• Climbers and epiphytes [a plant that
• Climatic Conditions: Annual rainfall less
grows non-parasitically on a tree or other
than 75 cm, humidity is less than 50 %,
plant] are common.
mean temperature is 25°-30°C.
• These forests are not so distinct in the
• The trees are low (6 to 10 metres
southern parts of the country. They occur
maximum) and widely scattered. Acacias
only in the Nilgiri and Palni hills at 1070-
Reduces damage in the event of natural calamities. 1525 metres above sea level.
Line planting in the coastal areas helps in controlling • It is a “stunted rain-forest” and is not so
the wind force. It is also used for tourism promotion
luxuriant as the true tropical evergreen.
in view of its ornamental appearance.It provides
top quality firewood. The wood is suitable for paper • The higher parts of the Western Ghats
pulp and useful raw material for the manufacture such as Mahabaleshwar, the summits
of paper for writing, printing, and wrapping. It has
of the Satpura and the Maikal Range,
some medicinal values as well.

81
 highlands of Bastar and Mt. Abu in the • Higher hills of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, in
Aravali Range carry sub-types of these the Eastern Himalayan region.
forests. • These are closed evergreen forests.
5.3.2 Subtropical Moist Pine Forests Trunks have large girth.

• Found in the Western Himalayas • Branches are clothed with mosses, ferns
between 73°E and 88°E longitudes at and other epiphytes.
elevations between 1000 to 2000 metres • The trees rarely achieve a height of more
above sea level. than 6 metres.
• Spread across some hilly regions of • Deodar, Chilauni, Indian chestnut, birch,
Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Naga Hills plum, machilus, cinnamomum, litsea,
and Khasi Hills. magnolia, blue pine, oak, hemlock, etc.
• Chir or Chil is the most dominant tree are important species.
which forms pure stands. 5.4.2 Himalayan Moist Temperate
• It provides valuable timber for furniture, Forests
boxes and buildings.
• Annual rainfall varies from 150 cm to 250
• It is also used for producing resin and cm
turpentine.
• They occur in the temperate zone of
5.3.3 Subtropical Dry Evergreen the Himalayas between 1500 and 3300
Forests metres and cover the entire length of this
mountain range in Kashmir, Himachal
• Climatic Conditions: Annual rainfall is Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Darjeeling and
50-100 cm (15 to 25 cm in December- Sikkim.
March), the summers are sufficiently hot
and winters are very cold. • These forests are mainly composed of
coniferous species and these species
• Found in the Bhabar, the Shiwaliks and occur in mostly pure strands.
the western Himalayas up to about 1000
metres above sea level. • Trees are 30 to 50 m high.

• Low scrub forest with small evergreen • Pines, cedars, silver fir, spruce, etc. are
stunted trees and shrubs. most important trees.

• Olive, acacia modesta and pistacia are • They form high but fairly open forest with
the most predominant species. shrubby undergrowth including oaks,
rhododendrons and some bamboos.
5.4 Montane Temperate Forests • It provides fine wood which is of much
use for construction, timber and railway
5.4.1 Montane Wet Temperate sleepers.
Forests
5.4.3 Himalayan Dry Temperate
• Climatic Conditions: Grows at a height Forests
of 1800 to 3000 m above sea level, mean
annual rainfall is 150 cm to 300 cm, mean • Precipitation is below 100 cm and is
annual temperature is about 11°C to 14°C mostly in the form of snow. Temperatures
and the average relative humidity is over are below 10°C.
80%. • Coniferous forests with xerophytic shrubs

82
 in which deodar, oak, ash, olive, etc are • Forests are commonly referred to as the
the main trees. lungs of the earth. It is primarily because
• Such forests are found in the inner dry of the presence of a variety of plants
ranges of the Himalayas where south- which due to their high density produce
west monsoon is very feeble. massive amount of Oxygen which
enables other organisms to breathe.
• Such areas are in Ladakh, Lahul, Forests of one acre provided over 6 tons
Chamba, Kinnaur, Garhwal and Sikkim. of Oxygen every year.
• Forests provide home to diverse animal
5.5 Alpine Forests and plant species, which not only provide
• Altitudes ranging between 2,900 to biodiversity on earth, but each species
3,500. has an important role in the ecosystem.
• These forests can be divided into: (1) sub- • About 25% of all the medicines that are
alpine; (2) moist alpine scrub and (3) dry produced originate from rainforest plants.
alpine scrub. For example Curare (toxic plant) comes
• The sub-alpine forests occur lower alpine from a tropical vine, and is used as an
scrub and grasslands. anaesthetic and to relax muscles during
surgery. Similarly Quinine is derived from
• It is a mixture of coniferous and broad- the ‘Cinchona Tree’ which is used to treat
leaved trees in which the coniferous trees Malaria.
attain a height of about 30 m while the
broad leaved trees reach only 10 m. • Forests provide timber, which is used for
building houses, furniture etc.
• Firs, spruce, rhododendron, etc. are
important species. • Forests are the most important
components of earth’s ecosystem as it
• The moist alpine scrub is a low evergreen prevents soil erosion, maintains water
dense growth of rhododendron, birch cycle, check global warming etc. Without
etc. which occurs from 3,000 metres and all these roles performed by forests, the
extends upto snowline. earth would be uninhabitable.
• The dry alpine scrub is the uppermost • Wildlife tourism generates lots of capital,
limit of scrub xerophytic, dwarf shrubs, which in turn increases the revenue of the
over 3,500 metres above sea level and government.
found in dry zone. Juniper, honeysuckle,
artemesia etc. are important species. • Forests still harbor various species of
living organisms which are still being
discovered. Each animal insects and
6. Importance of plants contain its individual genetic

Forests material that has been evolving for

thousands of years. Protecting the forests
• The trees around us are extremely not only preserves a process of life that
important and have always been started billions of years ago but it also
necessary for improving the human gives us missing clues to various riddled
condition – both during its life and after aspects of life itself.
harvest. It is not a stretch to believe that
without trees we humans would not exist
on this beautiful planet.
7. Forest Cover in
83
India for one-fourth of India’s forest cover,
has taken a major blow. In Mizoram,
• India has recorded a one percent jump the loss is linked to “shifting cultivation
(8,021 square km) in overall forest and and development activities”. Increase
tree cover between 2015 and 2017 despite in forest cover in certain pockets is
population and livestock pressures, even due to “regeneration of bamboo and
as the green footprint in the northeast other plantations”. In Nagaland and
region shrunk by 630 square km, Arunachal Pradesh, the reasons for the
according to the latest India State of loss has also been attributed to “shifting
Forest Report, 2018. cultivation and development activities”.
Shifting cultivation, rotational felling
• Based on satellite data analysis, the
and developmental activities are the
biennial assessment – conducted by the
factors influencing the decline in forest
Forest Survey of India (FSI) and released
cover in Meghalaya.
by the Ministry of Environment, Forest
and Climate Change (MoEFCC) – has put
the total forest and tree cover at 802,088
square km, which is 24.39 percent of the
geographical area of the country.
• India targets bringing 33 percent of its
geographical area under forest cover. As
many as 15 states and union territories (UTs)
have forest cover exceeding 33 percent
of their geographical area. Out of these,
seven states have more than 75 percent
forest cover while eight states have forest
cover between 33 percent and 75 percent.
• Three southern states have contributed
to the increase in forest cover. They
are: Andhra Pradesh (2,141 square km),
Karnataka (1,101 square km) and Kerala
(1,043 square km). The report attributes
much of the expansion to plantation and
conservation activities both within and
outside the recorded forest areas. Medicinal Plants
• In terms of area, Madhya Pradesh has • India is known for its herbs and spices
the largest forest cover of 77,414 square from ancient times. Some 2,000 plants
km in the country, followed by Arunachal have been described in Ayurveda and at
Pradesh with 66,964 square km and least 500 are in regular use. The World
Chhattisgarh with 55,547 square km. Conservation Union’s Red list has named
However, these states have reported a 352 medicinal plants of which 52 are
decline in forest cover. critically threatened and 49 endangered.
• In terms of reduction in forest cover at The commonly used plants in India are:
the national level, the biodiversity-rich • Sarpagandha : Used to treat blood
northeast region (NER), which accounts pressure; it is found only in India.

84
• Jamun: The juice from ripe fruit is used to ŠŠ maintaining environmental stability
prepare vinegar which is carminative and and to restore forests where ecological
diuretic, and has digestive properties. The balance was disturbed;
powder of the seed is used for controlling ŠŠ conserving the natural heritage of the
diabetes. country, its biological diversity and
• Arjun: The fresh juice of leaves is a cure genetic pool;
for earache. It is also used to regulate ŠŠ checks soil erosion, extension of the
blood pressure. desert lands and reduction of floods
• Babool: Leaves are used as a cure for eye and droughts;
sores. Its gum is used as a tonic. ŠŠ increasing the forest cover through
• Neem: Has high antibiotic and social forestry and afforestation on
antibacterial properties. degraded land;
• Tulsi Plant: Is used to cure cough and ŠŠ increasing the productivity of forests
cold. to make timber, fuel, fodder and
• Kachnar: Is used to cure asthma and food available to rural population
ulcers. The buds and roots are good for dependant on forests and encourage
digestive problems. the substitution of wood;
ŠŠ creating a massive people’s movement

9. Forest involving women to encourage the

planting of trees, stop felling of trees,
Conservation and thus, reduce pressure on the
existing forest
• Forests have an intricate interrelationship
• Based on the forest conservation policy
with life and environment. These
the following steps were initiated:
provide numerous direct and indirect
advantages to our economy and society. • Social Forestry
Hence, conservation of forest is of vital ŠŠ The National Commission on
importance to the survival and prosperity Agriculture of the Indian government
of humankind. used the term “social forestry” for the
• Accordingly, the Government of India first time in 1973. Social Forestry means
proposed to have a nation-wide forest the management and protection of
conservation policy, and adopted forests as well as afforestation of
a Forest Policy in 1952, which was barren lands with the purpose of
further modified in 1988. According to helping in the environmental, social
the new forest policy, the Government and rural development. Social forestry
will emphasize sustainable forest is forestry for community development.
management in order to conserve and Thus, it is a people oriented, value
expand forest reserve on the one hand, based management of forests with
and to meet the needs of local people on a major objective of satisfying the
the other. needs, wants and aspirations of both
the people and the government.
• The forest policy aimed at:
• Urban forestry
ŠŠ bringing 33 % of the geographical
areas under forest cover; ŠŠ This is the art and science of
managing trees and forest resources

85
 in and around urban community development as a part of integrated
ecosystems for availing physiological, rural development programme.
sociological, economic and aesthetic Participation of different rural
benefits trees provide for society. communities provide social cohesion.
Urban Forestry concentrates on all Biofuel, biogas and other sources of
tree-dominated as well as other green renewable energy can be extracted
resources in and around urban areas, out of social forestry.
such as woodlands, public and private ŠŠ Urban forestry offers significant
urban parks and gardens, street tree benefits in reducing energy
and square plantations, botanical consumption. Social and Urban
gardens and cemeteries. forestry is, in effect, an integral part of
• Even though both social forestry the Gandhian philosophy of economic
and urban forestry concentrates on growth and community development.
afforestation, their relevant importance is • Farm Forestry
different. The scope of ecological, social,
economic and energy security as its end ŠŠ Farm forestry is the name given
goals, for Social and Urban forestry are to programmes which promote
different. commercial tree growing by farmers
on their own land. Farm forestry was
ŠŠ Social Forestry fosters ecological defined by the National Commission
balance with proper utilization of on Agriculture (1976) as the practice of
farm resources. It provides efficient forestry in all its aspects in and around
conservation of water and soil and the farms or village lands integrated
utilise wasteland and degraded lands. with other farm operations. Farm
It helps to reduce pressure on natural forestry is any sustainable land-use
forests. system that maintains or increases the
ŠŠ Urban forestry improves the air quality total yields by combining food crops
and can mitigate the heat island effect with tree crops and/or livestock on the
by giving green lungs to cities. Urban same unit of land, either alternately or
forests can sequester huge amounts at the same time, using management
of carbon by capturing carbon dioxide practices that suit the social and
from the atmosphere. Urban forests cultural characteristics of the local
play key roles in supporting water people and the economic and eco­
management in and around urban logical conditions of the area.
settlements.
ŠŠ Social forestry, just like
forestry also provides employment
urban 10. Wildlife in India
opportunities to the rural people. • Wildlife of India is a great natural
heritage. It is estimated that about 4-5
ŠŠ Urban forestry helps to check % of all known plant and animal species
haphazard urbanization bringing on the earth are found in India.
about aesthetic benefits.
• Based on the International Union for
ŠŠ Social Forestry helps to increase in Conservation of Nature and Natural
levels of farm income due to improved Resources (IUCN), we can classify as
and sustained productivity. It also follows-
helps to achieve an all-round rural
ŠŠ Normal Species: Species whose
86
 population levels are considered to be • There are more than 89,000 animal
normal for their survival, such as cattle, species in India.
sal, pine, rodents, etc. • There are more than 1200 species of
ŠŠ Endangered Species: These are species birds in India.
which are in danger of extinction. The • Elephants are found in the hot wet forests
survival of such species is difficult if of Assam, Karnataka and Kerala.
the negative factors that have led to a
decline in their population continue to • One-horned rhinos are found in the
operate. The examples of such species swampy and marshy lands of Assam
are black buck, crocodile, Indian wild and West Bengal.
ass, Indian rhino, lion tailed macaque, • Wild asses and camels are found in the
sangai (brow anter deer in Manipur), Rann of Kachchh and Thar Desert.
etc. • Indian bison, nilgai, chousingha, gazel
ŠŠ Vulnerable Species: These are species and many other species of deer and
whose population has declined to some other animals are found in India
levels from where it is likely to move • India is the only country in the world
into the endangered category in the which has both tigers and lions.
near future if the negative factors
continue to operate. The examples of • India boasts a variety of species and
such species are blue sheep, Asiatic organisms.
elephant, Gangetic dolphin etc. • The region’s rich and diverse wildlife is
ŠŠ Rare Species: Species with small preserved in 120+ national parks, 18 Bio-
population may move into the reserves and 500+ wildlife sanctuaries
endangered for vulnerable category across the country. India has some
if the negative factors affecting them of the most biodiverse regions of the
continue to operate. The examples of world and hosts three of the world’s 36
such species are the Himalayan brown biodiversity hotspots – or treasure-
bear, wild Asiatic buffalo, desert fox houses – that are the Western Ghats,
and hornbill, etc. the Eastern Himalayas and Indo-Burma
hills. 26 wetlands are registered under
ŠŠ Endemic Species: These are species the Ramsar Convention.
which are only found in some particular
areas usually isolated by natural or • Since India is home to a number of rare
geographical barriers. Examples of and threatened animal species, wildlife
such species are the Andaman teal, management in the country is essential
Nicobar pigeon, Andaman wild pig, to preserve these species.
mithun in Arunachal Pradesh. • India is one of the seventeen megadiverse
ŠŠ Extinct Species: These are species countries.
which are not found after searches of • According to one study, India along
known or likely areas where they may with other 16 mega diverse countries is
occur. A species may become extinct home to about 60-70% of the world’s
from a local area, region, country, biodiversity. India, lying within the
continent or the entire earth. Examples Indomalaya ecozone is home to about
of such species are the Asiatic cheetah, 7.6% of all mammalian, 12.6% of avian
pink head duck. (bird), 6.2% of reptilian, and 6.0% of

87
 flowering plant species. • While some of these large mammal
• There are eighteen biosphere reserves in species are confirmed extinct, there
India. Four out of these, the Sunderbans have been many smaller animal and
in West Bengal, Nanda Devi in plant species whose status is harder to
Uttaranchal, the Gulf of Mannar in Tamil determine. Many species have not been
Nadu and the Nilgiris (Kerala, Karnataka seen since their description.
and Tamil Nadu) have been included in • Gir forest in India has the only surviving
the world network of Biosphere reserves. population of Asiatic lions in the world.
• The eighteen biosphere reserves are: • Some species of birds have gone extinct
Sunderbans, Gulf of Mannar, the Nilgiris, in recent times, including the pink-
Nanda Devi, Nokrek, Great Nicobar, headed duck and the Himalayan quail .
Manas, Simlipal, Dihang-Dibang, • A species of warbler known earlier from
Dibru Saikhowa, Agasthyamalai, a single specimen collected by Allan
Kanchenjunga, Pachmari, Achanakmar- Octavian Hume from near Rampur in
Amarkantak, Cold Desert, Panna, Rann Himachal Pradesh, was rediscovered
of Kutch, Seshachalam. after 139 years in Thailand.
• Project Tiger, Project Rhino, Project
Great Indian Bustard and many other
ecodevelopmental projects have been 12. Wildlife
introduced.
Conservation
• In recent decades, human encroachment
• Wildlife Conservation is the practice
has posed a threat to India’s wildlife; in
of protecting wild plant and animal
response, the system of national parks
species and their habitat. Wildlife plays
and protected areas, first established in
an important role in balancing the
1935, was substantially expanded.
environment and provides stability to
• In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife different natural processes of nature.
Protection Act and Project Tiger to
• The goal of wildlife conservation is to
safeguard crucial habitat; further federal
ensure that nature will be around for
protections were promulgated in the
future generations to enjoy and also to
1980s.
recognize the importance of wildlife and
wilderness for humans and other species
11. Extinction of alike.

Species • Wildlife conservation has become an

increasingly important practice due to
• The exploitation of land and forest the negative effects of human activity on
resources by humans along with capturing wildlife.
and trapping for food and sport has led
to the extinction of many species in India 12.1 The Wildlife Protection
in recent times.
Act, 1972
• These species include mammals such as
• The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 is an
the Indian/Asiatic cheetah, wild zebu,
Act of the Parliament of India enacted
Indian Javan rhinoceros, and Northern
for the protection of plants and animal
Sumatran rhinoceros.
species. Before 1972, India only had five

88
 designated national parks. Among other ŠŠ The WLPA provides for several
reforms, the Act established schedules categories of Protected Areas/
of protected plant and animal species; Reserves:
hunting or harvesting these species was ŠŠ National Parks and Tiger Reserves,
largely outlawed. Conservation Reserves and Community
• The Act provides for the protection of Reserves
wild animals, birds and plants; and for ŠŠ Wildlife Sanctuaries
matters connected therewith or ancillary
or incidental thereto. It extends to the
whole of India, except the State of
12.2 National Parks and Tiger
Jammu and Kashmir which has its own Reserves
wildlife act. It has six schedules which • National parks and Tiger Reserves are
give varying degrees of protection. by law more strictly protected, allowing
• Schedule I and part II of Schedule II virtually no human activity except
provide absolute protection - offences that which is in the interest of wildlife
under these are prescribed the highest conservation.
penalties. • Grazing and private tenurial rights are
• Species listed in Schedule III and disallowed in National Parks but can be
Schedule IV are also protected, but the allowed in sanctuaries at the discretion of
penalties are much lower. the Chief Wildlife Warden. The amended
WLPA does not allow for any commercial
• Schedule V includes the animals which
exploitation of forest produce in both
may be hunted.
national parks and wildlife sanctuaries,
• The specified endemic plants in Schedule and local communities can collect forest
VI are prohibited from cultivation and produce only for their bona fide needs.
planting.
• The 2006 amendments introduced a new
• The hunting to the Enforcement chapter (IV B) for establishment of the
authorities have the power to compound National Tiger Conservation Authority
offences under this Schedule (i.e. they and notification of Tiger Reserves.
impose fines on the offenders).
• Up to April 2010 there have been 16 12.3 Biodiversity Reserves
convictions under this act relating to the
• Biosphere reserves are sites established
death of tigers.
by countries and recognized under
• The Wildlife (Protection) Act (WLPA), 1972 UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere (MAB)
is an important statute that provides a Programme to promote sustainable
powerful legal framework for: development based on local community
ŠŠ Prohibition of hunting efforts and sound science.
ŠŠ Protection and management of wildlife • The programme of Biosphere Reserve
habitats was initiated by UNESCO in 1971.
ŠŠ Establishment of protected areas and • The Indian government has established 18
management of zoos Biosphere Reserves in India, (categories
roughly corresponding to IUCN Category
ŠŠ Regulation and control of trade in parts
V Protected areas), which protect larger
and products derived from wildlife
areas of natural habitat (than a National

89
 Park or Animal Sanctuary), and often and improve the way in which the Parties
include one or more National Parks or are able to implement its objectives.
preserves, along with buffer zones that • There are 26 wetlands listed under the
are open to some economic uses. Ramsar Convention in India.
• Protection is granted not only to the
flora and fauna of the protected region,
but also to the human communities who
inhabit these regions, and their ways of
life.

12.5 International Union for

Conservation of Nature
• The International Union for Conservation
12.4 Ramsar Convention of Nature (IUCN; officially International
• The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands Union for Conservation of Nature and
of International Importance especially Natural Resources) is an international
as Waterfowl Habitat is an international organization working in the field of
treaty for the conservation and nature conservation and sustainable
sustainable use of wetlands. use of natural resources.
• It is also known as the Convention on • Over the past decades, IUCN has widened
Wetlands. It is named after the city of its focus beyond conservation ecology
Ramsar in Iran, where the Convention and now incorporates issues related to
was signed in 1971. sustainable development in its projects.
• Every three years, representatives of • It tries to influence the actions of
the Contracting Parties meet as the governments, business and other
Conference of the Contracting Parties stakeholders by providing information
(COP), the policy-making organ of the and advice, and through building
Convention which adopts decisions partnerships.
(Resolutions and Recommendations) to Soils
administer the work of the Convention

90
13. Soils in India • This layer is generally soft, porous and
can retain more water. It is called the
• Soil is the thin top layer on the earth’s topsoil or the A-horizon.
crust comprising rock particles mixed • The next layer has a lesser amount of
with organic matter. humus but more of minerals. This layer
• Pedology is the study of soils in their is generally harder and more compact
natural environment. Pedogenesis is the and is called the B-horizon or the middle
natural process of soil formation that layer.
includes a variety of processes such as • The third layer is the C-horizon, which
weathering, leaching, calcification etc. is made up of small lumps of rocks with
• The Soil formation is mainly related to cracks.
the parent rock material, surface relief,
climate and natural vegetation.
• The soil is formed by the breaking down
of rocks by the action of wind, water and
glaciers.
• The soil is classified on the basis of the
proportion of particles of various sizes.
• If soil contains greater proportion of big
particles it is called sandy soil.
• If the proportion of fine particles is
relatively higher, then it is called clayey
soil.

14. Soil Profile

• A vertical section through different
layers of the soil is called the soil profile.
• Each layer differs in feel (texture), colour,
depth and chemical composition. These 15. Major Soil Types
layers are referred to as Soil Horizon.
• A soil horizon is a layer generally parallel
of India
to the soil surface, whose physical • Geologically, Indian soils can broadly be
characteristics differ from the layers divided into soils of peninsular India and
above and beneath. soils of extra-peninsular India.
• Horizons are defined in most cases by • The soils of Peninsular India are formed
obvious physical features, chiefly colour by the decomposition of rocks in situ, i.e.
and texture. directly from the underlying rocks. Soils
of Peninsular India are transported and
• The uppermost horizon is generally
re-deposited to a limited extent and are
dark in colour as it is rich in humus and
known as sedentary soils.
minerals. The humus makes the soil fertile
and provides nutrients to growing plants. • The soils of the Extra-Peninsula are
formed due to the depositional work

91
 of rivers and wind. They are very deep. • These soils are constantly replenished by
They are often referred to as transported the recurrent floods.
or azonal soils. • They occur all along the Indo-Gangetic-
• Major groups: Brahmaputra plains except in a few
ŠŠ Alluvial soils places where the top layer is covered by
desert sand.
ŠŠ Black soils
• They also occur in deltas of the Mahanadi,
ŠŠ Red soils Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery, where
ŠŠ Laterite and Lateritic soils they are called deltaic alluvium (coastal
ŠŠ Forest and Mountain soils alluvium)

ŠŠ Arid and Desert soils • Some alluvial soils are found in the
Narmada, Tapi valleys and Northern
ŠŠ Saline and Alkaline soils and parts of Gujarat.
ŠŠ Peaty and Marshy soils • They are mostly flat and regular soils
and are best suited for agriculture.
15. 1 Alluvial Soil • They are best suited to irrigation and
• Alluvial soils are formed mainly due respond well to canal and well/tube-well
to silt deposited by Indo-Gangetic- irrigation.
Brahmaputra rivers. In coastal regions • They yield splendid crops of rice, wheat,
some alluvial deposits are formed due to sugarcane, tobacco, cotton, jute, maize,
wave action. oilseeds, vegetables and fruits.
• Rocks of the Himalayas form the parent • Geologically, the alluvium of the Great
material. Thus the parent material of plains of India is divided into newer or
these soils is of transported origin. younger khadar and older bhangar soils.
• They are the largest soil group covering
about 15 lakh sq km or about 46 per cent 15.2 Black Soils
of the total area.
• The parent material for most of the
• They support more than 40% of India’s black soil is the volcanic rocks that were
population by providing the most formed in the Deccan Plateau (Deccan
productive agricultural lands. and the Rajmahal trap).
• They are immature and have weak • In Tamil Nadu, gneisses and schists
profiles due to their recent origin. form the parent material. The former
• Most of the soil is sandy and clayey soils are sufficiently deep while the latter are
are not uncommon. generally shallow.
• Pebbly and gravelly soils are rare. Kankar • These are the region of high temperature
(calcareous concretions) beds are present and low rainfall. It is, therefore, a soil
in some regions along the river terraces. group typical to the dry and hot regions
of the Peninsula.
• The soil is porous because it is loamy (equal
proportion of sand and clay) nature. • A typical black soil is highly argillaceous
(of rocks or sediment) consisting of or
• Porosity and texture provide good
containing clay with a large clay factor,
drainage and other conditions favorable
62 per cent or more.
for agriculture.

92
• In general, black soils of uplands are of • This soil has been used for growing a
low fertility while those in the valleys are variety of crops for centuries without
very fertile. adding fertilizers and manures, with little
• The black soil is highly retentive of or no evidence of exhaustion.
moisture. It swells greatly on accumulating
moisture. Strenuous effort is required to 15.3 Red Soils
work on such soil in the rainy season as it • Red soils along with its minor groups
gets very sticky. form the largest soil group of India.
• In summer, the moisture evaporates, the • The main parent rocks are crystalline and
soil shrinks and is seamed with broad metamorphic rocks like acid granites,
and deep cracks. The lower layers can gneisses and quartzites.
still retain moisture. The cracks permits
oxygenation of the soil to sufficient • The texture of these soils can vary from
depths and the soil has extraordinary sand to clay, the majority being loamy.
fertility. • On the uplands, the red soils are poor,
• The black colour is due to the presence gravelly, and porous. But in the lower
of a small proportion of titaniferous areas they are rich, deep dark and fertile.
magnetite or iron and black constituents • The red colour is due to the presence of
of the parent rock. iron oxide.
• In Tamil Nadu and parts of Andhra • When limestone, granites, gneisses and
Pradesh, the black colour is derived from quartzites are eroded the clay enclosed
crystalline schists and basic gneisses. within the rocks remains intact with other
• Various tints of the black colour such as forms of insoluble materials.
deep black, medium black, shallow black • In oxidizing conditions, rust or iron oxide
, a mixture of red and black may be found develops in the clay, when the soil is
in this group of soils. present above the water table giving the
• Spread over 46 lakh sq km (16.6 per cent soil a characteristic red colour.
of the total area) across Maharashtra, • The colour is more due to the wide
Madhya Pradesh, parts of Karnataka, diffusion rather than high percentage of
Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat iron oxide content.
and Tamil Nadu. • These soils mostly occur in the regions of
• These soils are best suited for cotton low rainfall.
crop. Hence these soils are called regur • They occupy about 3.5 lakh sq km (10.6%)
and black cotton soils. of the total area of the country.
• Other major crops grown on the black • These soils are spread on almost the
soils include wheat, jowar, linseed, whole of Tamil Nadu.
virginia tobacco, castor, sunflower and
millets. • Other regions with red soil include parts of
Karnataka, south-east of Maharashtra,
• Rice and sugarcane are equally important Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya
where irrigation facilities are available. Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Chota
• Large varieties of vegetables and fruits Nagpur plateau; parts of south Bihar,
are also successfully grown on the black West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh; Aravalis and
soils. the eastern half of Rajasthan (Mewar or

93
 Marwar Plateau), parts of North-Eastern • When manured and irrigated, some
states. laterites are suitable for growing
• The red soils are mostly loamy and hence plantation crops like tea, coffee, rubber,
cannot retain water like the black soils. cinchona, coconut, arecanut, etc.

• The red soils, with the proper use of • In some areas, these soils support grazing
fertilizers and irrigation techniques, give grounds and scrub forests.
good yield of cotton, wheat, rice, pulses, • Laterite and lateritic soils provide
millets, tobacco, oil seeds, potatoes and valuable building material.
fruits. • These soils can be easily cut into cakes
but hardens like iron when exposed to air.
15.4 Lateritic Soils
• As it is the end-product of weathering, it
• Laterite soils are mostly the end products cannot be weathered much further and
of weathering. is durable.
• They are formed under conditions of
high temperature and heavy rainfall 15.5 Forest – Mountain Soils
with alternate wet and dry periods. • These soils occupy about 2.85 lakh sq km
• Heavy rainfall promotes leaching or 8.67% of the total land area of India.
(nutrients gets washed away by water) of • They are mainly heterogeneous soils
soil whereby lime and silica are leached found on the hill slopes covered by
away and a soil rich in oxides of iron and forests.
aluminium compounds are left behind.
• The formation of these soils is mainly
• ‘Laterite’ means brick in Latin. They governed by the characteristic deposition
harden greatly on losing moisture. of organic matter derived from forests
• Laterite soils are red in colour due to and their character changes with
little clay and more gravel of red sand- parent rocks, ground-configuration and
stones. climate.
• Laterite soils cover an area of 2.48 lakh • Consequently, they differ greatly even
sq km. if they occur in close proximity to one
• Continuous stretch of laterite soil is found another.
on the summits of Western Ghats at 1000 • In the Himalayan region, such soils are
to 1500 m above mean sea level, Eastern mainly found in valleys, less steep and
Ghats, the Rajmahal Hills, Vindhyan, north facing slopes. The south facing
Satpuras and Malwa Plateau. slopes are very steep and exposed to
• They also occur at lower levels and denudation and hence do not support
in valleys in several other parts of the soil formation.
country. • Forest soils occur in Western and Eastern
• They are well developed in south Ghats also.
Maharashtra, parts of Karnataka etc. • The forest soils are very rich in humus.
and are widely scattered in other regions. • They are suitable for plantations of
• Laterite soils lack fertility due to intensive tea, coffee, spices and tropical fruits in
leaching. peninsular forest region.

94
• Wheat, maize, barley and temperate • Undecomposed rock fragments,
fruits are grown in the Himalayan forest on weathering, gives rise to sodium,
region. magnesium and calcium salts and
sulphurous acid.
15.6 Arid – Desert Soils • Some of the salts are transported in
• The desert soils consist of Aeolian sand solution by the rivers.
(90 to 95 %) and clay (5 to 10 %). • In regions with low water table, the salts
• They cover a total area of 1.42 lakh sq km percolate into sub soil and in regions
(4.32%). with good drainage, the salts are wasted
away by flowing water.
• The presence of sand inhibits soil
growth. Desertification of neighboring • But in places where the drainage
soils is common due to intrusion of desert system is poor, the water with high salt
sand under the influence of wind [Aeolian concentration becomes stagnant and
sand]. deposits all the salts in the topsoil once
the water evaporates.
• Occur in arid and semi-arid regions of
Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana. The • In regions with high subsoil water table,
sand here is blown from the Indus basin injurious salts are transferred from below
and the coast by the prevailing south- by the capillary action as a result of
west monsoon winds. evaporation in the dry season.
• Sandy soils without clay factor are also • Saline and Alkaline Soils occupy 68,000
common in coastal regions of Odisha, sq km of area.
Tamil Nadu and Kerala. • These soils are found in canal irrigated
• They are usually poor in organic matter. areas and in areas of high subsoil water
table.
• Some desert soils are alkaline with
varying degree of soluble salts like • Parts of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana,
calcium carbonate. Karnataka, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh,
Haryana, Punjab (side effects of
• Phosphates and nitrates make this soil improper or excess irrigation), Rajasthan
fertile wherever moisture is available. and Maharashtra have this kind of soils.
• There is a possibility of reclaiming these • The accumulation of these salts makes
soils if proper irrigation facilities are the soil infertile and renders it unfit for
available. agriculture.
• In large areas, only the drought resistant • In Gujarat, the areas around the Gulf of
and salt tolerant crops such as barley, Khambhat are affected by the sea tides
cotton, millets, maize and pulses are carrying salt-laden deposits. Vast areas
grown. comprising the estuaries of the Narmada,
Tapi, Mahi and Sabarmati have thus
15.7 Saline – Alkaline Soils become infertile.
• In Saline and Alkaline Soils, the top soil • Along the coastline, saline sea waters
is impregnated (soak or saturate with infiltrate into coastal regions during storm
a substance) with saline and alkaline surges (when cyclones make landfall)
efflorescences (become covered with salt and makes the soil unfit for cultivation.
particles). The low lying regions of coastal Andhra

95
 Pradesh and Tamil Nadu face this kind of
soil degradation.

15.8 Peaty – Marshy Soils

• These are soils with large amounts of
organic matter and considerable amount
of soluble salts.
• The most humid regions have this type
of soil.
• They are black, heavy and highly acidic.
• Kottayam and Alappuzha districts of
Kerala where it is called Kari.
• Also occur in the coastal areas of Odisha P ictures of D ifferent kind of S oils in I ndia
and Tamil Nadu, Sunderbans of West
Bengal, in Bihar and Almora district of
Uttarakhand.
• Most of the peaty soils are under water
during the rainy season but as soon the
rains cease, they are put under paddy
cultivation.

16. Characteristics and

Problems of Indian Soils
• Most soils are old and mature. Soils of
the peninsular plateau are much older
than the soils of the great northern plain.
• Indian soils are largely deficient in
nitrogen, mineral salts, humus and other
organic materials.
• Plains and valleys have thick layers of
soils while hilly and plateau areas depict
thin soil cover.
• Some soils like alluvial and black soils
are fertile while some other soils such as
laterite, desert and alkaline soils lack in
fertility and do not yield good harvest.

96
• Indian soils have been used for cultivation fills in drainage channels.
for hundreds of years and have lost • Soil erosion reduces cropland productivity
much of their fertility. and contributes to the pollution of
• Soil erosion (Himalayan region, adjacent watercourses, wetlands and
Chambal Ravines etc.), deficiency in lakes.
fertility (Red, lateritic and other soils), • Soil erosion can be a slow process that
desertification (around Thar desert, rain- continues relatively unnoticed or can
shadow regions like parts of Karnataka, occur at an alarming rate, causing serious
Telangana etc.), waterlogging (Punjab- loss of topsoil.
Haryana plain) salinity and alkalinity
(excessively irrigated regions of Punjab, • Soil compaction, low organic matter, loss
Haryana, Karnataka etc.), wasteland, of soil structure, poor internal drainage,
over exploitation of soils due to increase salinization and soil acidity problems
in population and rise in living standards are other serious soil degradation
and encroachment of agricultural land conditions that can accelerate the soil
due to urban and transport development. erosion process.

17. Soil Erosion and

Soil Conservation
• Removal of topsoil is called soil erosion.
Intense farming, grazing, construction
activities and other human activities;
along with deforestation has led to soil
erosion.
• Soil erosion; if not checked in time; can
even lead to desertification.
• Soil erosion is a naturally occurring
process that affects all landforms. In
agriculture, soil erosion refers to the
wearing away of a field’s topsoil by
the natural physical forces of water and
wind or through forces associated with
farming activities such as tillage. 18. Soil Conservation
• Erosion, whether it is by water, wind or • Soil conservation is important to prevent
tillage, involves three distinct actions soil erosion.
ŠŠ soil detachment • “Soil conservation is the prevention of
soil loss from erosion or reduced fertility
ŠŠ movement caused by over usage, acidification,
ŠŠ deposition salinization or other chemical soil
• Topsoil, which is high in organic matter, contamination. Slash-and-burn and
fertility and soil life, is relocated other unsustainable methods of
elsewhere “on-site” where it builds up subsistence farming are practiced in
over time or is carried “off-site” where it some lesser developed areas. A sequel

97
 to the deforestation is typically large • Contours act like bunds and thus prevents
scale erosion, loss of soil nutrients and soil erosion by allowing water to slowly
sometimes total desertification.” penetrate the soil
• The adoption of various soil conservation • Terraces are leveled into step like small
measures reduces soil erosion by water, fields with even slope
wind and tillage.
• Tillage and cropping practices, as well 18.3 Contour barriers/Contour
as land management practices, directly trenching
affect the overall soil erosion problem
• Contour strips which intercept downslope
and solutions on a farm.
flowing water and soil particles are useful
• When crop rotations or changing tillage measures to control soil erosion
practices are not enough to control
• Several 2 feet by one foot trenches are
erosion on a field, a combination of
formed across the slopes at suitable
approaches or more extreme measures
intervals
might be necessary.
• Tree seedlings are to be planted above
• For example, contour plowing, strip-
the trench
cropping or terracing may be considered.
• These barriers slow down the water
• In more serious cases where concentrated
movement and reduce its erosive force
runoff occurs, it is necessary to include
structural controls as part of the overall • They also filter out and trap many of the
solution – grassed waterways, drop pipe suspended soil particles, keeping them
and grade control structures, rock chutes from being washed out of the field
and water and sediment control basins.
18.4 Afforestation
18.1 Terrace Farming • Planting of trees along the edges of the
• On hilly slopes, terraces act as bunds fields, the waste land and on steep slopes
and prevent the soil from being washed to prevent soil erosion
away • Also it enhances the capacity of the soil
• Farming is done on a unique step like to retain water.
structure and the force of water running
off is slowed down 18.5 Shelterbelts
• Terraced farming is more common on • A line of trees or shrubs planted to protect
small farms and in underdeveloped an area; especially a field of crops, from
countries, since mechanized equipment fierce weather is called shelterbelts.
is difficult to deploy in this setting.
• Farmers plant trees in several rows to
check wind erosion
18.2 Contour Ploughing
• Shelterbelts are also known as
• Land should never be ploughed up & windbreaks.
down as it increases erosion
• Ploughing along contours on a slope 18.6 Cover crops / Crop
prevents soil being washed away by rotations
rainwater or by surface runoff.

98
• Cover crops such as legumes, white • Mulches can either be organic — such
turnips, radishes and other species are as grass clippings, straw, bark chips, and
rotated with cash crops to blanket the similar materials
soil year-round • Or inorganic — such as stones, brick
• Act as green manure that replenishes chips, and plastic
nitrogen and other critical nutrients
• Also help suppress weeds & increase soil 18.10 Construction of Dams
fertility • Rivers causes soil erosion
• Dams are built in the upper course of
18.7 No-till farming rivers to control erosion of soil
• Also called zero tillage or direct drilling • This would check the speed of water and
• A way of growing crops or pasture from thereby save soil from erosion
year to year without disturbing the soil
through tillage
• Increases the amount of water that
infiltrates into the soil
• Also increases organic matter retention
and cycling of nutrients in the soil
• Keeps soils anchored in place rather than
having bare ground exposed to wind and
water

18.8 Strip Cropping

• Crops are grown in alternate strips of
land to check the impact of the winds
F ig : P ictures
showing different methods to
• It is used when a slope is too steep or conserve soil and prevent L and D egradation
when there is no alternative method of
preventing soil erosion.
• Contour strip cropping → Cultivation of
soil protecting crops in strips alternating
with erosion permitting crops. The strips
should be across the slope.
• Field strip cropping → Plants are cultivated
in parallel strips across the slopes

18.9 Mulching
• Mulches are materials placed over the
soil surface to maintain moisture and
improve soil conditions.
• A protective layer of a material that is
spread on top of the soil

99
 UNIT SIX

INDIA: NATURAL
DISASTER AND MANAGEMENT
1. Introduction • Technological or man-made hazards
(complex emergencies/conflicts, famine,
• Disaster is an undesirable occurrence displaced populations, industrial
resulting from forces that are largely accidents and transport accidents) are
outside human control, strikes quickly events that are caused by humans and
with little or no warning, which causes or occur in or close to human settlements.
threatens serious disruption of life and This can include environmental
property including death and injury to a degradation, pollution and accidents.
large number of people. Technological or man-made hazards
(complex emergencies/conflicts, famine,
• Natural Disaster is a catastrophic event
displaced populations, industrial
that is caused by nature or the natural
accidents and transport accidents)
processes of the earth. Examples include
floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, volcanic • There are a range of challenges like climate
eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis, and change, unplanned-urbanization,
other geologic processes. under-development/poverty as well as
the threat of pandemics that will shape
• It affects the rural community the most,
humanitarian assistance in the future.
as they are vulnerable to economic
These aggravating factors will result in
changes, and have no alternate means
increased frequency, complexity and
of living. The destructive potential of any
severity of disasters.
natural hazard is estimated basically by
its spatial extent and severity. • A disaster is a result of natural or man-
made causes that leads to sudden
• Natural disasters in India have always
disruption of normal life, causing severe
posed a challenge for the Government.
damage to life and property to an extent
With the advent of high end research
those available social and economic
and development in the area of
protection mechanisms are inadequate
environment and disaster management
to cope.
it is now possible to predict such natural
calamities and also mitigate the adverse • Natural Hazards are element of
effects of such calamities. circumstances in the natural environment
that have the potential to cause harm to

2. Natural Disaster people or property or both.

• Natural Hazard is a natural disaster
Vs Hazard which has not yet happened. There is
a potential possibility that the disaster
• Natural Disasters are naturally occurring might strike. Thus hazards are potential
physical phenomena caused either by natural events which might negatively
rapid or slow onset events which can be affect the society, through damage of
geophysical (earthquakes, landslides, property and loss of life.
tsunamis and volcanic activity),
hydrological (avalanches and floods), • As compared to natural hazards, natural
climatological(extreme temperatures, disasters are relatively sudden and cause
drought and wildfires), meteorological large scale widespread death, loss of
(cyclones and storms/wave surges) or properties and disturbances to social
biological (disease epidemics and insect/ systems and life over which people have
animal plagues). little or no control.

101
• There has been a change in perception • Disasters are classified as per origin, into
of natural disasters and hazards. Areas natural and man-made disasters. As per
prone to natural hazards were more severity, disasters are classified as minor
vulnerable to disasters. Hence, people or major (in impact).
avoided tampering with the delicate • Natural disasters are sudden ecological
balance that existed in a given ecosystem. disruptions or threats that exceed the
But now, technological advancements adjustment capacity of the affected
have given a larger capacity to human community and require external
intervention in nature. assistance.
• Now with intensified activities even • Natural disasters can be broadly
in fragile ecosystems, human beings classified into categories including
are making disaster prone areas more geophysical such as earthquakes and
vulnerable. volcanic eruptions; hydrological such as
floods; meteorological such as hurricanes;
3. Disasters: Natural climatological such as heat and cold
waves and droughts; and biological such
Or Man Made as epidemics.
• Earlier it was thought that disasters were • Man-made disasters can include
a result of natural events and caused due hazardous material spills, fires,
to mighty forces of nature. groundwater contamination,
transportation accidents, structure
• However, natural forces are not the only
failures, mining accidents, explosions
causes of disasters. Some disasters are
and acts of terrorism.
also caused by human activities.
• Atmospheric Disasters: This type of
• Some activities like Bhopal Gas Tragedy,
natural disaster has its own natural
Chernobyl nuclear disasters, wars,
characteristics, geographic area where it
Nuclear attack on Japan, release of
occurs (areal extent), time of year it is most
chlorofluorocarbons, an increase in
likely to occur, severity, and associated
greenhouse gases, environmental
risk. In most cases, a natural disaster or
pollution like oil spills etc are activities
event involves multiple hazards: severe
carried out by humans.
thunder-storms spawn tornadoes; wind is
• While some activities of humans are a factor in thunderstorms, severe winter
directly responsible for the disasters storms, tropical cyclones, and hailstorms;
there are others are indirectly responsible snowfall from a severe winter storm can
and they often aggravate the process of prompt avalanches. Few of atmospheric
disaster. Landslides and floods are often natural hazards are
intensified due to unrelenting human
ŠŠ Blizzards
actions like deforestation, unscientific
land use, construction activities in the ŠŠ Thunder-storms
fragile ecosystem etc. ŠŠ Lightening
ŠŠ Tornadoes
4. Types of Disasters ŠŠ Tropical cyclone
in India ŠŠ Drought

102
 ŠŠ Hailstorm watershed area have caused, soil
ŠŠ Frost, Heat, wave erosion, expansion of flood plain area
in upper and middle course of rivers
ŠŠ Cold Wave and groundwater depletion.
• Terrestrial Disasters are those which ŠŠ Developmental process: Exploitation
occur on the land surface and may of land use, development of
be quite violent in nature. They are as infrastructure, rapid urbanization
follows: and technological development have
ŠŠ Earthquakes caused increasing pressure over the
ŠŠ Volcanic eruptions natural resources.

ŠŠ Landslides ŠŠ Political issues: War, nuclear power

aspirations, fight between countries to
ŠŠ Avalanches become super power and conquering
ŠŠ Subsidence land, sea and skies. These have resulted
in a wide range of disaster events such
ŠŠ Soil Erosion
as Hiroshima nuclear explosion, Syrian
• Aquatic Disasters are related to water civil war, growing militarisation of
and often are quite large scale. oceans and outer space.
ŠŠ Floods ŠŠ Industrialization: This has resulted
ŠŠ Tidal Waves Ocean into warming of earth and frequency
of extreme weather events has also
ŠŠ Storm surge
increased.
ŠŠ Tsunami
• India is vulnerable, in varying degrees, to
• The Government and World agencies a large number of disasters. Around 59%
are working to develop technology for of the landmass is prone to earthquakes
disaster management for early warning of moderate to very high intensity.
system, efficient rescue operations;
• About 12% of its land is prone to floods
relief operations; rehabilitation; and
and river erosion.
long range planning.
• Close to 5,700 kms, out of the 7,516 kms

5. Natural Disasters long coastline is prone to cyclones and

tsunamis.
in India • 68% of its cultivable area is vulnerable
to droughts; and, the hilly areas are at
• India is vast and diverse in terms of risk from landslides and avalanches.
physical and socio-cultural attributes. It is
largely due to its vast geographical area, • Moreover, India is also vulnerable to
environmental diversities and cultural chemical, biological, radiological and
pluralities. Large population along with nuclear (CBRN) emergencies and other
different social attributes enhances the man-made disasters.
vulnerability to natural disasters. • Disaster risks in India are further
• Causes for Occurrence of Disaster compounded by increasing vulnerabilities
related to changing demographics and
ŠŠ Environmental degradation: Removal socio-economic conditions, unplanned
of trees and forest cover from a urbanization, and development

103
 within high-risk zones, environmental volcanic eruptions, rock fall, landslides,
degradation, climate change, geological subsidence etc which have limited area if
hazards, epidemics and pandemics. influence and scale of damage.
• Clearly, all these contribute to a situation 5.1.1 Earthquakes in India
where disasters seriously threaten India’s
economy, its population and sustainable • The Indian plate is moving at a speed
development. of one centimeter per year towards the
north and the north-eastern direction
5.1 Earthquakes and the movement of this plate is
continuously being obstructed by the
• An earthquake (also known as a quake, Eurasian plate from the north.
tremor or tremblor) is the shaking of the
• As a result of this, both plates are said
surface of the Earth, resulting from the
to be locked with each other resulting
sudden release of energy in the Earth's
in accumulation of energy at different
lithosphere that creates seismic waves.
points in time. Excessive accumulation
• The release of energy occurs along a of energy results in building up of stress
fault. A fault is a sharp break in the which ultimately leads to the sudden
crustal rocks. Rocks along a fault tend to release of energy causing earthquakes
move in opposite directions. along the Himalayan arch.
• As the overlying rock strata press them, • National Geophysical Laboratory,
the friction locks them together. However, Geological Survey of India, Department
their tendency to move apart at some of Meteorology, Government of India
point of time overcomes the friction. As along with the National Institute of
a result, the blocks get deformed and Disaster Management have divided
eventually, they slide past one another India into the following five earthquake
abruptly. This causes a release of energy, zones.
and the energy waves travel in all
ŠŠ Very High Damage Risk Zone
directions.
ŠŠ High Damage Risk Zone
• The point where the energy is released
is called the focus of an earthquake. The ŠŠ Moderate Damage Risk Zone
energy waves travel in different directions ŠŠ Low Damage Risk Zone
to reach the surface. The point on the
ŠŠ Very Low Damage Risk Zone
surface, nearest to the focus is called
the epicenter. • Very High Damage Risk Zone: The
region of Kashmir, the Western and
• The intensity of the earthquake will be
Central Himalayas, North and Middle
highest in the epicenter and decreases as
Bihar, the North-East Indian region, the
one moves away. All natural earthquakes
Rann of Kutch and the Andaman and
take place in the lithosphere.
Nicobar group of islands fall in this zone.
• Earthquakes are highly unpredictable Generally, the areas having trap rock or
and destructive among all the natural basaltic rocks are prone to earthquakes.
disasters.
• High Damage Risk Zone: Part of
• Tectonic earthquakes are the most Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
devastating as compared to the Uttarakhand, Sikkim, the parts of
earthquakes which are associated with Indo-Gangetic plains (North Punjab,

104
 Chandigarh, Western Uttar Pradesh, public services like transport systems
Terai, North Bengal, Sundarbans) and and communication connections.
the capital of the country Delhi fall in • There are also environmental impacts.
Zone. In Maharashtra, the Patan area Earthquakes can cause landslides.
(Koynanagar) and in Bihar the northern It is very dangerous, especially for
part of the state like Raxaul, near the buildings in unstable area on hillsides
border of India and Nepal is also in this or mountains where soft soils can be
zone. liquefied by the tremors of earthquakes.
• The remaining part of the country falls in During an earthquake, buildings can
the moderate or low damage risk zone. fall down hills with soil and bury people
Most of those areas can be considered under the soil. People will be buried
safe. Deccan plateau which is the most alive. In addition, aftershocks are also
stable landform in our country is also free effects of earthquakes. Aftershocks are
from the risks of earthquakes. small tremors which disperse it to other
places and other people can feel it after
the main shocks of an earthquake. Loss
of trees and vegetation also has a long
standing effect on the environment and
surrounding.
• Apart from social and environmental
impacts, earthquakes also have
negative effects on a nation’s economy.
Earthquakes cause infrastructures
to collapse, reservoirs dams, shops,
and hospitals are devastated after an
earthquake. Restoring those take a long
time and Earthquakes often cause loss of
job opportunities as well as the country’s
income diminishes and results in an
unstable economy.
5.1.3 Earthquake Mitigation
Hazards
5.1.2 Socio-Environmental • Why some parts in India are more prone
to earthquakes?
Consequences of Earthquakes
ŠŠ Himalayan belt – Collision between
• One of the biggest effects of earthquakes
lithological plates i.e. Indo-Austral
is the social impact on survivors.
plate with Eurasian plate; and Burma
Earthquakes have short term impacts
Plate with Java Sumatra plate. These
as well as long term impacts. A powerful
collisions between two continental
earthquake can destroy buildings,
plates cause lots of strain in underlying
factories, shops, roads, bridges and
rocks. This strain is released in form of
schools. These cause many people
earthquakes.
to become homeless. Furthermore,
earthquakes can cause disruption to ŠŠ Andaman and Nicobar Islands- Sea
floor displacement and underwater
105
 volcanoes disturb the equilibrium of ŠŠ Preparing a vulnerability map of the
earth’s surface region and then circulating awareness
• According to seismologists, the and educating the people in such areas
earthquake itself is not the killer, but it is about ways and means of minimizing
the unpreparedness among the society, the adverse impacts of disasters.
in terms of inadequate infrastructure, ŠŠ Modifying buildings and house types
which kills thousands. to earthquake resistant designs suit
• Measures needed the vulnerable areas.

ŠŠ Risk recognition – The fact that there • National Centre for Seismology launches
is a risk first needs to be recognised. ‘India Quake’ – An App for Earthquake
People need to be made aware of this Parameter Dissemination. National
risk. Centre for Seismology (NCS) operates
national seismological network with 84
ŠŠ Risk mapping – risk mapping of the stations. These stations are connected to
areas in the region and divide them NCS headquarters through VSAT for real
into zones depending upon the amount time data communication. In the event of
of risk involved. an earthquake NCS locates them using
ŠŠ Risk mitigation – This required data from its network and disseminate
investment in R&D to develop cost earthquake parameters to all the
effective quake-resistant designs. As concerned government department and
this cannot be taken up commercially, other stakeholders through SMS, email
public funding is very important. and fax.
Indigenous knowledge should also be
used and disseminated. E.g.- Assam 5.2 Tsunami
type house or ikora style– these houses
• Tsunamis and earthquakes happen
are made with walls of bamboo or
after centuries of energy built up within
reed mesh (ikora) and plaster set in a
the earth. A tsunami (in Japanese ‘tsu’
wooden framework. They have light
means harbor and ‘nami’ means wave)
tin roofs and wooden floors that are
is a series of water waves caused by the
quake-resistant. The buildings are
displacement of a large volume of a body
light, flexible and able to move with the
of water, usually an ocean.
swaying caused by tremors, without
there being extensive casualties or • Seismicity generated tsunamis are the
damages. result of abrupt deformation of sea floor
resulting vertical displacement of the
• Earthquakes damages are extremely
overlying water. Earthquakes occurring
devastating. It is not possible to prevent
beneath the sea level, the water above
the occurrence of an earthquake but
the reformed area are displaced from its
disaster mitigation and curative measures
equilibrium position.
should be undertaken.
• The release of energy produces tsunami
ŠŠ Establishing earthquake monitoring
waves which have small amplitude but a
centres (seismological centres)
very long wavelength (often hundreds of
for regular monitoring and fast
kilometers long). It may be caused by a
dissemination of information among
non-seismic event such as a landslide or
the people in the disaster prone area.
impact of a meteor.

106
• The speed of the wave in the ocean range between 10 minutes to a few hours.
depends on the depth of the water. It • The mitigation hazards created by
is more in the shallow water than in the tsunamis are difficult because of the fact
deep sea. that losses are on a much larger scale. It
• Tsunami in the deep ocean may have is beyond the capacity of the individual
very long waves length of hundreds of states to mitigate the damage. Hence,
kilometers and travels at about 800 km combined efforts at the international
per hour, but amplitude of only about 1 levels are the possible ways of dealing
km. It remains undetected by ships in the with this calamity.
deep sea. However when it approaches • In India, the government launched an app
the coast its wavelength diminishes called ‘Sagar Vani’ to disseminate ocean
but amplitude grows enormously, and related information and alerts (like high
it takes very little time to reach its full waves and Tsunami early warnings) to
height. the user community in a timely manner
• After reaching the coast, the tsunami for their safety.
waves release enormous energy stored
into them and water flows turbulently 5.3 Tropical Cyclone
on to the lands, destroying everything
coming in its way. • Indian coasts are highly vulnerable to
tropical cyclones and the consequent
• Computer model can provide tsunami recurrent loss of life and property.
arrival, usually within minutes of the
arrival time. Tsunamis have great erosion • Cyclones are caused by atmospheric
potential, stripping beaches of sand, disturbances around a low-pressure
coastal vegetation and dissipating area distinguished by swift and often
its energy through the destruction of destructive air circulation.
houses and coastal structure. • Geographically, cyclones are classified
into: Tropical cyclones and Extratropical/
5.2.1 Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Temperate cyclones.
• A preliminary risk assessment has been • Tropical cyclones are of thermal origin.
done for the Indian Coast with respect to That is, it owes its origin to the warmness
tsunamis taking into account the seismo- of ocean water. It occurs between the
tectonic setting, historical seismicity Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn.
and past tsunami events. Whereas, the temperate cyclone is of
• The east and west coasts of India frontal origin.
and the island regions are likely to be • India with a long coastline of 7516.16 km is
affected by Tsunamis generated mainly one of the worst affected regions, where
by subduction zone related earthquakes it is exposed to around 10% of tropical
from the two potential source regions, cyclones in the world.
viz., the Andaman-Nicobar-Sumatra
• Approximately 5700 km out of around
Island Arc and the Makran subduction
7516 km of India’s coastline, it's the
zone north of Arabian Sea.
flat coastal terrain and high population
• Depending upon the location of the density is extremely vulnerable to
Earthquake, the response time for cyclones.
evacuation of coastal population could
• Recurrent cyclones account for a large

107
 number of deaths, loss of livelihood
opportunities, loss of public and
private property, and severe damage to
infrastructure.
• Cyclones are associated with Strong
Winds, Torrential rains and inland
flooding and Storm Surge.
• Cyclones occur in the months of May–
June and October–November, with
their primary peak in November and
secondary peak in May.
• Thirteen coastal states and Union
Territories (UTs) in the country,
encompassing 84 coastal districts, are
affected by tropical cyclones.
• Four states (Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,
Orissa and West Bengal) and one UT
(Puducherry) on the east coast and one
state (Gujarat) on the west coast are
5.3.1 Effects of Tropical Cyclones
more vulnerable to hazards associated
with cyclones. • When a cyclone approaches to coast,
• On an average, about five or six tropical a risk of serious loss or damage arises
cyclones form in the Bay of Bengal and from severe winds, heavy rainfall, storm
Arabian sea and hit the coast every year. surges and river floods. The effect of a
Out of these, two or three are severe1. storm surge is most pronounced in wide
and shallow bays exposed to cyclones
such as in the northern part of the Bay
of Bengal.
• Strong winds/Squalls: Through
high-speed winds, cyclones cause
severe damage to the infrastructure.
Installations, dwellings, communication
1 How are Cyclones named? system etc. get destroyed resulting in
In the beginning, storms were named arbitrarily. loss of life and property.
The tradition of naming cyclones started with • Torrential rains and inland flooding:
hurricanes in the Atlantic Ocean, where tropical
Continuous rains cause floods resulting
storms that reach sustained wind speeds of 39 miles
per hour were given names. In 1953, the US weather in loss of shelter. Also, heavy rains due
service officially adopted the idea and created a to cyclone cause landslides, soil erosion
new phonetic alphabet (international) of women's and weaken the embankments.
names from A to W, leaving out Q, U, X, Y and Z.
Male names were included in 1978. The process of • Storm surge: An abnormal rise in sea
naming cyclones involves several countries in the level near the coast due to severe tropical
region and is done under the aegis of the World cyclone results in the drowning of low
Meteorological Organization. For the Indian Ocean lying areas in the coastal region. It results
region, deliberations for naming cyclones began in
2000. A formula was adopted in 2004.
in loss of lives, destruction of vegetation

108
 and the salt content in seawater reduces canals, drains, saline embankments,
the soil fertility. communication and power transmission
• Apart from these disturbances, cyclone networks etc are important.
causes great loss of lives and properties, • Non-structural measures like early
rendering people homeless, without warning dissemination systems,
shelter and often without jobs. There management of coastal zones,
is dearth of drinking water and living awareness generation and disaster risk
conditions are extremely dismal. management and capacity building of
all stakeholders involved is also equally
5.3.3 Cyclone Hazard Mitigation needed.
• Although it is not possible to completely • These measures are being adopted and
avoid natural disasters, their effects can tackled on State to State basis under
be minimised by taking some known National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project
long and short term structural and non- (NCRMP) being implemented through
structural mitigation measures such as- World Bank Assistance.
ŠŠ Developing proper early warning • Government Initiatives:
systems,
ŠŠ National Cyclone Risk Mitigation
ŠŠ Creating awareness at all levels in the Project (NCRMP) aim to upgrade
concerned communities, cyclone forecasting, tracking and
ŠŠ Coastal afforestation, warning systems, build capacity
in multi-hazard risk management,
ŠŠ Construction of shelters,
construct major infrastructures
embankments, dykes, Coastal roads,
including multi-purpose cyclone
bridges, canals, etc.,
shelters and embankments.
ŠŠ Through better preparedness,
ŠŠ Integrated Coastal Zone Management
mitigation measures and improved
Project (ICZMP): It is a World Bank
response mechanisms.
assisted project which aims at
• Awareness Generation: it is necessary national capacity development for
to prepare communities to deal with implementation of comprehensive
disasters in a manner that people’s coastal management in India. Broad
lives and properties are protected, objectives of the project are Cyclone
and to ultimately become resilient. forecasting, Tracking and warning
Public awareness generation will serve systems, Cyclone Risk Mitigation and
to empower people with knowledge Capacity Building, Major infrastructure
about the role and responsibilities of to be constructed under multipurpose
the state. Targeting schools, colleges cyclone shelters, access roads,
and all educational institutions is a very underground cabling and saline
important part of awareness generation. embankments, Disaster Mitigation,
It has to be sustained through constant Lowering loss of lives, property in
updating, upgrading and mock drills. vulnerable states
• Management of Cyclones: Structural ŠŠ Natural Disaster Management
measures like construction of cyclone Authority is mandated to deal with
shelters, construction of cyclone the disaster management in India.
resistant buildings, road links, bridges, It has prepared National Guidelines

109
 on the Management of Cyclone. In often cause flooding along the eastern
2016, a blueprint of National Disaster coastline.
Management Plan was unveiled to ŠŠ Topological Factors: Lack of drainage
tackle disaster. According to the from the area, saturated subsoil,
plan, Ministry of Earth Science will be glacial lake outbursts due to the
responsible for disaster management failure of outward debris dams.
of cyclone. By this plan, India joined
the list of countries which follow the ŠŠ Human Factors: Encroachment of
Sendai Framework For Disaster Risk floodplains and wetlands, drying and
Reduction 2015-20301. sedimentation of natural drainage
channels due to human activities,
deforestation, damming and diversion
5.4 Floods
of rivers, destruction of natural
• India is one of the most flood prone barriers to flooding like forest and
countries in the world. The principal mangrove belts.
reasons for flood lie in the very nature of
• Flash floods are the most dangerous
natural ecological systems in this country,
kind of floods, because they combine
namely, the monsoon, the highly silted
the destructive power of a flood with
river systems and the steep and highly
incredible speed and unpredictability.
erodible mountains, particularly those of
Flash floods occur when excessive water
the Himalayan ranges.
fills normally dry creeks or river beds
• A flood is an overflow of water that along with currently flowing creeks and
submerges land that is usually dry. rivers, causing rapid rises of water in a
• The floods are caused by either one or short amount of time. They can happen
multiplefactorswhichmaybeclimatological with little or no warning.
/ meteorological, topological or manmade: • Densely populated areas are at a high
ŠŠ Meteorological Factors: These include risk for flash floods. The construction
prolonged heavy rainfall which is of buildings, highways and parking lots
usually common during the monsoon increases runoff by reducing the amount
season. Cloudbursts are quite regular of rain absorbed by the ground. This
in the Himalayan region during runoff increases the flash flood potential.
monsoons as well. Tropical cyclones Sometimes, streams through cities and
towns are routed underground into storm
1 The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction drains. During heavy rain, the storm
(2015–2030) is an international document which drains can become overwhelmed and
was adopted by UN member states between 14th
flood roads and buildings. Low spots,
and 18th of March 2015 at the World Conference on
Disaster Risk Reduction held in Sendai, Japan and such as underpasses, underground
endorsed by the UN General Assembly in June 2015. parking garages, and basements can
The Sendai Framework sets four specific priorities become death traps.
for action:
• Flood affected regions in India:
• Understanding disaster risk;
• Strengthening disaster risk governance to ŠŠ The Brahmaputra River Region:
manage disaster risk; This region consists of the rivers
• Investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience; Brahmaputra and Barak and their
• Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective tributaries, and covers the states of
response, and to "Build Back Better" in recovery, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya,
rehabilitation and reconstruction.

110
 Mizoram, Manipur, Tripura, Nagaland, are prone to floods every year. The
Sikkim and the northern parts of West delta and coastal areas of the states
Bengal. The catchments of these on the east coast periodically face
rivers receive very heavy rainfall flood and drainage problems in the
and hence floods in this region are wake of monsoon depression and
severe and quite frequent. Further the cyclonic storms.
hills, where these rivers originate, are
fragile and susceptible to erosion and 5.4.1 Consequences and Control of
thereby cause exceptionally high silt Floods
discharge in the rivers. • Loss of lives and livelihoods of the
ŠŠ The Ganga River Region: Most of the people.
damage by floods is caused by the • Destruction of basic infrastructural
northern tributaries of the Ganga. capacities such as sanitation and
They spill over their banks and change transportation leading to isolation and
their courses frequently. In general, the risk of spread of diseases.
flood problem increases from the west
to the east and from south to north. • Risk of violence against vulnerable
The problem of flooding and drainage sections, especially women.
congestion is getting accentuated due • Destruction of ecology and biodiversity
to large-scale encroachment of flood of an area that may take years and even
plains of the rivers for habitation and decades to recuperate.
various developmental activities. • Floods destroy valuable crops every year
Bihar and UP are the worst affected in but also physical infrastructure like roads,
this region. rails, bridges and human settlements.
ŠŠ The North-west River Region: The • Hundreds of people are rendered
Indus and its tributaries carry quite homeless and are washed down along
substantial discharges during the with their cattle during the floods.
monsoon and also large volumes
of sediment. They change their • Spread of diseases like cholera, gastro-
courses frequently and leave behind enteritis, hepatitis and other water borne
vast tracts of sandy waste. This diseases spread in the flood affected
region covers the states of Jammu regions.
and Kashmir, Punjab and parts of • However, positive contributions like
Himachal Pradesh, Haryana and deposition of fertile silt over agricultural
Rajasthan. Indiscriminate use of lands, which are good for the crops are
water for irrigation and development also a resultant consequence of flooding.
of low-lying areas and depressions
has created problem of drainage
congestion and water logging over
vast areas.
ŠŠ The Central India and Deccan Region:
The region does not have serious flood
problem except that some of the rivers
in Orissa State namely Mahanadi,
Brahmini, Baitarani, and Subarnarekha

111
 component.
ŠŠ Shared flood warning mechanisms
with both upstream and downstream
neighbours across international
boundaries.
ŠŠ Recharge and rejuvenation of
wetlands and prevention of any
encroachment upon their areas.
ŠŠ Structural measures like Dams &
Reservoirs – Flood Cushion/ storage
of flood waters, Embankments, Sea
Walls - restricting flow of water,
Natural Detention Basins - retarding
& absorbing flood waters, Channel
Improvement - increasing flood
carrying capacity of rivers, Drainage
Improvement, Flood Ways/ Spill
Channels - diversion of flood water
from one channel to another etc should
be undertaken.
5.4.2 Flood Hazard Mitigation ŠŠ Non-structural measures like Flood
• Flood mitigation strategies involve the Forecasting & Warning, temporary
following components: evacuation, Flood Plain Zoning/
management – regulation of land
ŠŠ Floodplain zoning by the respective
use, Flood Proofing & removal of flood
state governments. Even after the
prone structures, Public Awareness
recommendations of the Rashtriya
campaigns & people participation
Barh Ayog (RBA) in 1976, only three
drills, Financial Mechanism - Disaster
such states have passed these acts -
Relief, Rehabilitation & Flood Insurance
Rajasthan, Manipur and Uttarakhand
and even in these states, the • Government Initiatives:
implementation is lax. ŠŠ National Flood Risk Mitigation
ŠŠ RBA s recommendations on Project (NFRMP): It aims at ensuring
identification and assessment of that arrangements are in place to
flood-prone areas have been ignored mobilise the resources and capability
to a large extent. These can be followed for relief, rehabilitation, reconstruction
to allow for better flood forecasting. and recovery from disasters besides
creating awareness among vulnerable
ŠŠ Planting of the tree and mangrove
communities.
belts along river banks and coastlines.
ŠŠ Flood Management Programme: The
ŠŠ Planned settlement growth and
scheme provides financial assistance to
economic empowerment of the poor
the state governments for undertaking
so that they can build back better
flood management works in critical
structures. Housing for All scheme
areas.
incorporates the disaster resilience

112
 ŠŠ National Commission for water happens when atmospheric moisture is
resources 1999: It had also observed reduced to an extent that soil moisture
that storage dams and embanks is affected. This affects crops, animals
provided effective protection to large and also evapotranspiration. It is also
flood prone areas. It also suggested known as soil-moisture drought.
the urgent need to enact floodplain ŠŠ Hydrological drought: Occurs when
zoning act. there is a deficiency in the surface and
ŠŠ National Water Policy 2012: The groundwater supply in a region, often
objective of the National Water Policy due to less precipitation, unrestrained
is to take cognizance of the existing reliance on surface water for farming,
situation, to propose a framework energy and other needs.
for creation of a system of laws and ŠŠ Ecological Drought: When
institutions and for a plan of action productivity of a natural ecosystem
with a unified national perspective. It fails due to shortage of water and as
had suggested that reservoir operation a consequence of ecological distress,
procedures should be evolved and damage is induced in the ecosystem.
implemented in a manner so as to have
flood cushion and to reduce trapping ŠŠ Socioeconomic drought: This is when
of sediment during flood season. the supply of some goods and services
like food, drinking water and energy are
diminished or threatened by changes
5.5 Droughts
in hydrological and meteorological
• Droughts are outcome of variability conditions. Sometimes it is even made
of climate. Though drought causes worse by growing populations and
little structural damage and has slow excessive demands of such goods, to
onset, it is considered as natural hazard. the point that it creates stress on the
Drought in India is related to both little water available. It takes a very
scarcity of rainfall and water resource long time for this kind of drought to
management. get into full gear, and a long time to
• IMD defines Drought as situation occurring recover from it.
in any area when mean annual rainfall is 5.5.1 Drought Prone Areas in India
less than 75% of the normal rainfall. It is
a dry situation characterised by deficit • Droughts in India have their own
rainfall, lack of water for household use peculiarities requiring appreciation of
or agriculture, or a deficiency of surface some basic facts. These are:
or subsurface water leading to an acute ŠŠ India has an average annual rainfall of
shortage of water. around 1150 mm; no other country has
• Following are the kinds of droughts: such a high annual average, however,
there is considerable annual variation.
ŠŠ Meteorological drought:
Meteorological drought is the general ŠŠ More than 80% of rainfall is received
lack of moisture in the weather such as in less than 100 days during the South-
lack of precipitation, and the play of west monsoon and the geographic
other weather conditions such as dry spread is uneven.
winds, high temperatures and so on. ŠŠ 21% area receives less than 700 mm
ŠŠ Agricultural drought: This drought rain annually making such areas the

113
 hot spots of drought.
ŠŠ Inadequacy of rains coupled with
adverse land-man ratio compels the
farmers to practice rain-fed agriculture
in large parts of the country.
ŠŠ Irrigation, using groundwater
aggravates the situation in the long run
as ground-water withdrawal exceeds
replenishment; in the peninsular region
availability of surface water itself
becomes scarce in years of rainfall
insufficiency.
ŠŠ Per capita water availability in the
country is steadily declining.
• The distribution of drought in India can
be classified under three heads:
ŠŠ Conditions of extreme drought: It
includes 12% of total drought prone
areas i.e Gujarat, Western Uttar 5.5.2 Impact of Drought
Pradesh, North-West Madhya Pradesh, • Drought affects Farmers: It causes loss
Western Rajasthan. of crops, lack of fodder and water to feed
ŠŠ Conditions of severe drought: It covers their cattle
42% of total drought prone area • Drought affects Poor Families: Constant
i.e leeward side of Maidan plateau, drought reduces agricultural production.
Rayalaseema and Telangana regions This leads to insufficient availability or
of Andhra Pradesh and Marathwada supply of crops in the market. Food-
and Vidarbha regions of Maharashtra. grains become costly, and poor people
ŠŠ Conditions of moderate drought: It suffer because of inadequate purchasing
prevails over 46% of total drought power.
prone area i.e Orissa, central-north • Drought affects Women: Even today,
Madhya Pradesh, Chhotanagpur, especially in rural India, women don’t
Jammu and Kashmir and central- east have the same status as men in society.
Tamil Nadu. This means that they are not given their
fair share in access to nutritious food,
good living conditions, education, health,
etc. In a drought situation, when there is
a dearth of food, women who are usually
the last to eat at home, eat the least, and
hence suffer from malnutrition. Drought
also increases their work burden, since
they have to work longer to earn the
same wages, and often travel longer to
fetch water, fodder and fuel-wood.

114
• It affects people living in a desert land: ŠŠ Reviving traditional and historical step
They depend more on animal husbandry wells
than on agriculture. Severe scarcity of ŠŠ Availing crop advisories to farmers
fodder and water and degradation of through mobile app in their language
vegetation leads to their dependence on
assistance from outside, in some areas. ŠŠ Locating ground water resources
using satellite technology and remote
• It affects employment: A fall in sensing
agricultural production leads to a fall
in employment opportunities for rural ŠŠ Promotion of alternate livelihood like
people who depend on agricultural dairy, poultry, beekeeping. Timber
labour for a living. It also causes people farming and floriculture
to migrate to other places in search of ŠŠ Crop Insurance against drought
employment. These are called ‘distress • There are a few drought Mitigation
migrations’. schemes adopted by the Government of
• Drought affects Children: Lack of India. They are as follows:
nutritious food in drought affected areas ŠŠ India has managed droughts through
results in malnutrition, which makes measures like Drought Prone
them more prone to various infections Areas Programme (DPAP), Desert
and diseases. It affects their health and Development Programme (DDP),
education, since migrations take them Integrated watershed Development
away from school and health camps Programme (IWDP) and the National
that also provide vaccinations. School- Watershed Development Programme
dropouts most often become wage for Rainfed Areas (NWDPRA) etc.
earners, leading to higher child-labour.
ŠŠ The Integrated Watershed
5.5.3 Drought Hazard Mitigation Management Programme(IWMP) is a
• There are a few strategies to overcome comprehensive program which brings
drought. They are as follows: under it DDP, DPAP and IWDP together.

ŠŠ Periodical review of water shortage ŠŠ Pradhan Mantri Gram Sinchai Yojana:

is introduced so that more land is
ŠŠ Individual state specific drought irrigated and ensure water supply to
proofing measures to be devised farmers round the year.
ŠŠ Crop diversification, farm pond ŠŠ Krishi Amdani Beema Yojana: is
construction, adoption of micro introduced so that farmers don’t bear
irrigation any financial burden if their produce
ŠŠ Promotion of water storage, gets destroyed due to unexpected
conservation and rejuvenation weather or for any reason.
ŠŠ Incentivise solar pumps for irrigation ŠŠ Soil health card scheme is introduced
ŠŠ Harvesting rainwater, recharging to determine the current status of soil
ground water, desiltation of irrigation health and to determine changes in
tanks soil health and recommend nutrients
for farms to improve productivity.
ŠŠ Check dam’s maintenance, prevention
of leakage and pilferation of water ŠŠ Pradhan Mantri Fasal Beema Yojana :
from distribution network The Central Government has approved

115
 a cheaper crop insurance scheme forces as well as load; transitory
named Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima stresses like blasting, earthquakes etc.;
Yojana (PMFBY) on 13th January 2016. and geological movement.
The government’s move came in an ŠŠ Decrease of material strength: It
attempt to check the problem of rising happens due to weathering, pore water
cases of suicide by the farmers. pressure and changes in structure.
ŠŠ Central water commission and • The various causes of landslides are:
central ground water board to monitor
hydrological data, water storage and • Natural causes-
ground water level. ŠŠ Landslides are generally associated
with natural calamities like
5.6Landslides earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
floods, cloudburst, etc.
• Landslides refer to the movement of
mass of rock, debris or earth down the ŠŠ Long spell of rainfall
slope, when the shear stress exceeds the ŠŠ Loose soil cover and sloping terrain
shear strength of the material.
• Anthropogenic causes-
• Landslides mainly affect the Himalayan
ŠŠ Rapid urbanization and changes in
region and the western ghats of India.
land use patterns
Landslides are also common in the Nilgiri
range. ŠŠ Rampant deforestation and mining
activities like blasting and quarrying,
• It is estimated that 30 percent of
etc.
the world’s landslides occur in the
Himalayas. The Himalayan Mountains, ŠŠ Increased industrialisation leading
which constitute the youngest and to climate change and weather
most dominating mountain system in disturbances
the world. Due to its unique nature, the ŠŠ Change in river flow due to construction
Himalayas have a history of landslides of dams, barriers, etc.
that has no comparison with any other
mountain range in the world. 5.6.1 Landslide Vulnerability Zones
• Landslides are also common in Western • Very High Vulnerability Zones: These
Ghat. areas are highly unstable, relatively young
• It occurs when the consequence of a mountainous areas in the Himalayas
complex field of forces (stress is a force and the Andamans and Nicobar Islands,
per unit area) active on a mass of rock high rainfall regions with steep slopes
or soil on the slope. It happens due in the Western Ghats and the Nilgiris
to geological causes, morphological and the North-east hills. These areas
causes, physical causes and human experience frequent ground shaking
causes. due to earthquakes and intense human
activities.
• There are two parameters that determine
the landslides are as follows: • High Vulnerability Zones: Areas that have
similar conditions to those of the very
ŠŠ Increase of shear stress: It happen high vulnerable zone are also included in
due to the removal of lateral and this category. The only difference is the
underlying support; increase of lateral combination, intensity and controlling

116
 factors. All the Himalayan states from ŠŠ Drainage Control: The presence of
the north eastern state of Assam are water in joints or in soil slope has a
included in this high vulnerability zone. fundamental influence on the slope
• Moderate to Low Vulnerability Zone: stability.
Areas that receive less precipitation such ŠŠ Internal Slope Reinforcement Systems:
as Trans-Himalayan regions of Ladakh The aim of rock slope stabilization with
and Spiti, undulated yet stable relief structural elements is to help the rock
and low precipitation areas of Aravali, mass to support itself by applying
rain shadow areas of Western and external structures which are not
Eastern Ghats and the Deccan Plateau part of the rock mass but support it
experience occasional landslides. externally.
Landslides due to mining activities are ŠŠ Retaining Walls: Construction of wall
also common in states like Jharkhand, along the problematic slopes area.
Orissa, Chattisgarhh, Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu
5.6.2 Landslide Hazard Mitigation
6. Disaster
• Various measures needed to mitigate Management
them are- • Disaster Risk Management implies the
ŠŠ Hazard mapping by demarcating systematic process of using administrative
areas prone to landslides and avoiding decisions, organisation, operational skills,
stress on those areas for settlement and capacities to implement policies,
strategies and coping capacities of the
ŠŠ Construction of retention walls to society and communities to lessen the
avoid land from slipping impact of natural hazards and related
ŠŠ Increasing afforestation and environmental and technological
vegetation cover disasters.
ŠŠ Practise measures to check soil • These comprise all forms all activities
erosion like terrace farming, contour including structural and non- structural
ploughing, etc. measures to avoid (prevention) or to limit
ŠŠ Implementing surface drainage (mitigation and preparedness) adverse
control which works to control the effects of hazards.
movement of landslides along with • There are three key stages of activities in
rain water and spring flows. disaster management:
ŠŠ Proper planning of developmental ŠŠ Before a disaster: to reduce the
processes following sustainable potential for human, material, or
methods. environmental losses caused by
• Other remedial steps for landslides hazards and to ensure that these losses
are minimised when disaster strikes;
ŠŠ Modification of Slope Geometry: In
order to improve the stability of the ŠŠ During a disaster: to ensure that the
unstable or potentially unstable slopes, needs and provisions of victims are
the profile of the slope is sometimes met to alleviate and minimise suffering;
changed by excavation or by filling at and
the toe of the slope. ŠŠ After a disaster: to achieve rapid

117
 and durable recovery which does not ŠŠ Increasing Trend of Disasters in Urban
reproduce the original vulnerable Areas: Unplanned urbanization should
conditions. be prevented and the action plan
• Disaster management Act, 2005 defines to meet this end should be given the
Disaster Management as an integrated highest priority. State Governments/
process of planning, organizing, UTs concerned on the other hand
coordinating and implementing focus on urban drainage systems with
measures which are necessary for special attention on non-obstruction
of natural drainage systems. Urban
ŠŠ Prevention of threat of any disaster mapping of infrastructure of spatial
ŠŠ Reduction of risk of any disaster or its resolution should be initiated for
consequences development of Decision Support
ŠŠ Readiness to deal with any disaster System (DSS) for managing the urban
challenges.
ŠŠ Promptness in dealing with a disaster
ŠŠ Critical Infrastructure: Critical
ŠŠ Assessing the severity of effects of infrastructure like roads, dams,
any disaster flyovers, irrigation canals, bridges,
ŠŠ Rescue and relief power stations, railway lines,
water storage towers, delta water
ŠŠ Rehabilitation and Reconstruction
distribution networks, ports and river
and coastal embankments should
6.1 Disaster Prevention and be continuously checked for safety
Mitigation standards with respect to worldwide
• Mitigation measures besides proper safety benchmarks and fortified where
planning of developmental work in the lacking.
risk prone area, would prevent hazards ŠŠ Environmentally Sustainable
like earthquakes, floods and cyclones Development: Environmental
turn into disasters. These are the key considerations and developmental
areas which should be addressed to efforts should be handled
achieve this objective: simultaneously for ensuring
ŠŠ Risk Assessment and Vulnerability sustainability.
Mapping: Hazard zonation, mapping ŠŠ Climate Change Adaptation: The
and vulnerability analysis in a multi- challenges of an increase in the
risk structure will be conducted frequency and intensity of natural
utilising Geographic Information disasters like cyclones, floods and
System (GIS) based databases like the droughts should be tackled in a
National Database for Emergency sustained and effective manner with
Management (NDEM) and National promotion of strategies for climate
Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI). change adaptation and disaster risk
The NSDI established by the Survey of reduction.
India, to collect, compile, analyze and
prepare value-added maps for use by
various agencies in the area of DM
for management of natural resources,
industrial applications etc.

118
 UNIT SEVEN

AGRICULTURE
Agriculture Indian population will live in urban areas
by 2025. As per a Survey, more than 4 lac
• Agriculture and its allied sectors still hectares of agricultural land are being
remain an important sector because of diverted annually for non- agricultural
its continued role in employment, income purposes
and most importantly in national food • Importance of animals: -Animals in
security. Indian agriculture have played a huge
• Agriculture, with its allied sectors, is role in different operations like ploughing,
unquestionably the largest livelihood irrigation, threshing, transportation, etc.
provider in India, more so in the vast rural This is one of the reasons why agricultural
areas. production and productivity is very less
in India, even compared to developing
• Its contribution to national income has
countries.
gradually declined from 18.2 per cent in
2014-15 to 16.5 in 2019-20, reflecting the • Dependent upon monsoon: -In India,
development process and the structural agriculture is rain fed farming, ie, is mostly
transformation taking place in the relies on Monsoon and its distribution.
economy. Despite the development of irrigation
facilities, less than 1/3rd of the total
• Two-thirds of its population is engaged in
cropped area is under irrigation while the
agricultural activities.
rest still dependent upon vagaries of the
• Agriculture is a primary activity, which monsoon.
produces most of the food that we
• Variety of crops: -India is a vast country
consume. Besides food grains, it also
with varied types of relief, climate and
produces raw material for various
soil conditions. There both tropical crops
industries.
as well as temperate crops can be grown
• Indian agriculture and allied activities in India
have witnessed a green revolution, a
• Predominance of food crops: -More
white revolution, a yellow revolution and
than two-thirds of the total cropped
a blue revolution.
area is devoted to the cultivation of food
crops. Area under food grains increased
Salient features of Indian from 120 mha to 125 mha. This is the
Agriculture reason why India needs to focus more on
• Subsistence agriculture: -The farmer productivity rather than production.
owns a small piece of land, grows crops • Seasonal pattern.
with the help of his family members • India has three major crop seasons.
and consumes almost the entire farm
produce with little surplus to sell in the ŠŠ Kharif season - It is mainly grown
market. This type of agriculture has been during the monsoon season and
practised in India for the last several harvested during the onset of monsoon.
hundreds of years. Major crops of this season are rice,
maize, jowar, bajra, cotton, sesarnum,
• Pressure of population on agriculture: groundnut, etc.
-As per 2011 Census, more than 30% of
Indian population lived in urban area and ŠŠ Rabi season – It starts with the onset
it is estimated to reach that half of the of winter and harvest in the summers.

120
 Major crops of this season are wheat, mostly in the Northern states like Punjab,
barley, jowar, gram and oil seeds such Haryana, West UP, etc. Farm mechanism-
as linseed, rapeseed, etc. in packing up in Uttarakhand, Gujarat
ŠŠ Zaid season – It refers to summer and Maharashtra as well.
crops and mainly includes fruits and
vegetables. Recently, some pulses have DETERMINANTS OF AGRICULTURE
also been grown during this season. The following are the factors which determine
the cropping pattern, yield of crops and overall
agricultural development:
• Physical factors – Topography, Climate and Soil
• Institutional factors – size of farm holdings,
land tenure, land reforms.
• Infrastructural factors – Irrigation, Electricity,
Roads, Storage
• Technological factors – High Yielding Variety
(HYV) seeds, fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides,
farm machinery

• Mixed Cropping: -Mixed cropping is Problems with Indian Agriculture

one of the chief characteristics of lndian The problems faced by Indian agriculture
agriculture particularly in the rain-fed includes -
areas. Sometimes four to five crops are • Small and fragmented landholdings
grown simultaneously in the same field.
This is done to ensure that farmers are left ŠŠ From an average land holding size of
with some production in the background around 2.28 mha in 1970’s it reduced
of uncertainty of monsoon. if the amount to around 1.16 mha in 2010-11. The size
of rainfall is good, rice crop will give of the holdings will definitely decrease
better output and if there is failure of the with time.
monsoon rains, then less water requiring ŠŠ The issue of unfeasible and small land
crops such as maize, millets and pulses holdings is more prevalent in the states
will give better yields. like Kerala, West Bengal, Bihar and
• High percentage of reporting area under eastern part of Uttar Pradesh where
cultivation: -India has a net sown area the average size of land holdings is
of around 142 mha. This amounts to 46% less than one hectare. The problem lies
of land being under cultivation. This is a with the inheritance law.
very high percentage when compared ŠŠ A father’s land holding is divided
to some of the advanced countries like equally among sons, which are then
16.3% in U.S.A, 14.9% in Japan, 11.8% in again further sub-divided among their
China, and only 4.3% in Canada. sons. This makes farming unproductive.
• Labour intensive: -Around half of the ŠŠ Irrigation also becomes difficult on
Indian population is dependent on such small and fragmented fields.
agriculture. This goes on to show India’s Further, a lot of fertile agricultural land
dependence on agriculture for the is wasted in providing boundaries,
purpose of food as well as employment. although legislation for consolidation
Mechanisation of farming is prevalent of holdings has been enacted by

121
 almost all the states, it has been of its area under irrigation. However,
implemented only in few states e.g. excessive use of fertilizers in these
Punjab and Haryana states has resulted in the issues of
• Seeds waterlogging, salinity and alkalinity.

ŠŠ Seed is the basic input of agricultural • Agricultural Marketing

production. A good network of seed ŠŠ The problem with agricultural
distribution is required for quality marketing in India is the presence of
agricultural production. Unfortunately, middlemen between farmers and the
good quality seeds are out of reach markets. The middlemen pay very little
of the majority of farmers, especially amount for the agricultural produce of
small and marginal farmers mainly the farmers and sell it at a very high
because of exorbitant prices of better rate in the open markets.
seeds. • Inadequate storage facilities
ŠŠ In order to solve this problem, the ŠŠ Storage facilities in the rural areas
Government of India has taken several are either totally absent or grossly
steps so that quality seeds are made inadequate. Under such conditions
available to farmers in sufficient the farmers are compelled to sell their
quantity at reasonable prices. But the produce immediately after the harvest
benefits of schemes launched by the at the prevailing market prices which
government still remain out of reach of are bound to be low. Such distress sale
the small and marginal farmers. deprives the farmers of their legitimate
• Usage of Fertilizers income.
ŠŠ Excessive usage of manures and ŠŠ At present principal agencies involved
fertilizers over the years has led to in providing storage facilities include
depletion and exhaustion of soils The Food Corporation of India (F.C.I.),
resulting in their low productivity. The the Central Warehousing Corporation
average yields of almost all the crops (C.W.C.) and State Warehousing
are among the lowest in the world. Corporation. They help in building up
ŠŠ One of the reasons behind this is buffer stock as well.
unscientific usage of fertilizers. For • Inadequate transport.
example, as per scientific analysis, ŠŠ Even today there are lakhs of villages
fertilizers should have NPK ration of which are not well connected with main
about 4:2:1. But in India, it is around roads or with market centres. Most
8.2:3.2:1. roads in the rural areas are Kutcha
• Irrigation. and are rendered useless during rainy
ŠŠ Only one-third of the total cropped season. Under these circumstances the
area is under irrigation. Irrigation is the farmers cannot carry their produce to
most important agricultural input in a the main market and are forced to sell
tropical monsoon country like India it in the local market at low price.
where rainfall is uncertain, unreliable • Scarcity of capital
and erratic. ŠŠ Most of the farmers till date rely on
ŠŠ States like Punjab, Haryana and West money lenders to provide them with
UP has been successful in bringing half capital. This is mainly due to lack of

122
 formal capital or presence of banking the fact that only 4% of area is under
system in such remote areas in India. fodder crop cultivation, despite having
ŠŠ All India Rural Credit Survey Committee the largest population of livestock in
showed that in 1950’s the share of the world.
money lenders stood at as high as
68.6 per cent of the total rural credit Priority Areas for Support
and in 1970’s their share declined to • Enhancing agricultural productivity,
43 per cent of the credit needs of the competitiveness, and rural growth
farmers. Hence even if it is decreasing,
moneylender’s hold in rural India is still ŠŠ Major reform and strengthening of
strong. India’s agricultural research and
extension systems is one of the most
• Tradition Bound important needs for agricultural
ŠŠ In spite of some breakthroughs, growth.
Indian agriculture remains tradition ŠŠ modernizing Irrigation and Drainage
bound even at the dawn of 21st Departments to integrate the
century. Established centuries ago, participation of farmers and other
the structures of a self-contained agencies in managing irrigation water.
rural economy, founded in caste-
drain occupational laud tenure, made ŠŠ improving cost recovery.
complex by absentee and parasitic ŠŠ rationalizing public expenditures, with
landlords still continues. The tradition priority to completing schemes with
bound institutions have been the the highest returns; and
greatest hindrance in the way of ŠŠ allocating sufficient resources for
modernisation and Indian agriculture operations and maintenance for the
has been rather slow in responding to sustainability of investments.
new innovative ideas.
ŠŠ Encouraging farmers to diversify to
• Primitive Technology higher value commodities will be a
ŠŠ Only in a few states like Punjab and significant factor for higher agricultural
Haryana use of modern technology growth, particularly in rain-fed areas
can be seen. But in most states, where poverty is high.
reliance on primitive technology is still ŠŠ Promoting high growth commodities:
prevalent. This harm both production Some agricultural sub-sectors
and productivity. have particularly high potential
• Lack of Crop Diversification for expansion, notably dairy. The
ŠŠ Crop diversification means growing a livestock sector, primarily due to
large number of crops and reducing dairy, contributes over a quarter of
dependency on a single crop. Even agricultural GDP and is a source of
though in India mixed cropping is income for 70% of India’s rural families,
done, it is mainly biased towards food mostly those who are poor and headed
crops and as a result other crops like by women.
pulses lose out. ŠŠ Developing markets, agricultural credit
ŠŠ This is harmful for balanced growth and public expenditures
of agriculture. This is evident from • Poverty alleviation and community
actions
123
 ŠŠ While agricultural growth will provide depending upon the characteristics of
the base for increasing incomes, physical environment, technological know-
for rural persons that are below the how and socio-cultural practices. Some of
poverty line, additional measures are the important farming practices are
required to make this growth inclusive. • Primitive Subsistence Farming
ŠŠ For instance, a rural livelihoods ŠŠ This type of farming depends upon
program that empowers communities monsoon, natural fertility of the soil
to become self-reliant has been found and suitability of other environmental
to be particularly effective and well- conditions to the crops grown.
suited for scaling-up. This program
ŠŠ It is a ‘slash and burn’ agriculture.
promotes the formation of self-help
Farmers clear a patch of land and
groups, increases community savings,
produce cereals and other food crops
and promotes local initiatives to
to sustain their family. When the soil
increase incomes and employment.
fertility decreases, the farmers shift
ŠŠ These self-help groups are particularly and clear a fresh patch of land for
effective at reaching women and cultivation.
impoverished families.
ŠŠ This type of shifting allows Nature to
• Sustaining the environment and future replenish the fertility of the soil through
agricultural productivity natural processes; land productivity in
ŠŠ In parts of India, the over-pumping of this type of agriculture is low as the
water for agricultural use is leading to farmer does not use fertilisers or other
falling groundwater levels. Conversely, modern inputs. It is known by different
waterlogging is leading to the build-up names in different parts of the country.
of salts in the soils of some irrigated
areas. JHUMMING

ŠŠ In rain-fed areas on the other hand, • The ‘slash and burn’ agriculture is known as
where most of the rural population live, ‘Milpa’ in Mexico and Central America, ‘Conuco’
agricultural practices need adapting in Venzuela, ‘Roca’ in Brazil, ‘Masole’ in Central
Africa, ‘Ladang’ in Indonesia, ‘Ray’ in Vietnam.
to reduce soil erosion and increase the
absorption of rainfall. • In India, this primitive form of cultivation is
called ‘Bewar’ or ‘Dahiya’ in Madhya Pradesh,
ŠŠ The most comprehensive is through ‘Podu’ or ‘Penda’ in Andhra Pradesh, ‘Pama
watershed management programs, Dabi’ or ‘Koman’ or Bringa’ in Odisha,
where communities engage in land • ‘Kumari’ in Western Ghats, ‘Valre’ or ‘Waltre’ in
planning and adopt agricultural South-eastern Rajasthan, ‘Khil’ in the Himalayan
practices that protect soils, increase belt, ‘Kuruwa’ in Jharkhand, and ‘Jhumming’ in
the North-eastern region.
water absorption and raise productivity
through higher yields and crop • Intensive Subsistence Farming
diversification.
ŠŠ This type of farming is practised in
areas of high population pressure on
Types of Farming land. It is labour- intensive farming,
Agriculture is an age-old economic activity where high doses of biochemical inputs
in our country. Over these years, cultivation and irrigation are used for obtaining
methods have changed significantly higher production.

124
• Commercial Farming ŠŠ Soil Conservation
ŠŠ The main characteristic of this type ŠŠ Control of Input Costs
of farming is the use of higher doses • Mixed and Multiple Agriculture: denotes
of modern inputs, e.g. high yielding the practice of growing two or more
variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilisers, crops together.
insecticides and pesticides to obtain
higher productivity. • Crop rotation: -This refers to growing of
number of Crops one after the other in a
ŠŠ The degree of commercialisation of fixed rotation to maintain the fertility of
agriculture varies from one region the soil.
to another. For example, rice is a
commercial crop in Haryana and • Terrace Cultivation: -
Punjab, but in Odisha, it is a subsistence ŠŠ In this type of cultivation, the hill
crop. and mountain slopes are cut to form
terraces and the land is used in the
PLANTATION AGRICULTURE same way as in permanent agriculture.
• Plantation is also a type of commercial farming. ŠŠ Due to terrace formation on hill slopes,
In this type of farming, a single crop is grown on soil erosion can be checked.
a large area. The plantation has an interface

Agriculture Land use

of agriculture and industry. Plantations cover
large tracts of land, using capital intensive
inputs, with the help of migrant labourers.
All the produce is used as raw material in
respective industries.
in India
Land resource is more crucial to the
• In India, tea, coffee, rubber, sugarcane, banana,
etc., are important plantation crops. Tea in
livelihood of the people depending on
Assam and North Bengal coffee in Karnataka agriculture:
are some of the important plantation crops • Agriculture is a purely land based activity
grown in these states.
unlike secondary and tertiary activities.
• Since the production is mainly for market, a In other words, contribution of land in
well- developed network of transport and
agricultural output is more compared
communication connecting the plantation
areas, processing industries and markets to its contribution in the outputs in the
plays an important role in the development of other sectors. Thus, lack of access to land
plantations. is directly correlated with incidence of
poverty in rural areas.
• Dry Agriculture
• Quality of land has a direct bearing on
ŠŠ Dry farming or dry-land farming may the productivity of agriculture, which is
be defined as a practice of growing not true for other activities.
crops without irrigation in areas which
receive an annual rainfall of 750 mm – • In rural areas, aside from its value as
500 mm or even less. a productive factor, land ownership
has a social value and serves as a
ŠŠ Key elements of effective combat with security for credit, natural hazards or
perils of Dryland agriculture: life contingencies, and also adds to the
ŠŠ Capturing and Conservation of social status.
Moisture • For a land scarce but labour abundant
ŠŠ Effective Use of Available Moisture country like India, a high cropping

125
 intensity is desirable not only for fuller • Milk production: -
utilisation of land resource, but also for ŠŠ India continues to be the largest
reducing unemployment in the rural producer of milk in the world.
economy.
ŠŠ Milk production in the country was
187.7 million tonnes in 2018-19 and
registered a growth rate of 6.5 per cent
over the previous year.
ŠŠ The per capita availability of milk has
reached a level of 394 grams per day
during 2018-19.

Allied Sectors:
Animal Husbandry,
Dairying and
Fisheries • According to NSSO 66th Round Survey
• Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries (July 2009-June 2010) on Employment
activities, along with agriculture, continue and Unemployment, 15.60 million workers
to be an integral part of human life. as per usual status (Principal status plus
• These activities have contributed to the subsidiaries status) were engaged in
food basket and draught animal power farming of animals, mixed farming and
and maintain ecological balance along fishing.
with generating gainful employment, • Fisheries: -
particularly among the landless, small
and marginal farmers and women, ŠŠ Fisheries remain an important source
besides providing nutritious food to of food, nutrition, employment and
millions of people. income in India.

• Livestock sector has grown at a compound ŠŠ The sector provides livelihood to about
annual growth rate of 7.9 per cent during 16 million fishers and fish farmers at
last five years. Government has launched the primary level and almost twice the
a new Central Sector Scheme “National number along the value chain.
Animal Disease Control Programme ŠŠ Recognising the importance of the
(NADCP) for control of Foot & Mouth sector, an independent Department
Disease (FMD) and Brucellosis”. This of Fisheries has been created in 2019
scheme envisages complete control of to provide sustained and focused
FMD by 2025 with vaccination and its attention towards the development of
eventual eradication by 2030 fisheries sector.

126
 ŠŠ The sector has been showing a ŠŠ The Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee
steady growth in the total GVA and Yojana (PMKSY) was launched during
accounts for 6.58 per cent of GDP from the year 2015-16 with the motto of ‘Har
agriculture, forestry and fishing. Khet Ko Paani’ for providing end-to
ŠŠ The fish production in India has end solutions in irrigation supply chain,
registered an average annual growth viz. water sources, distribution network
rate of more than 7 per cent in the and farm level applications.
recent years. ŠŠ The PMKSY not only focuses on
ŠŠ India has rich and diverse fisheries creating sources for assured irrigation,
resources. The marine fisheries but also creating protective irrigation
resources are spread along the by harnessing rainwater at micro level
country’s vast coastline and 2.02 through ‘Jal Sanchay’ and ‘Jal Sinchan’.
million square km Exclusive Economic ŠŠ PMKSY has the following components:
Zone (EEZ) and 0.53 million sq.km ŠŠ Accelerated Irrigation Benefit
continental shelf area. Programme(AIBP):being implemented
ŠŠ The total fish production in the country by Ministry of Jal Shakti..
stood at 13.42 million metric tonnes ŠŠ PMKSY -Har Khet ko Pani: being
(provisional) during 2018-19. Of this, implemented by Ministry of Jal Shakti
the marine fisheries contributed 3.71
million metric tonnes and the inland ŠŠ PMKSY -Watershed: being
fisheries contributed 9.71 million metric implemented by Department of Land
tonnes. Resources.
• National Mission for Sustainable
FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE Agriculture (NMSA)
INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT FUND
ŠŠ NMSA is envisaged as one of the eight
• To address the gaps in fisheries infrastructure, Missions outlined under National Action
the government has created the Fisheries and Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC),
Aquaculture Infrastructure Development Fund NMSA aim at promoting Sustainable
(FIDF) during 2018-19 with a total fund size of `
Agriculture through climate change
7,522.48 crore.
adaptation measures.
• The FIDF provides concessional finance/ loan
to the Eligible Entities (EEs), including State ŠŠ The major thrust is enhancing
Governments/Union Territories (UTs) and State agriculture productivity especially in
entities for development of identified fisheries rainfed areas focusing on integrated
infrastructure facilities.
farming, soil health management, and
• The concessional finance under the FIDF is synergizing resource conservation.
provided by the Nodal Loaning Entities (NLEs)
namely (i) NABARD, (ii) National Cooperatives
Besides, NMSA also a committed target
Development Corporation (NCDC) and (iii) All to fulfil National and International
scheduled Banks. commitments on Sustainable
Development Goals (SDG) &Intended
Nationally Determined Contribution
Some of the recent Important (INDC).
Government initiative ŠŠ All the components of NMSA such
• Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana as Rainfed Agriculture, Soil Health
(PMKSY): Management, Organic Farming, etc.

127
 have significant role in achieving SDGs to enable farmers to get improved
& INDC. remuneration for their produce moving
ŠŠ NMSA as a programmatic intervention towards ‘One Nation One Market’.
caters to Mission Deliverables that • Pradhan Mantri Kisan Sampada Yojana
focuses mainly on conservation ŠŠ PMKSY provides subsidy-based
agriculture to make farm sector more support to create robust modern
productive, sustainable, remunerative infrastructure for agriculture and
and climate resilient by promoting agro-based industries along the entire
location specific integrated/composite value/supply chain. It is expected
farming systems; soil and moisture to reduce wastage of agriculture
conservation measures; comprehensive produce, increase the processing level,
soil health management and enhance the export of the processed
mainstreaming rainfed technologies. foods, enable availability of hygienic
ŠŠ NMSA has one of the components of and nutritious food to consumers at
Rainfed Area Development. affordable prices.
• Soil Health Card Scheme ŠŠ The scheme components are: Mega
ŠŠ Launched in 2015, the scheme has been Food Parks, Integrated Cold Chain and
introduced to assist State Governments Value Addition Infrastructure, Creation/
to issue Soil Health Cards to all farmers Expansion of Food Processing &
in the country. Preservation Capacities, Infrastructure
for Agro-processing Clusters, Creation
ŠŠ The Soil Health Cards provide of Backward and Forward Linkages,
information to farmers on nutrient Food Safety and Quality Assurance
status of their soil along with Infrastructure, Human Resources and
recommendation on appropriate Institutions, and Operation Greens.
dosage of nutrients to be applied for
improving soil health and its fertility. • Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana
(PMFBY): - Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima
• Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) Yojana (PMFBY) is the government
ŠŠ Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana is sponsored crop insurance scheme that
implemented with a view to promote integrates multiple stakeholders on a
organic farming in the country. single platform.
ŠŠ To improve soil health and organic • Micro Irrigation Fund (MIF)
matter content and increase net ŠŠ The government approved a dedicated
income of the farmer so as to realise Rs5,000 crore fund to bring more land
premium prices. area under micro-irrigation as part
• National Agriculture Market (e-NAM) of its objective to boost agriculture
ŠŠ It provides e-marketing platform at production and farmers income.
national level and support creation of ŠŠ The fund has been set up under
infrastructure to enable e-marketing. NABARD, which will provide this
ŠŠ This innovative market process is amount to states on concessional rate
revolutionizing agriculture markets of interest to promote micro-irrigation,
by ensuring better price discovery. It which currently has a coverage of
brings in transparency and competition only 10 million hectares as against the
potential of 70 million hectares.

128
Imp Suggestions/Solution rising share of services sector jobs, more
needs to be done to create manufacturing
• The issues such as investment in jobs to absorb the large pool of workers
agriculture, water conservation,
improved yields through better farming • The rates fixed under the NFSA initially
practices, access to market, availability for a period of three years have not been
of institutional credit, increasing the revised since 2013, resulting in burgeoning
linkages between agricultural and food subsidy. The rates under NFSA and
nonagricultural sectors, etc. need urgent the coverage need to be revisited.
attention.
• Allied sectors such as animal husbandry, Major Crops
dairying and fisheries sectors need to A variety of food and non-food crops are
be given a boost to provide an assured grown in different parts of the country
secondary source of employment and depending upon the variations in soil,
income especially for the small and climate and cultivation practices. Major
marginal farmers. Coverage of food crops grown in India are rice, wheat, millets,
processing sector needs to be scaled up pulses, tea, coffee, sugarcane, oil seeds,
to create an additional source of market cotton and jute, etc.
for agricultural commodities. The major crops can all be divided into four
• As the proportion of small and marginal main categories depending on their usage.
holdings is significantly large, land reform • Food Crops (Wheat, Maize, Rice, Millets
measures like freeing up land markets can and Pulses etc.)
help farmers in improving their income. • Cash Crops (Sugarcane, Tobacco, Cotton,
Small holdings of India can be better Jute and Oilseeds etc.)
harnessed through appropriate use of
farm mechanisation as the degree of • Plantation Crops (Coffee, Coconut, Tea,
farm mechanisation is low as compared and Rubber etc.)
to the other major developing countries • Horticulture crops (Fruits and Vegetables)
like Brazil and China.
• The coverage of irrigation facilities Rice
needs to be extended while ensuring an • Climatic condition:
effective water conservation mechanism.
An inclusive approach to provision for ŠŠ It is a kharif crop which requires high
agricultural credit has to be undertaken temperature, (above 25°C) and high
to address the issue of skewness in its humidity with annual rainfall above
regional distribution. 100 cm.

• There is a need to give increased focus on ŠŠ Rice grows best in areas of warm,
exploring global markets for agricultural humid climate, fertile soil.
commodities to give an additional source ŠŠ Delta and valley soils are the most
of market for the surplus of agricultural suitable.
produce India currently has. ŠŠ Soils with higher clay content are
• There is also a need to reallocate labour preferred for its cultivation due to their
resources to other sectors. Though, the better moisture retention capacity.
structural transformations involved a ŠŠ In the areas of less rainfall, it grows
falling share of agriculture sector and

129
 with the help of irrigation.
• Techniques Used: -Transplantation
technique, Japanese Transplantation
technique, new SRI technique.
• Major producers: -
ŠŠ Rice is grown in the plains of north and
north-eastern India, coastal areas and
the deltaic regions.
ŠŠ West Bengal (highest producer), Uttar
Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab
(highest per hectare yield), Bihar,
Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Assam, Tamil
Nadu, Haryana.
ŠŠ Development of dense network of
canal irrigation and tubewells have
made it possible to grow rice in areas
of less rainfall such as Punjab, Haryana
and western Uttar Pradesh and parts
of Rajasthan.
ŠŠ In southern states and West Bengal,
Wheat
the climatic conditions allow the • Climatic condition: -
cultivation of two or three crops of rice ŠŠ It is a crop of temperate climate.
in an agricultural year. In West Bengal
farmers grow three crops of rice called ŠŠ This rabi crop requires a cool growing
‘aus’, ‘aman’ and ‘boro’. season and a bright sunshine at the
time of ripening.
• Important varieties: - Aman, Sali,
Afghani, Aus, Boro, Palua ŠŠ It requires 50 to 75 cm of annual rainfall
evenly distributed over the growing
season.
ŠŠ It can be grown in the drier areas with
the help of irrigation.
ŠŠ Well drained loamy and clayey soils
are ideal.
• Major producing areas: -
ŠŠ There are two important wheat-
growing zones in the country – the
Ganga-Satluj plains in the northwest
and black soil region of the Deccan.
ŠŠ The major wheat-producing states
are Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar, Rajasthan and parts of Madhya
Pradesh.

130
 ŠŠ About 14 per cent of the total cropped nutritional value. For example, ragi is very
area in the country is under wheat rich in iron, calcium, other micronutrients
cultivation. and roughage.
ŠŠ The yield level of wheat is very high Jowar:
(above 4,000 kg. per ha) in Punjab
• Climatic condition:
and Haryana whereas, Uttar Pradesh,
Rajasthan and Bihar have moderate ŠŠ It is main food crop in semi-arid areas
yields. The states like Madhya Pradesh, of central and southern India.
Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and ŠŠ This crop requires moderate rainfall
Kashmir growing wheat under rainfed of 30-100cms and high temperatures
conditions have low yield. ranging from 20 to 32°C.
• Important varieties: - Sonalika, Kalyan, ŠŠ Both excessive moisture and prolonged
Sona, Sabarmati, Lerma, Roso, Heera, drought are harmful.
Shera,
• Major producers/ area covered: -
• Sonara-64.
ŠŠ The coarse cereals together occupy
• Wheat is the second most important about 16.50 per cent of total cropped
cereal crop in India after rice. area in the country. Among these,
• India produces about 12.3 per cent of jowar or sorghum alone accounts for
total wheat production of world (2016). about 5.3 per cent of total cropped
area.
ŠŠ Maharashtra alone produces more
than half of the total jowar production
of the country. Other leading producer
states of jowar are Karnataka, Madhya
Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and
Telangana.
ŠŠ It is sown in both kharif and rabi
seasons in southern states. But it is a
kharif crop in northern India where it is
mostly grown as a fodder crop. South
of Vindhyachal it is a rainfed crop and
its yield level is very low in this region.
Bajra:
• Climatic condition: -
ŠŠ Bajra grows well on sandy soils and
shallow black soil
ŠŠ It requires an annual rainfall of 45cm
and temperature ranging between 25
Millets to 30°C.
Jowar, bajra and ragi are the important ŠŠ Bajra is sown in hot and dry climatic
millets grown in India. Though, these are conditions in northwestern and western
known as coarse grains, they have very high parts of the country.

131
 ŠŠ It is a hardy crop which resists frequent Maize
dry spells and drought in this region.
• Climatic condition: -
• Major producers/area covered: -
• Maize is a food as well as fodder
ŠŠ It is cultivated alone as well as part crop grown under semi-arid climatic
of mixed cropping. This coarse cereal conditions and over inferior soils.
occupies about 5.2 per cent of total
cropped area in the country. • It is a kharif crop which requires
temperature between 21°C to 27°C.
ŠŠ Leading producers of bajra are the
states of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar • In some states like Bihar maize is grown
Pradesh, Rajasthan and Haryana. in rabi season also
Being a rainfed crop, the yield level • Major producers/ Area covered: -
of this crop is low in Rajasthan and
ŠŠ This crop occupies only about 3.6 per
fluctuates a lot from year to year.
cent of total cropped area. Maize
ŠŠ Yield of this crop has increased during cultivation is not concentrated in any
recent years in Haryana and Gujarat specific region.
due to introduction of drought resistant
ŠŠ It is sown all over India except Punjab
varieties and expansion of irrigation
and eastern and north-eastern regions.
under it.
ŠŠ The leading producers of maize are the
Ragi states of Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh,
• Ragi is a crop of dry regions and grows Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana,
well on red, black, sandy, loamy and Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh.
shallow black soils. ŠŠ Yield level of maize is higher than other
• Major ragi producing states are coarse cereals. It is high in southern
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Himachal states and declines towards central
Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Jharkhand parts.
and Arunachal Pradesh.
• Ragi is very rich in iron, calcium, other
Pulses
micro-nutrients and roughage. • Pulses are a very important ingredient of
vegetarian food as these are rich sources
of proteins. These are legume crops
which increase the natural fertility of soils
through nitrogen fixation.
• Being leguminous crops, all these crops
except arhar help in restoring soil fertility
by fixing nitrogen from the air. Therefore,
these are mostly grown in rotation with
other crops.
• India is a leading producer of pulses in
the world. The cultivation of pulses in the
country is largely concentrated in the
drylands of Deccan and central plateaus
and northwestern parts of the country.

132
• Pulses occupy about 11 per cent of the lands and under rainfed conditions in the
total cropped area in the country. Being dry areas of central and southern states
the rainfed crops of drylands, the yields of the country.
of pulses are low and fluctuate from year • This crop occupies only about 2 per cent of
to year. Gram and tur are the main pulses total cropped area of India. Maharashtra
cultivated in India. alone contributes about one-third of the
• Major pulse producing states in India total production of tur.
are Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, • Other leading producer states are
Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Karnataka. Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat and
Madhya Pradesh. Per hectare output of
this crop is very low and its performance
is inconsistent.

Food Crops other than Grains

Sugarcane:
• It is a tropical as well as a subtropical
crop. It grows well in hot and humid
Gram climate with a temperature of 21°C to
27°C and an annual rainfall between
• Gram is cultivated in subtropical areas. It 75cm. and 100cm. Irrigation is required in
is mostly a rainfed crop cultivated during the regions of low rainfall.
rabi season in central, western and
northwestern parts of the country. • India is the second largest producer of
sugarcane only after Brazil. It is the main
• Just one or two light showers or irrigations source of sugar, gur (jaggary), khandsari
are required to grow this crop successfully. and molasses.
It has been displaced from the cropping
pattern by wheat in Haryana, Punjab and • Under rainfed conditions, it is cultivated
northern Rajasthan following the green in sub-humid and humid climates. But
revolution. it is largely an irrigated crop in India.
In Indo-Gangetic plain, its cultivation is
• At present, gram covers only about largely concentrated in Uttar Pradesh.
2.8 per cent of the total cropped area Sugarcane growing area in western India
in the country. Madhya Pradesh, Uttar is spread over Maharashtra and Gujarat.
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana and Rajasthan are the main • In southern India, it is cultivated in
producers of this pulse crop. irrigated tracts of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,
Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.
• The yield of this crop continues to be low
and fluctuates from year to year even in • It accounts for about 19 per cent of the
irrigated areas. world production of sugarcane. But
it occupies only 2.4 per cent of total
Tur (Arhar) cropped area in the country

• Tur is the second important pulse crop in

the country. It is also known as red gram or
pigeon pea. It is cultivated over marginal

133
 Sugarcane farming/industry in north and south India
North India South India
• The yield per hectare is low due to unfavourable • The yield per hectare is high due to tropical
climatic conditions. climatic conditions.
• The crushing season is short in northern India. • The crushing season is longer than northen India.
• The factories are old and obsolete machineries • Most of the mills in the south are new which are
are used equipped with modern machinery
• During British-raj, North India used to cultivate • In South India, farmers have better cash-crop
indigo as cash crop but then invention of synthetic alternatives e.g. cotton, tobacco, coconut,
dyes and farmers switched to sugarcane. groundnut etc. so you don’t see a large sugar belt
unlike UP.

Oilseed Some Important Oilseeds:

• In 2008 India was the second largest producer Groundnut
of groundnut in the world after china. In
• Groundnut India produces about 16.6 per
rape seed production India was third largest
cent of the total groundnut production
producer in the world after Canada and
in the world (2016). It is largely a rainfed
China in 2008.
kharif crop of drylands. But in southern
• Different oil seeds are grown covering India, it is cultivated during rabi season
approximately 12 per cent of the total as well. It covers about 3.6 per cent of
cropped area of the country. Main oilseeds total cropped area in the country.
produced in India are groundnut, mustard,
• Gujarat, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu,
coconut, sesamum (til), soyabean, castor
Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka
seeds, cotton seeds, linseed and sunflower.
and Maharashtra are the leading
• Most of these are edible and used as cooking producers.
mediums. However, some of these are also
• Yield of groundnut is comparatively high
used as raw material in the production of
in Tamil Nadu where it is partly irrigated.
soap, cosmetics and ointments.
But its yield is low in Telangana, Andhra
Pradesh and Karnataka.
Rapeseed and Mustard
• Rapeseed and mustard comprise several
oilseeds as rai, sarson, toria and taramira.
These are subtropical crops cultivated
during rabi season in north-western and
central parts of India. These are frost
sensitive crops and their yields fluctuate
from year to year.
• But with the expansion of irrigation and
improvement in seed technology, their
yields have improved and stabilised to
some extent.
• About two-third of the cultivated area

134
 under these crops is irrigated. These Kerala.
oilseeds together occupy only about 2.5 ŠŠ Apart from these, Himachal Pradesh,
per cent of total cropped area in the Uttarakhand, Meghalaya, Andhra
country. Pradesh and Tripura are also tea-
• Rajasthan contributes about one-third producing states in the country. In 2008
production while other leading producers India was the third largest producer of
are Haryana and Madhya Pradesh. Yields tea after China and Turkey.
of these crops are comparatively high in ŠŠ In India, tea plantation started in
Haryana and Rajasthan. 1840s in Brahmaputra valley of Assam
Other Oilseeds which still is a major tea growing area
in the country. Later on, its plantation
• Soyabean and sunflower are other was introduced in the sub-Himalayan
important oilseeds grown in India. region of West Bengal (Darjeeling,
Soyabean is mostly grown in Madhya Jalpaiguri and Cooch Behar districts).
Pradesh and Maharashtra.
• Tea is a labor-intensive industry. It
• These two states together produce about requires abundant, cheap and skilled
90 per cent of total output of soyabean labour because Its leaves are to be
in the country. plucked several times in a year. Tea
• Sunflower cultivation is concentrated in is processed within the tea garden to
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana restore its freshness.
and adjoining areas of Maharashtra. It
Coffee
is a minor crop in northern parts of the
country where its yield is high due to • Coffee is a tropical plantation crop. Its
irrigation. seeds are roasted, ground and are used
for preparing a beverage. There are three
Tea varieties of coffee i.e. arabica, robusta
• Climatic condition and liberica.
ŠŠ It is grown over undulating topography • India mostly grows superior quality coffee,
of hilly areas and well drained soils in arabica, which is in great demand in
humid and sub-humid tropics and sub- International market. But India produces
tropics. only about 3.7 per cent coffee of the
world and ranks seventh after Brazil,
ŠŠ The tea plant grows well in deep and
Vietnam, Colombia, Indonesia, Ethopia
fertile well-drained soil, rich in humus
and Honduras in 2016.
and organic matter. Tea bushes require
warm and moist frost-free climate all • Coffee is cultivated in the highlands
through the year. of Western Ghats in Karnataka, Kerala
and Tamil Nadu. Karnataka alone
ŠŠ Frequent showers evenly distributed
accounts for more than two-third of total
over the year ensure continuous growth
production of coffee in the country.
of tender leaves.
• The coffee plant was grown for the first
• Major tea producing states
time on the Baba Budan Hills (Karnataka)
ŠŠ Major teaproducing states are Assam, in India.
hills of Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri
districts, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and

135
 production of cotton after China. Cotton
occupies about 4.7 per cent of total
cropped area in the country.
ŠŠ There are three cotton growing areas, i.e.
parts of Punjab, Haryana and northern
Rajasthan in north-west, Gujarat and
Maharashtra in the west and plateaus of
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil
Nadu in south.

Non-Food Crops
Cotton:
• Climatic condition: -
ŠŠ Cotton grows well in drier parts of
the black cotton soil of the Deccan
plateau.
ŠŠ It requires high temperature, light
rainfall or irrigation, 210 frost-free days
and bright sunshine for its growth.
ŠŠ It is a kharif crop and requires 6 to 8
months to mature.
ŠŠ Cotton requires clear sky during
flowering stage.
• Major producers: -
ŠŠ India lost a large proportion of cotton Jute:
growing area to Pakistan during partition.
• It is known as the golden fibre. Jute
However, its acreage has increased
grows well on well-drained fertile soils in
considerably during the last 50 years.
the flood plains where soils are renewed
India grows both short staple (Indian)
every year. High temperature is required
cotton as well as long staple (American)
during the time of growth.
cotton called ‘narma’ in north-western
parts of the country. • Jute is used for making coarse cloth,
bags, sacks and decorative items. It is a
ŠŠ Major cotton-producing states are–
cash crop in West Bengal and adjoining
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,
eastern parts of the country.
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana,
Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar • India lost large jute growing areas to East
Pradesh. Pakistan (Bangladesh) during partition.
At present, India produces about three-
ŠŠ India ranks second in the world in the
fifth of jute production of the world. West

136
 Bengal accounts for about three-fourth producer of pea, cauliflower, onion, cabbage,
of the production in the country. tomato, brinjal and potato.
• Bihar and Assam are other jute growing • Over the last decade, the area under
areas. Being concentrated only in a few horticulture grew by 2.6% per annum and
states, this crop accounts for only about annual production increased by 4.8%.
0.5 per cent of total cropped area in the • India witnessed the shift in area from food
country. grain towards horticulture crops over last five
• Due to its high cost, it is losing market to years (from 2012-13 to 2017-18).
synthetic fibres and packing materials,
particularly the nylon. OPERATION GREEN

Operation Greens was announced in the Budget

Rubber: speech of 2018-19 with an outlay of Rs 500 crores
• It is an equatorial crop, but under special to stabilize the supply of Tomato, Onion and
Potato (TOP) crops and to ensure availability of
conditions, it is also grown in tropical and TOP crops throughout the country round the year
sub-tropical areas. It requires moist and without price volatility.
humid climate with rainfall of more than Objective:
200 cm. and temperature above 25°C.
• Enhancing value realisation of TOP farmers
• Rubber is an important industrial raw by targeted interventions to strengthen TOP
material. It is mainly grown in Kerala, production clusters and their Farmer Producers
Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andaman Organizations (FPOs) and linking/connecting
them with the market.
and Nicobar Islands and Garo hills of
Meghalaya. • Price stabilisation for producers and consumers
by proper production planning in the TOP
• In 2010-11 India ranked fourth among the clusters and introduction of dual use varieties.
world’s natural rubber producers. • Reduction in post-harvest losses by creation
of farm gate infrastructure, development of
Horticulture Crops suitable agrologistics, creation of appropriate
storage capacity linking consumption centres
• In 2008 India was the second largest producer to increase shell life.
of fruits and vegetables in the world after • Increase in food processing capacities and
China. India is a producer of tropical as well value addition in TOP value chain with firm
as temperate fruits. linkages with production clusters.
• Setting up of a market intelligence network
• Mangoes of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal,
oranges of Nagpur and Cherrapunjee Some Important Fruits
(Meghalaya), bananas of Kerala, Mizoram,
Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, lichi and
• Mango: Alphanso of Maharashtra,
guava of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, pineapples
Banganpalli of Andhra Pradesh,
of Meghalaya, grapes of Andhra Pradesh,
Dashehari & Langra of U.P., Malda of W.
Telangana and Maharashtra, apples, pears,
Bengal are some famous varieties.
apricots and walnuts of Jammu and Kashmir ŠŠ U.P. is the largest producer followed by
and Himachal Pradesh are in great demand Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal
the world over. and Maharashtra.
• India produces about 13 per cent of the • Banana: India is the second largest
world’s vegetables. It is an important producer after Brazil. The chief producers

137
 are Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Gujarat, horticultural cultivation having no access
M.P. and Kerala. to irrigation. •
• Grape: India is the highest producer of • Initial cost constraints in adoption of
the famous variety “Anab-e-Shahi. improved technologies.
ŠŠ The chief producing areas are Coorg • Facilities for post-harvest management
district of Karnataka, Wayanad have not kept pace with production
in Kerala, Nilgiri, Sholapur and growth.
Ahmednagar districts of Maharashtra. • Unorganised supply chain, not suitably
• Citrus: Maharashtra ranks first in citrus integrated for managing perishable
production; Nagpur Mandarins is produce.
considered to be the best in the world. • Lack of appropriately trained extension
• Apple: North-west Himalayan region services for horticulture.
covers 95% of the total area and 85% of
the total production Thrust areas for horticulture development

• Pineapple: The chief producers are • Cluster approach linked with post-
Kerala and North Eastern states. harvest management and marketing
• Close gaps in post-harvest handling and
integrated cold chains
• Market intelligence to promote market
led production
• Quality seeds and planting material
• Capacity building programmes on latest
technologies at farmers field
• Adoption of improved varieties and
Challenges in horticulture rejuvenation with improved cultivars
The main challenges facing those wishing • Hi-tech horticulture and Precision farming
to start work in horticulture sector are
access to capital, technology and the initial • High Density plantations
learning curve to develop the required skills. • Enhanced water use efficiency (micro-
• High cost of inputs that burdens the irrigation and fertigation)
farmers. • Horticulture based cropping system
• Low benchmark productivity adds to unit • Protected cultivation and use of plastics
cost of produce. in horticulture
• Large scale prevalence of old and senile • Mechanisation and semi-mechanised
orchards impacts productivity. Majority implements
of the orchards also have low planting
• Extension on integrated nutrient
density.
management and plant health
• Availability of quality seed and planting management
material impacts quality of produce.
• Promotion of bee-keeping for effective
• Poor tree canopy management. crop pollination
• Rainfed cultivation, with majority of the • Promotion of mushroom cultivation for

138
 additional income • Integrated markets should be developed and
shift from traditional to modern practices
• Recycling of horticultural waste and
should be adopted. Alternative sources of
Organic horticulture
income along with horticultural crops should
• Enhanced ICT use to add efficiency to be looked into, like Apiculture, where-in the
input management, knowledge transfer bees also helps in the pollination and also
etc. draws extra income for the farmers.
What kind of focus does the horticulture • The govt. is also promoting Mission for
wing has, for Doubling of farmer’s income? Integrated Development of Horticulture
(MIDH) scheme to support the various
• The first and foremost thing for doubling
components of horticultural crops. Starting
farmer’s income is to create market for
with nursery development, covering
farmers and provide market access and links
sustainable irrigation practices, emphasizing
for growing their business.
on subsidies for storage structures till market
• We should have a calendar of production for linkages, all the prospects are taken care of,
the various crops and analyze their condition under MIDH.
likewise.
• Different states have their different capacities
and agro-climatic conditions which favour
some specific product. Such states should
focus on their speciality and good channels
should connect the country for the eminent
flow in market.

139
 UNIT EIGHT

MINERAL AND
ENERGY RESOURCES IN INDIA
What is a Mineral? occur in beds or layers. They have
been formed due to of deposition,
• Geologists describe mineral as a accumulation and concentration in
“homogenous, naturally occurring horizontal strata. Coal and some forms
substance with a definable internal of iron ore have been concentrated
structure.” Minerals are obtained in because of long periods under great
different forms in nature, ranging from heat and pressure. Another group
the hardest diamond to the softest talc. of sedimentary minerals comprise
gypsum, potash salt and sodium
• A particular mineral that will be made
salt. These are made because of
from a certain mixture of elements
evaporation especially in arid regions.
depends upon the physical and chemical
properties and conditions under which ŠŠ Other way of formation is due to the
the material forms. Due to this, the decomposition of surface rocks, and
outcome is in a wide range of colours, the removal of soluble constituents,
hardness, crystal forms, lustre and density leaving a residual mass of weathered
that a particular mineral possesses. material containing ores. Bauxite is
Researchers use these features to classify formed this way.
the minerals.
• Rocks are amalgamation of homogenous
substances called minerals. Some type of
Distribution of
rocks, for instance limestone, consist of Minerals in India
a single mineral only, but large number The distribution of mineral and energy
of the rock consist of several minerals in resources is not evenly distributed. It’s
varying proportions. because existence of mineral resources is
• Although, more than 2000 minerals have associated with certain types of geological
been identified, only a few are abundantly formation. Most of these mineral bearing
found in most of the rocks. states are situated in the peninsular plateau
zone of India. Within this peninsular plateau
• Minerals are mostly found in “ores” and region of India, the following mineral belts
Minerals generally exist in these forms: can be divided into
ŠŠ In igneous and metamorphic rocks • The North-Eastern Plateau: - This
minerals may occur in cracks/ region covers the area of Chotanagpur
crevices faults and joints. The smaller (Jharkhand), Orissa Plateau, West Bengal
occurrences are known as veins and and parts of Chhattisgarh. the region has
the larger are called lodes. Generally, different variety of minerals like iron ore
in the greatest number of cases, coal, manganese, bauxite, mica.
they are obtained when minerals in
• The South-Western Plateau Region:
liquid/ molten and gaseous forms are
-This belt stretches over Karnataka, Goa
enforced upward through cavities
and contiguous Tamil Nadu uplands and
towards the earth’s surface. They cool
Kerala. This belt has abundant of ferrous
and solidify as they rise upward. Major
metals and bauxite. It also comprised
metallic minerals like tin, copper, zinc
of high-grade iron ore, manganese and
and lead etc. are obtained from veins
limestone. This region packs in coal
and lodes.
deposits except Neyveli lignite. region
ŠŠ In sedimentary rocks several minerals does not have as diversified mineral

141
 deposits as the North-Eastern belt. some Ferrous Metallic Minerals
area of Kerala has deposits of monazite
and thorium, bauxite clay. Goa region Ferrous minerals account for about 3/4th of
has iron ore deposits. the total value of the production of metallic
minerals. Ferrous Metallic Minerals are the
• The North-Western Region: - This belt most important mineral group after fuel
stretches along Aravali in Rajasthan and minerals. They include iron, manganese,
part of Gujarat and minerals are linked pyrite and chromite etc. These minerals
with Dharwar system of Rocks. Copper, give a strong base for the development of
zinc have been major minerals of this metallurgical industries, particularly iron,
region. Rajasthan region is prosperous steel and alloys.
in building stones i.e. sandstone, granite,
Iron-ore
marble. Gypsum and Fuller’s Earth
deposits are also extensive. Dolomite and • India is rich in high quality Iron ores. It has
limestone are the important raw materials magnetite ore which contains a very high
for the cement industry. Gujarat is known content of Iron up to 70% and magnetite
for its petroleum deposits. Gujarat and has excellent magnetic properties and
Rajasthan both have plentiful sources of can be used in Electrical industry.
salt. • Hematite ore is the most significant
Another important belt industrial iron ore in terms of the quantity
used, but it has slightly lower iron content
• Outside of the above mineral belts, than magnetite (50-60%).
upper Brahmaputra valley is a significant
petroleum producing area. • Hematite and Magnetite are mainly
found in India. Limonite iron ore contains
• The Himalayan region is another mineral 30 – 50% of Iron content.
belt where copper, lead, zinc, cobalt and
tungsten are known to occur. They exist • currently Chhattisgarh is the largest
on both the eastern and western parts. producer of Iron in India followed by
Karnataka. The Iron ore mines exist in
close proximity to the coalfields in the
Types of Minerals North-Eastern plateau belt of the country
Based on the chemical and physical which adds to their advantage. largest
properties, minerals may be divided into iron ore reserve is found in India amongst
two main categories of metallics and non- other Asian countries.
metallics. Further, metallic minerals can be • Odisha is the largest producer of Iron ore
subdivided into ferrous and non-ferrous in India. The major Iron ore belts are as
minerals. mentioned below.

142
 Important iron
Description
ore belt
Odisha – In Orissa high quality hematite ore is found in Badampahar mines in the Mayurbhanj and
Jharkhand belt Kendujhar districts.
In the adjoining Singhbhum district of Jharkhand haematite iron ore is also mined in Gua
and Noamundi.
Durg-Bastar- This belt is extended in Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra. Very high quality of hematites are
Chandrapur found in the famous Bailadila range of hills in the Bastar district of Chhattisgarh.
The range of hills consist of 14 deposits of super high-quality hematite iron ore.
It has the finest physical properties needed for steel making. Iron ore from these mines is
exported to other countries e.g. Japan and South Korea via Visakhapatnam port.
Bellary- Karnataka has large reserves of iron ore. The Kudremukh mines situated in the Western
Chitradurga- Ghats of Karnataka are a 100% export unit.
Chikmaglur- Kudremukh deposits are known to be one of the largest and the ore is transported as
Tumkur belt slurry through a pipeline to a port near Mangalore.
Maharashtra – This belt comprises the state of Goa and Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra.
Goa Belt Though, the ores are not of very high quality, yet they are exploited efficiently and it is
exported through Marmagao port

• Manganese is mainly used for the

manufacturing of Steel and Ferro-
manganese alloy. Nearly 10 Kgs of
Manganese is needed for the production
of 1 ton steel.
• It is also utilized in the manufacturing
of some other imp things like bleaching
powder, insecticides and paints.
India’s manganese deposits found
in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Karnataka and
Andhra Pradesh.
• Orissa is the leading producer of
Manganese.
• Andhra Pradesh, Goa, and Jharkhand
are other minor producing region of
manganese.

Manganese Ore
• Its sources lie near to the region of Iron
ores in India. Manganese deposits are
found in almost all Geological formation;
however it is mainly associated with
Dharwar system.

143
 • Bauxite is mostly occurred in tertiary
deposits and is linked with laterite Rocks
found extensively either on the plateau
or hill ranges of peninsular India and also
in the coastal tracts of the country.
• India’s bauxite deposits are mainly found
in the Amarkantak plateau, Maikal Hills
and the plateau region of Bilaspur- Katni.
• Panchpatmali deposits in Koraput district
are the most important bauxite deposits
in the Odisha state.
• Major bauxite producing states are
Jharkhand, Orissa, Chhattisgarh,
Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra
and Tamil Nadu. Odisha happens to be
the largest producer of Bauxite. Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka and Goa are other
minor producers of bauxite.
Copper
Non-Ferrous Metallic Minerals • India is critically poor and deficient in
Non-Ferrous minerals are those which do the reserve and production of Copper.
not contain iron like gold, silver, copper, The Balaghat mines in Madhya Pradesh
tin, lead and zinc. India is very poor and produce 52% of India’s copper.
deficient in this mineral and production of
• The Singhbhum district of Jharkhand
non- ferrous minerals is not very satisfactory.
However, these minerals play a significant is a leading producer of copper and
role in several metallurgical, engineering the Khetri mines in Rajasthan are also
and electrical industries. popular. It is also produced in AP and KA.

Bauxites Gold
• Though, several ores contain aluminum, it • Kolar in Karnataka has deposits of gold
is from bauxite, a clay-like substance that in India. These mines are among the
alumina and later aluminium is obtained. deepest in the world which makes mining
therefore, it is used in production of of this ore a very expensive process.
Aluminium.
• Bauxite deposits are formed by the
Non-metallic Minerals
decomposition of a different variety of Many non-metallic minerals are found in
Rocks rich in aluminium silicates. India but only a few of these are commercially
significant. They are limestone, dolomite,
• Aluminium is a very significant metal
mica, kyanite, sillimanite, gypsum and
because it integrates the strength of
phosphate which are used in a different
metals such as iron, with extreme lightness
variety of industries such as cement,
and also with finest conductivity and
fertilizers, refractories and electrical goods.
great malleability.
Mica

144
• Mica is a mineral made up of a various as:
type of plates or leaves which are tough • Depletion of Mineral
and flexible. It fragments easily into thin
ŠŠ Due to the excessive exploitation, many
sheets.
minerals are going to be depleted
• its color can be clear, black, green, red in near future. Therefore, it calls for
yellow or brown. because of its excellent conservation and judicious utilisation.
dielectric strength, low power loss factor,
• Ecological Problems
insulating properties and resistance to
high voltage, mica is one of the most ŠŠ Mineral extraction has led to very
crucial and indispensable minerals used serious environmental problems.
in electric and electronic industries. Rapidly growing mining activities
hasve rendered large agricultural
• Mica deposits mainly found in Jharkhand,
tracts almost useless.
Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan.
ŠŠ Natural vegetation has been removed
• Mica reserves are found in the Northern
from vast tracts. Such areas suffer from
edge of the Chota Nagpur plateau.
frequent floods and for want of proper
Koderma Gaya – Hazaribagh region of
drainage, they have become breeding
Jharkhand is the leading producer. In
grounds for mosquitoes spreading
Rajasthan, the major mica producing
malaria with vengenance.
region is around Ajmer.
ŠŠ In mountainous mining areas landslide
• Nellore mica belt of Andhra Pradesh is
are a common phenomenon taking
also significant producer in the country.
toll of life, cattle and property. In many
• India occupies the top position and it is mines, miners have to work under most
the largest producer & exporter of mica hazardous conditions.
in the world.
ŠŠ Hundreds of lives are lost each year
Limestone by fire in coal mines and due to
occasional flooding etc. Occurrence of
• It is mainly found in association with
poisonous gas in pockets of mines is a
rocks composed of calcium carbonates
great enemy of miners.
or calcium and magnesium carbonates.
It is occurred in sedimentary Rocks of • Pollution
most geological formations. ŠŠ Many mineral producing areas lead
• Limestone is the essential raw material to air and water pollution in the
for the cement industry and essential for surrounding region which in turn lead
smelting iron ore in the blast furnace. to various health hazards.
• Major limestone producing states in India • Social Problems
are Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa, Madhya ŠŠ New discoveries of minerals often lead
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Rajasthan, to displacement of people, particularly
Gujarat and Tamil Nadu. tribes. As many tribal areas are rich in
minerals, therefore the tribal people
Problems associated with of this region are most affected.
mining Industrialisation of such regions has
badly shattered their economy, values
There are various problems posed by and lifestyle.
mineral extraction. The major problems are

145
Strategies for Resource Conservation TYPES OF COAL

Types of coal (based on carbon, ash and moisture

content)
• Peat:
ŠŠ Decaying plants in swamps produce peat
ŠŠ First stage of transformation and it Contains
less than 40 to 55 per cent carbon, more
impurities, high moisture contents and low
heating capacity.
• Lignite
ŠŠ 40 to 55 per cent carbon and found in
Intermediate stage
ŠŠ A low-grade brown coal, which is soft with
high moisture content. The principal lignite
reserves are found in Neyveli in Tamil Nadu
and are used for generation of electricity.

Sources of Energy and Their • Bituminous

ŠŠ It contains around 40 to 80% carbon,Moisture
Classification and volatile content (15 to 40%)
ŠŠ Dense, compact, and is usually of black in
There are different sources of energy which colour
can be classified in different ways. One ŠŠ It is the most popular coal in commercial use.
way of classification of energy is based on Metallurgical coal is high grade bituminous
conventional and nonconventional sources. coal which has a special value for smelting
iron in blast furnaces.
• Anthracite
ŠŠ It is the highest quality hard coal.
ŠŠ It contains around 80 to 95 per cent carbon
ŠŠ Very little volatile matter.
ŠŠ Negligibly small proportion of moisture.

Important conventional Source of

Energy
Coal
• In India Coal is a most important and
abundant mineral. It gives a substantial
part of the Nation's Energy needs. Coal is
occurred in variety of forms based on its

146
 degrees of compression and the depth
and time of burial.
• Coal in India found in two important types
of coal fields i.e. the Gondwana coal fields
(a little over 200 million years in age)
and Tertiary coal fields (about 55 million
years old). Out of the total coal reserves
and production in India, Gondwana coal
fields contribute 98 percent and the rest
2 percent is produced by tertiary coal
fields.
• Gondwana coal fields are distributed
chiefly in the river velleys of the Damodar
(Jharkhand - West Bengal); the Son
(Madhya Pradesh–Chhatisgarh); the
Mahanadi (Orissa), the Godavari (Andhra
Pradesh) and the Wardha (Maharashtra).
• Tertiary coalfields majorly find in the
extra-peninsular areas which include
Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Arunachal Petroleum
Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir and Sikkim.
• Petroleum or mineral oil is the next
• Besides lignite or brown coal are found in important energy source in India after
coastal areas of Tamil Nadu, Gujarat and coal. Petroleum refineries act as a “nodal
in land basins of Rajasthan. industry” for synthetic textile, fertilizer
• Jharkhand ranks highest in production as and various chemical industries.
well as reserves of coal in India. The coal • Most of the petroleum occurrences
deposites of Jharkhand mainly occur in India are linked with anticlines and
in Dhanbad, Hazaribagh and Palamau fault traps in the Rock formations of the
district. tertiary age. In areas of folding, anticlines,
• In Dhanbad district the most important or domes, it occurs where oil is trapped in
coalfields of Jharia and Chandrapura the crest of the upfold.
are located. • The oil-bearing layer is a porous limestone
• About 80% of the total coal deposits in or sandstone through which oil may flow.
India is of bituminous type and is of non- The oil is prevented from rising or sinking
coking grade. by intervening non-porous layers.
• The bulk of lignite reserves are found in • Petroleum is also occurred in fault traps
and around Neyveli in Tamil Nadu. between porous and non-porous rocks.
Gas, being lighter usually occurs above
the oil. Crude petroleum occurs in
sedimentary Rocks of the tertiary period.
• About 63% of India’s petroleum
production is from Mumbai High, 18%
from Gujarat and 16% from Assam.

147
• Ankleshwar is the most significant oil Gulf of Cambay.
field of Gujarat. Assam is the oldest • Andaman and Nicobar Islands are also
oil producing state of India. Digboi, significant areas having large reserves of
Naharkatiya and Moran-Hugrijan are the natural gas.
important oil fields in the state.
• The 1700 km long Hazira-Bijaipur -
Jagdishpur cross country gas pipeline
connects Mumbai High and Bassien
with the fertilizer, power and industrial
complexes in western and Northern India.
• This artery has provided an impetus to
India’s gas production. The power and
fertilizer industries are the important
users of natural gas.
• Utilization of Compressed Natural Gas
(CNG) for vehicles to replace liquid fuels
is gaining wide popularity in the country.

Atomic Minerals
Atomic energy can be produced by the
process fission or fusion of the atoms or
rather the nuclear segments of radio-active
minerals like uranium thorium and radium.
India is having the world’s largest reserves
of monazite, the principal source of thorium
and some reserves of uranium.
Natural Gas • Uranium
• Natural Gas - The Gas Authority of India ŠŠ In India, uranium is embedded in the
Limited (GAIL) was established up in igneous and metamorphic rocks in
1984 as a public sector undertaking to Jharkhand, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh
transport and market natural gas. and some region of Himalaya. A
• Natural gas is a significant clean energy substantial source of uranium deposits
resource exist in association with or is also occurred in the monazite sands
without Petroleum. It is utilized as a source along the Kerala coasts.
of energy as well as an industrial raw ŠŠ The production of uranium at present
material in the Petrochemical industry. is confined to the mines at Jaduguda
• It is considered as an environment in Singhbhum district of Jharkhand.
friendly fuel because of low carbon The total reserves of uranium in the
dioxide emissions. country are enough to support 5,000-
10,000 mw of electricity generating
• Large number reserves of natural gas
capacity.
have been discovered in the Krishna-
Godavari basin. Along the west coast the • Thorium
reserves of the Mumbai High and allied ŠŠ Thorium is principally obtained
fields are supplemented by finds in the from monazite. The beach sands of

148
 Kerala in Palghat and Quilon district zone and has plenty of sunshine, for
contain the world’s richest monazite long hours of a day. Hence, there are
deposits. It also occurs on the sands of huge possibilities to develop and use
Visakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh. solar energy in the country and that
too without much cost.
ŠŠ Solar energy is tapped through the
process of Solar Photo Voltaic (SPV)
cells. The thermal heating system can
be utilized for water heating, solar
cookers for cooking meals and drying
food grains etc. Solar energy can be
developed in almost every part of the
country but mostly in hot, dry and
cloud free region like Rajasthan.
• Wind Energy
ŠŠ Wind can be used as a source of
energy in those areas where powerful
and constant winds blow throughout
the year. it can be utilized for pumping
water for irrigation and also for
generating electricity. India has around
45,000MW estimated wind power
N uclear power plants in I ndia potential. Important Prospective sites
for generating electricity wind are
situated in Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Andhra
Non-Conventional Sources of Pradesh, Karnataka and Kerala.
energy
ŠŠ Likely potential that can be tapped
Different conventional sources of power e.g. at present is limited to around 13,000
coal, petroleum and natural gas are likely MW. However, at present 2,483MW is
to exhaust in near future. The development generated through wind which places
of hydel power plants alone cannot meet India in the fifth position globally after
the requirement of electricity for the future. Germany, USA, Denmark and Spain.
Therefore, there is a need to discover and
develop alternative sources of power. • Biogas
Natural source of energy like Sun, wind, ŠŠ Biogas is produced by using variety
tides, biologoical wastes and hot springs of raw materials such as agricultural
are such sources which can be developed as waste, manure and green waste etc.
the alternative sources of power. They are It is mostly used in rural areas mainly
knowns as the non-conventional sources of as domestic fuel. Lots of initiatives are
energy. being made to popularise the biogas
• Solar energy plants in the country.
ŠŠ the Sun is the primary source of all ŠŠ Urban and industrial waste is other
energy for our earth. It is the most source of biological energy in big cities
important, abundant and direct source and industrial centres. These materials
of energy. India situated in the tropical can be used for electricity or biogas.

149
 The process of work in this direction is the geothermal gradient is high, high
still in its initial stage. Such plants have Temperatures are found at shallow
been installed in Delhi and few other depths. Groundwater in such areas
cities in India. absorbs heat from the Rocks and
• Tidal Energy becomes hot. It is so hot that when it
rises to the Earth’s surface, it turns into
ŠŠ Energy can also be generated with steam. This steam is used to produce
the help high tidal waves. Some of electricity and drive turbines.
the significant sites identified for
generating tidal energy are located ŠŠ The potential of geothermal energy is
in the Gulf of Kuchch and Cambay in very limited in India. Important sites
Gujarat state and the coast of Kerala. selected for generating geothermal
150 MW capacity plant has been power are located in Himachal Pradesh
installed on the Kerala coast. (Mani Karan) and Jammu and Kashmir
(Puga valley in Ladakh).
• Geothermal energy
ŠŠ Assessment of geothermal energy
ŠŠ Geothermal energy refers to the potentials of selected sites in
energy (heat and electricity) produced Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and
by using the heat from the interior of Kashmir, Uttarakhand, Jharkhand and
the Earth. Geothermal energy occurs Chhatisgarh is being undertaken.
because; the Earth grows progressively
hotter with increasing depth. Where

150
 LET’S CRACK IT!

UPSC | Indian Geography

151