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B
Contents

03 06 29
Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3
India: Location and India: Structure and India: Drainage
Extent Physiography

52 70 97
Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6
India: Climate India: Vegetation, India: Natural
Wildlife and Soils Disasters and
Management

1
 115 135 145
Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Previous Year
India: Agriculture India: Minerals and Questions
Energy Resources

2
 CHAPTER - 1

INDIA: LOCATION AND EXTENT

whereas the distance between the two
India - Location latitudes remains the same.
• The southern part of the country, lies
• India is the part of South Asia located
within the tropics and the northern part
in the Northern Hemisphere.
of the country lies in the subtropical
• Extends from 8°4’N to 37°6’N latitude zone or the warm temperate zone.
and from 68° 7’E to 97° 25’E Longitude,
• With the 30° difference or variation
roughly about 30° distance or latitudinal
between the longitudes, there is almost
and longitudinal extent.
a difference of two hours’ time between
• The Tropic of Cancer at 23° 30’N cuts the easternmost and westernmost part
the country in almost two equal halves. of the country.
• Indian mainland extends from Kashmir • To avoid any complications, the 82°
in the north to Kanyakumari in the 30’E longitude is selected as the
south and from Arunachal Pradesh in Indian Standard Meridian. The Indian
the east to Gujarat in the west. Standard time is 5 hours and 30 minutes
• The northernmost point is Indira Col in advance of Greenwich Mean Time.
in Siachen Glacier in the eastern
part of Karakoram ranges and the
Southernmost point is Indira Point in
the Nicobar Islands in the Andaman
India - Extent and
Sea. Size
• The tiny town of Kibithu in Arunachal
Pradesh is the easternmost point of • India accounts for 2.4% of the total
India. The Lohit River enters India from geographical area of the world making
Kibithu. it the 7th largest country in the world.
• The westernmost point of India is the • It comprises a total area of 3.28 million
small, inhabited village of Ghuar Moti, sq. km.
located in Kutch District of Gujarat. • India has 7516.6 km. coastline
• Distance from South to North is 3214 (including of the coastlines of the
km. and that from west to east is 2933 islands of Andaman and Nicobar in Bay
km. of Bengal and that of Lakshadweep in
the Arabian Sea).
• Latitudes are equidistant. The distance
between two latitudes is 111 km. • Coastline of India mainland is 6100km
• Longitudes are basically not equidistant • India has a land boundary of about
from each other at all places. They 15,200 km.
bulge at the equator and converge • India’s great size is blessed with great
at the poles. The average distance physical diversity. In the North, India
between two longitudes is 100 km. is guarded by the mighty Himalayas,
• Note that the distance between two the forested hills in the North East,
longitudes decreases towards the poles Peninsular block in the South and the
great sandy expanse of Marusthali in

3
 the West. Tripura and Mizoram.
• The Standard Meridian of India passes
37’ 6˚ N through 5 states of India, namely: Uttar

Standard Meridian of India

JAMMU
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh,
AND
KASHMIR
Odisha, Andhra Pradesh.

82’ 30˚ E
HIMACHAL
PRADESH

PUNJAB
UTTARAKHAND

L 97’ 25˚ E
HARYANA HA

India’s Neighbours
AC H
U N ES
A R RA D
SIKKIM P

UTTAR PRADESH
RAJASTHAN ASSAM ND
LA
GA
BIHAR MEGHALAYA NA

R
IPU
N
MA
A
UR
• International
JHARKHAND

MIZORAM
borders: Bangladesh

IP
TR
WEST
GUJARAT MADHYA PRADESH BENGAL
68’ 7˚ E
RH
GA
IS

and Myanmar (East) Bhutan, Nepal,

TT
HA
CH

ODISHA

ARABIAN
SEA
MAHARASHTRA

BAY OF and China (North), Pakistan and

TELANGANA BENGAL
Afghanistan (North-west).
ANDHRA
GOA

• Neighbouring island countries: Sri

PRADESH

KARNATAKA

TAMIL NADU
Lanka and the Maldives.
KERA

LAKSHADWEEP ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS

• States with International borders:
LA

INDIAN 8’ 4˚ N OCEAN Gujarat, Rajasthan, Punjab, Himachal

I M A G E 1 .1 : I N D I A : E X T E N T AND SIZE Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar, West Bengal, Sikkim, Assam,
Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland,
• The Himalayas are bounded by Manipur, Mizoram and UT of Jammu
Hindukush and Suleiman ranges in and Kashmir.
the north-west, the Purvanchal Hills in • Coastal states: Gujarat, Andhra
the north-east and by the Great Indian Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra,
Ocean in the south. This entire area Kerala, Odisha, Karnataka, West
taken together forms the geographic Bengal, and Goa (in decreasing order
entity called “The Indian Subcontinent”. of Coastline).
• The Indian subcontinent includes • Ocean bodies: Arabian Sea, Bay of
countries like Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bengal, Indian Ocean.
and Bangladesh and the mainland of
India.
• Gulf of Mannar and Palk Strait divides
Sri Lanka and India.
• The Tropic of Cancer passes through
the eight states of India namely,
Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal,

Bordering Length of No. of Indian Names of Indian State/UTs having common

country the common states having borders
border (in km.) common borders

Bangladesh 4096.7 5 West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram

China 3488 5 Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal

Pradesh and Union territories of Ladakh (Previously
under state of Jammu & Kashmir)

Pakistan 3323 4 UT of Jammu and Kashmir, UT of Ladakh, Punjab,

Rajasthan, Gujarat

4
Nepal 1751 5 Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal,
Sikkim

Myanmar 1643 4 Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram

Bhutan 699 4 Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh

Afghanistan 106 1 Jammu & Kashmir (POK)

Strategic Importance Asia, Africa and Europe from the

Western coast and with the south-east
of India’s Location and south Asia from Eastern Asia.
• The vast coastline and the natural
• The maritime location of peninsular harbors have benefitted India in
India has provided links to its carrying out trade and commerce with
neighbouring regions through sea and its neighbouring and distant countries.
air routes.
• It has given India a distinct climate than
• Strategic importance due to trans- the rest of Asian countries like the way
Indian ocean routes which connect the monsoons have a unique effect on the
countries of Europe in the west and the climate of India.
countries of East Asia.
• The maritime location of India
establishes close contact with West
KAZAKHSTAN

NORTH JAPAN
KORIA
ARMENIA AZERBAIJAN TOKYO
TURKMENISTAN
TURKEY SOUTH
CHINA KORIA

SYRIA AFGHANISTAN
IRAQ IRAN
PAKISTAN
JORDAN
ISRAEL DELHI
KUWAIT NEPAL
BHUTAN
KARACHI
HONGKONG
EGYPT BANGLA TAIWAN
DESH

UNITED
SAUDI ARABIA ARAB EMIRATES KOLKATA
MYANMAR HANOI
OMAN MUMBAI LAOS

PHILIPPINES
THAILAND

SUDAN
YEMEN
ERITREA CHENNAI
BANGKOK VIETNAM
CAMBODIA

DJIBOUTI

SRILANKA

ETHIOPIA
COLOMBO
IA
AL

MALAYSIA
M
SO

SINGAPORE

INDONESIA

INDIAN OCEAN

Air Routes
Sea Routes
AUSTRALIA

I M A G E 1 . 2 : L O C AT I O N OF INDIA WITH RESPECT TO TRADE ROUTES WITH NEIGHBOURING REGIONS

5
 CHAPTER - 2

INDIA:
STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOGRAPHY
beneath the sea.
Introduction: • Peninsular block being a part of Indo-
Australian Plate, it has been subjected
• Indian Subcontinent is the result of
to various vertical movements and
interplay of endogenic and exogenic
block faulting. The rift valleys of the
forces and lateral movement of
Narmada, the Tapi and the Mahanadi
plates through which the geomorphic
and the Satpura block mountains are
processes and geological structure of
some examples of it.
the subcontinent came into being.
• Peninsula consists mostly of relics and
• Based on the different geological
residuals like Aravali ranges, Nallamala
structure and formations, India is
hills, Javadi hills, Veliconda hills,
divided into three geological divisions,
Palkonda range and Mahendragiri hills.
as follows:
• Many rivers flow through this Peninsular
» The Peninsular Block block. Most of the east flowing rivers
» The Himalayan and other Peninsular like Mahanadi, Krishna and Godavari
Mountains form delta before entering into the Bay
of Bengal.
» Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plains
• The west flowing rivers like Narmada,
Tapi etc do not form any delta because:
Peninsular Block » Due to the steep slope of Western
• The northern limit of peninsular block Ghats, the west flowing rivers generally
is the Kutch region, running along the have a rapid flow. Because of this, the
western flanks of the Aravali range rivers carry their silt into deep sea.
and then runs parallel to Yamuna and » There is very less silt deposition.
Ganga to as far as Rajmahal Hills and Concurrently, the Narmada and Tapi
Ganga delta. rivers flow via the rift valleys and while
• In North-East India, the Karbi Anglong doing so the eroded material carried by
and the Meghalaya Plateau are also an them gets deposited in the fractures of
extension of this block. the fault zones. Thus, they do not form
deltas.
• This north eastern part of the block is
separated from the main block by the » Moreover, the tides are also one reason
Malda Fault in West Bengal from the that the rivers of western side do not
Chota Nagpur Plateau. form deltas. The west flowing rivers
form estuaries instead.
• Parts of Rajasthan desert are also an
extension of this peninsular block.
• Peninsular block is formed by ancient The Himalayan and other
gneisses and granites and has been a
rigid mass of block standing since the
Peninsular Mountains
cambrian period except for the western • These mountains are young fold
part, where a part of it is submerged mountains, and their geological

6
 structure is much weaker and more during the third phase of Himalayan
flexible than the old and stable mountain formation.
peninsular block.
Geosynclines
• The exogenic and endogenic interplay • A geosyncline is large troughlike or basinlike
results in the formation of different downwarping of the crust in which thick
kinds of folds, faults and thrust plains. sedimentary and volcanic rocks accumulated.

• These mountains are the result of • These are major structural and sedimentation
all units of the earth’s crust. They are elongated
tectonic activities.
trough-like depressions submerged beneath
• In fact, these mountains lying on the the sea water.
zones of convergence along the tectonic • They are potential sites of mountain building
plate boundaries are still undergoing activity. These basins become filled with
the tectonic activities and are still in great thickness of sediments and along with
the accumulation of pile of sediments; there
their process of formation.
occurs progressive subsidence of the basin
• The rivers cut across these mountains floor resulting into plain formation at a much
during their youthful stage resulting later geological stage.
into marvellous features like gorges, • The plain was the result of sediments
V-shaped valleys, rapids, waterfalls etc. brought and filled by Himalayan and
before they descend into the plains. Peninsular rivers.
• The several Himalayan rivers like • These plains are mostly formed of
Ganga, Yamuna, Brahmaputra etc. cut alluvial deposits and therefore are
across the lofty Himalayas as very fast extremely fertile and the depth of
flowing streams in their upper reaches. deposits vary between 1000-2000 m.
Such fast movement of running water
causes more vertical erosion that lateral
erosion and causes valleys to deepen. India - Physiography
• The rivers of Western Ghats too form
spectacular gorges and V-shaped
• Physiography of a region is the outcome
of the geologic structure, geomorphic
valleys which are the result of
processes, and stage of development of
the vertical erosional activities
landforms. India has great diversity in
of peninsular rivers like Krishna,
terms of physical features. The north is
Ghataprabha, Tungabhadra, Periyar
characterized by the rugged mountain
etc. Many waterfalls like Dudhsagar,
topography with high peaks, beautiful
Sivasamudram, Jog are the resultant
valleys, and deep gorge. The southern
erosional features of Western Ghats.
part is the solid block of rigid landmass
which is very stable and is dissected by
plateaus, denuded rocks, and resultant
Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra scarps. The middle part is characterized
Plains by vast rolling plains.
• As the name suggests, the floodplains • India is divided into 6 physiographic
of the three most important Himalayan divisions:
rivers Ganga, Brahmaputra, and Indus
forms the third geological division.
» The Northern and the Northeastern
Mountains
• The floodplain was originally a geo-
synclinal depression.
» The Northern Plains
• The plain reached its peak development » The Peninsular Plateau
approximately 64 million years ago, » The Indian Desert

7
» The Coastal Plains of the Indian Plate with the Eurasian
» The Islands Plate.
• Himalayas are the highest mountain
INDIA ranges in the world and have the
PHYSIOGRAPHIC highest peaks, deep valleys, gorges and
DIVISIONS
glaciers.
NORTHERN • They form an arc over the Indian
MOUNTAINS
(BROWN) subcontinent, which covers a distance
GREAT
DESERT of around 2,400 km. in length and
(YELLOW)
NORTHERN varying width from 400 km. in Kashmir
PLAINS
(GREEN) to 160 km. in Arunachal Pradesh.
• The altitudinal variations of Himalaya
DECCAN are greater in the eastern part than
PLATEAU
(ORANGE) those in the western part.
• These mountains act as a physical
COASTAL barrier between Central and East Asian
PLAINS
(BLUE) countries and India and protect the
Indian subcontinent from the icy cold
winds of Central Asia.
I M A G E 2 .1 : P H Y S I O G R A P H Y OF INDIA
• They act as climatic, drainage and
cultural divide.

The Northern and • The northern mountain system is

divided into three parts, called – The
North Eastern Himalayas, The trans-Himalayas and
The Purvanchal Hills.
Mountains
These set of mountains consist of Himalayas:
Himalayas and the North Eastern hills. Let
us first learn about Himalayan mountain • Himalayas run from west (Indus) to
system in detail. east (Brahmaputra) direction along the
northern boundary of India.
The Himalayan Mountain
• They cover a distance of 2500 km. and
System their width varies from 400 km. in the
• First it is to be noted that the Himalayas west and 150 km. in the East.
and the Himalayan mountain system • The Himalayas can be classified on
are not the same. Himalayas are just many bases. There is the most common
one part of the 3 parts of the Himalayan classification based on their north-
mountain system. south alignment. This is called the
• They are young and structurally fold longitudinal division of Himalayas.
mountains and stretch over the northern There is also a west to east division of
borders of India. Himalayas based on region and height
of the mountains.
• The Himalayan ranges run from the
Indus to the Brahmaputra river in a • There are three parallel ranges in the
west-east direction. Himalayas (longitudinal division)
• They are formed by the tectonic collision » Himadri or the Greater Himalayas

8
 (They are the inner most mountain originate from this Himalaya.
ranges) Himachal or the Lesser Himalayas
» Himachal or the Lesser Himalayas
(they are the middle Himalayas) • Lesser Himalayas or Middle Himalayas
or Himachal is the middle section of the
» Shivaliks or the Outer Himalayas vast Himalaya Mountain.
• The general orientation of these • The range lies between the Great
mountains is northwest to southeast in Himalayas to the northeast and Shivalik
the north western side of India, towards range to the southeast.
east-west direction in the North Bengal • The average height of these mountains
and Sikkim and towards southwest to is 3700 – 4500 m. and average width is
northwest direction in the Arunachal 50 km.
side and North-south direction in
• Himachal extended for some 2,400
Mizoram, Nagaland and Manipur
km. northeast to southeast across
region.
the northern limit of the Indian
• The Himalayan mountains from North- subcontinent.
east to Nepal are covered with lush
• Areas included are Nepal, Bhutan,
green thick forest but the forest cover
Indian states of Himachal, Uttarakhand,
decreases west from Nepal following
and Sikkim and UTs of Kashmir and
the general pattern of rainfall which
Ladakh.
decreases east to west.
• Pirpangal, Nag Tibba, Dhauladhar,
Mahabharat are some of the important
Greater Himalayas or Himadri ranges.
• The Greater Himalayas run for 2400 • The Middle Himalayas are famous for
km. from west to east and their width is their valleys like Kulu, Kashmir, Kangra
about 120-190 km. etc.
• The average height of these mountains • Most popular hill stations are in these
is 6000 m. and average width is around mountains are Shimla, Ranikhet,
120 – 190 km. Darjeeling, Nainital etc.
• They are the most continuous range
consisting of the loftiest peaks and Shivalik or the Outer Himalayas
contain all the prominent Himalayan
peaks. The core of this Himalayan part • Shivalik ranges are the southernmost
is composed of granite. hills of the Himalayas.
• They are perennially snowbound, and • It is separated from the Lesser
a number of glaciers descend from this Himalayas at some places by flat-
range. bottomed Valleys.
• Mount Everest (8850 m.) – the highest • The ancient name of this range was
peak in the world, Mt. Kanchenjunga ‘Upgiri’.
(8586 m.), Mt. Makalu (8481 m.), Mt. • The Outer Himalayas makes almost a
Dhaulagiri (8172 m.) are some of the continuous chain of more than 2400
important peaks of this mountain range. km. from the Indus gorge in northwest
• Other prominent ranges include Kamet, to the Brahmaputra in Assam.
Nanga Parbat and Annapurna. • The width of Shivaliks is 10-50 km. and
• The Ganga and the Yamuna, rivers the height seldom exceed 1300 m.

9
• In Punjab and Himachal Pradesh, the • The northern slopes are gentler, bare
southern slopes of Shivalik ranges are and show plains with lakes, while the
nearly lacking of forest cover. These southern slopes are steep, rugged and
slopes are extremely dissected by forested.
seasonal streams called Chaos. • Siachen and Baltoro glaciers are part
• There exist many longitudinal valleys of Kashmir Himalaya.
between the Shivaliks and Himachal, • The world-famous valley of Kashmir
running parallel to the mountains and and the famous Dal Lake are located
are called ‘Duns’, like Dehradun, Kotli between the Great Himalayas and the
Dun, Patli Dun. Pir Panjal range.
Formation of ‘duns’ and 'duars' in Shivalik Hills: • It is also well-known for their Karewa
• Shivalik Hills were formed by the formations, which are useful for growing
accumulation of conglomerates (sand, stone, Zafran, a local variety of saffron.
silt, gravel, debris etc.). These conglomerates,
in the initial stages of deposition, obstructed • This region also contains some of the
the courses of the rivers draining from the most important freshwater lakes, such
higher reaches of the Himalayas and formed as Dal and Wular, as well as saltwater
temporary lakes.
lakes, such as Pangong Tso and Tso
• With the passage of time, these temporary Moriri.
lakes accumulated more and more
conglomerates. The conglomerates were well • Famous pilgrimage sites such as
settled at the bottom of the lakes. Vaishno Devi, Amarnath Cave, Charar-
• When the rivers were able to cut their courses e-Sharif, and others are also located
through the lakes filled with conglomerate here, and a large number of pilgrims
deposits, the lakes were drained away leaving visit these sites each year.
behind plains called ‘duns’ or ‘doons’ in the
west and ‘duars’ in the east. • Zojila, Rohtang, Baralacha la and Shipki
La are important passes.
• This area has the beautiful valleys of
On the basis of alignment of ranges, relief,
Kullu, Kangra and Lahaul and Spiti.
and similar geomorphological features, the
Himalayas are divided into the following • It is also home to the beautiful Kashmir
subdivisions. Valley and the Dal lake.

• Kashmir or North-western Himalayas • The Dal lake presents a very unique and
interesting physical feature. The Jhelum
• Himachal and Uttaranchal Himalayas river in the Kashmir valley is still in its
• Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas youth stage and yet it forms meanders.
• Arunachal Himalayas Meanders
• Eastern Hills and Mountains • Meanders are a physical feature which is
associated with the mature stage of evolution
in the formation of fluvial landforms.
Kashmir or Northwestern Himalayas: • In Kashmir Valley, the meanders in Jhelum
river are caused by the local base level
• Karakoram, Ladakh, Zaskar, Pir Panjal, provided by the erstwhile larger lake of which
and Dhaola Dhar are the main ranges the present Dal Lake is a small part..
of this section
• The Kashmir Himalayas' northeastern The Himachal and Uttarakhand
region is a cold desert located between
Himalayas:
the Greater Himalayas and the
Karakoram ranges. • This region is roughly located between

10
 the Ravi in the west and the Kali (a Indian tribes.
tributary of Ghaghara) in the east and • Instead of Shiwaliks, the ‘duar
drained by two of India's major river formations' are significant here, and
systems, the Indus and the Ganga. have also been used for the growth of
• The rivers Ravi, Beas, and Satluj tea gardens.
(tributaries of Indus), and the Yamuna • This region is also known for their
and Ghaghara (tributaries of Ganga) scenic beauty and rich flora and fauna,
flow through this area. particularly various types of orchids.
• All three Himalayan ranges, namely the
Great Himalaya, the Lesser Himalayas
The Arunachal Himalayas:
(locally known as Dhaoladhar in
Himachal Pradesh and Nagtibha in • These extend from the east of the
Uttarakhand), and the Shiwalik range Bhutan Himalayas up to the Diphu pass
from north to south, are prominent in in the east in southwest to northeast
this section. direction.
• The Bhotias are the majority of the • Kangtu and Namcha Barwa are
people who live in the valleys of the important mountain peaks of the
Great Himalayan range. These are region.
nomadic groups that migrate to the
• The fast-flowing rivers from the north to
'Bugyals' (summer glasslands in the
the south dissect this region and form
higher reaches) in the summer and
deep gorges.
return to the valleys in the winter.
• Ex: Bhramaputra flows through a deep
• The Valley of Flowers is also situated in gorge after crossing Namcha Barwa.
this region.
• Kameng, Subansiri, Dihang, Dibang
• This region is famous for the formation and Lohit are some of the important
of Duns. Dehradun1 is the largest and
rivers of this region.
the most famous dun in this region.
• These rivers have hydro-electric power
• The region is also known to have potential because of their perennial
five famous Prayags. The places of
flow with the high rate of fall.
pilgrimage like Gangotri, Yamunotri,
Kedarnath and Hemkund Sahib are • Numerous ethnic tribal groups,
situated in this region. including the Monpa, Abor, Mishmi,
Nyishi, and Nagas, live in these areas
from west to east.
The Darjiling and Sikkim Himalayas:
• Most of these communities practise
• They are bounded to the west by the Jhumming, known as shifting or slash
Nepal Himalayas and to the east by the and burn cultivation.
Bhutan Himalayas.
• This Himalaya is renowned for its The Eastern Hills and Mountain:
fast-flowing rivers, such as Tista, high
mountain peaks such as Kanchenjunga • These are part of the Himalayan
(Kanchengiri), and deep valleys. mountain system and have alignment
from north to south direction.
• The higher reaches of this region are
inhabited by Lepcha tribes, whereas • In the north, they are known as Patkai
the southern portion, especially the Bum, Naga hills, the Manipur hills and
Darjiling Himalayas, is populated by a in the south as Mizo or Lushai hills.
mix of Nepalis, Bengalis, and Central • This region is also inhabited by

11
 numerous tribal groups practising Jhum between India and Tibet.
cultivation. • Nathu La Pass: It connects the Indian
• The majority of these ranges are state of Sikkim with China’s Tibet
separated by numerous small rivers. Autonomous Region. This pass is of
The Barak River (tributary of Meghna) strategic importance in Indo-China
is important in Manipur and Mizoram. relations.
• Manipur's physiography is characterised • Rohtang Pass: It connects the Kullu
by the presence of a large lake known as valley with Lahaul and Spiti valleys
'Loktak' lake in the middle, surrounded of Himachal Pradesh. Manali-Leh
by mountains on all sides. Mizoram, Highway, a part of NH 21, transverses
also known as the 'Molassis basin,' Rohtang Pass.
is composed of soft unconsolidated • The Atal tunnel, the world's longest
deposits. highway tunnel (9.02 km) above a
height of 3,000 metres, was recently
built in Rohtang. It links Solang Valley in
the Manali district to Sissu in the Lahaul
and Spiti district.
• Shipki La Pass: It is located in Himachal
Pradesh and border post on the India-
Tibet border. The river Satluj enters
India from Tibet through this pass.

I M A G E 2 . 2 : H I M A L AYA S - W E S T E R N & C E N T R A L

Important Mountain Passes in Himalayas

• Banihal Pass: This mountain pass
separates the Kashmir Valley in the
Indian UT of Jammu and Kashmir from
the Outer Himalayas and plains to the
south.
I M A G E 2 .3 : H I M A L AYA N P A S S E S
• Jelep La Pass: It is a high mountain pass
between Tibet and India in Sikkim. The • Zoji La Pass: It is one of the high
pass connects Lhasa (Tibet) to India. mountain pass in UT of Ladakh, located
• Karakoram Pass: The Karakoram Pass on the Indian National Highway 1D
is between India and China and is between Srinagar and Leh in the
located in the Karakoram Range. western section of the Himalayan
mountain range.
• Mana Pass: It is a one of the mountains
passes in the Himalayas located in
Uttarakhand state. It is on the border

12
The Trans-Himalayan in the Indian UT of Ladakh.
Mountains • The average height is about 6000 m.
• This range separates Zanskar from
• The Trans Himalayas are the ranges Ladakh.
immediately to the north of the Great
Himalayan Range. Kailash Mountain Range
• It includes the mountain ranges of • Kailash range is one of the highest
Karakoram, Zanskar, Ladakh and and most rugged parts of the Trans
Kailash ranges. Himalayas. It is located in the
• It is also called the Tibet Himalayas southwestern part of the Tibet.
because most of it lies in the Tibet • Mount Kailash is an important holy site
region. for both Hindus and Buddhist.
• It stretches 1000 km. from east to west • It is the origin of the river Indus.
and average height is about 3000 m.

Karakoram Range
• These range forms India’s frontier
with Afghanistan and China. It is the
northernmost range in the Trans-
Himalayan Mountains.
• The average width of this range is 120
– 140 km. Most peaks hardly ever fall I M A G E 2 .4 : T R A N S -H I M A L AYA N M O U N TA I N S
below 5,500 m. Some of the peaks have
height more than 8,000 m above sea
level. The Purvanchal Or Eastern Hills
• K2 is the 2nd highest peak in the world and Mountains
& the highest in India. It is also known
as Godwin Austen.
• After crossing the Dihang gorge
(Brahmaputra gorge) in Arunachal
Pradesh, the Himalayan ranges
Ladakh Range suddenly turn southward. It forms the
series of comparatively low hills running
• This part of the Trans Himalayan in the shape of a crescent with its
Ranges lies to the north of Leh. convex side pointing towards the west.
• The Ladakh Plateau lies to the north- • Collectively these hills are called as
east of the Karakoram Ranges. It is the Purvanchal because they are
dissected into a number of plains and located in the eastern part of the
mountains. It is the highest plateau of country. Purvanchal hills extends from
Indian Union and has many plains like the Arunachal Pradesh in the north
Soda plains and Aksai Chin. direction to Mizoram in the south
• This range merges with the Kailash direction and forms a border between
range in Tibet. Myanmar and India.
• From north to south the elevation of
the Eastern Hills decreases. The region
Zanskar Range: is categorized by rough terrain, dense
• This part of Trans Himalayas is situated forests, and hasty streams. These

13
 Ranges are usually 2,000 m. or less in which is made up of soft unconsolidated
elevation. deposits.
• This region receives the most of
monsoonal rainfall and therefore is
covered with lush dense green forests.
• Such green cover in the hills often
makes them inaccessible.
• Mawsynram, a village near Cherrapunji
in Meghalaya is the wettest place on
earth, receiving the highest annual
rainfall.
• These hills are inhabited by tribal
groups who practice Jhum cultivation.
• The Indo-Burma mountain range is a
part of Arakan Yoma Suture zone which
stretches south via Andaman– Nicobar
island chain to Sunda.
I M A G E 2 .5 : P U R VA N C H A L H I L L S

It comprises of the following hills: Significance of Northern Mountains

• Mishmi hills – These hills contain the • Physical barriers: It acts as a compound
loftiest range of the Purvanchal. Dapha wall which splits India from central
Bum is its highest peak. and East Asian countries. It is also
• Patkai Bum Range – This is the responsible for the variance in climatic
northernmost range making the and weather forms between Indian
easternmost boundary of the Great sub-continent from rest of the Asia.
Himalaya Mountains. These ranges • Natural frontier: The Himalaya acts
have synclinal structure and is made up as a defense barricade and have been
of Tipam sandstone. protecting India from foreign invasions
• Naga Hills – These hills lie south to the since ancient period.
Patkai Bum. The Samati (3826 m.) is its • Climatic Influence: The Himalayas play
tallest summit. Patkai Bum and Naga a crucial role in influencing the climate of
hills form the watershed between India India. India is a land of monsoon due to
and Myanmar. the existence of Himalayas. It captures
• Manipur Hills – It lies south to Naga hills the monsoon winds from Arabian Sea
and forms a boundary between Manipur and the Bay of Bengal branches and
and Myanmar. Its central part is a great forces it to shed their moisture content
basin which looks like a bed of an old lake, within the Indian sub-continent in the
a residue of which occupies the south- form of snow and rain.
east corner of the basin and is identified • Himalaya also act as a barrier to the
as Loktak Lake. The Barail Range parts cold winter storms of East Asia from
Naga Hills from Manipur hills. entering India, thus protecting us from
• Mizo Hills (Lushai Hills) – It lies south to severe cold.
Manipur hills and its highest point is the • Due to the huge vertical height of
Blue Mountain (2157 m.) in the south. Himalayas, they split the westerly jet
Mizoram is known as the Molasses basin streams into two branches i.e., southern

14
 and northern branch. The southern resources. The tertiary rocks have vast
branch entering India plays an potential of mineral oil. Coal is found
important role in carrying the monsoon. in Kashmir. The minerals like Cobalt,
• Source Region of Rivers: Himalaya Copper, Zinc, Nickel, Lead, Antimony,
is the plentiful reservoir of Great Tungsten, Limestone, Gypsum and
Indian rivers such as Indus, Ganga, Magnetite are also present in the
and Brahmaputra. The snow liquefy Himalayan locality. The Silver, Gold,
in summer and precipitation in winter and other semi-precious and precious
makes them perennial rivers (Rivers stones are also found in the region of
having water all over the year). The Himalaya.
ample rains, massive snowfield and • Tourism: The beautiful landscapes
huge glaciers nourish these drainage on Himalayan mountain offer a great
systems. Himalayan Rivers give life to tourist spot. The the cool climate,
northern India. winter sports and snowfall and, attracts
• Fertility of Soil: The Himalayan Rivers millions of tourists from the neighboring
carry slits on their way down and places which are under the scorching
deposit in the northern plain. In this heat of summer and different parts of
way the entire northern plains were the world. Hill stations such as Mussouri,
made by the Himalayas. These alluvial Shimla, Kulu, Manali, Nainital, Chamba,
deposits are the reasons behind the Ranikhet, Darjeeling, Almora, Gangtok,
high fertility of this land. Hence, it is Mirik, etc provide huge scope of tourism
often said that northern great plain is a due to their scenic natural beauty as
gift of Himalayas. well as healthy environment.

• Hydro Electric Power Projects: The • Pilgrimage: Historically the Himalayas

Himalayan valley, due to the presence is known as the house of the Gods.
of natural waterfalls and perennial Apart from its tourist places, the region
nature of rivers offers the best location is studded with sanctified shrines.
for construction of dams. Badrinath, Kedarnath, Vaishnodevi,
Amarnath, Kailash, Tungnath,
• Biodiversity and Vegetation: The Uttarkashi, Gangotri, Yamunotri etc.
Himalayan ranges are well-known for which are at high altitudes are famous
rich biodiversity. There is altitudinal pilgrim centers in the Himalayas.
zonation of vegetation from the tropics
to the alpine. The forests provide fuel
wood, medicinal plants and various
raw materials that are needed for the The Northern Plains
forest-based industries.
• The Great Plains of Northern India
• Agriculture: The Himalayas does not exists in the south direction of the
have much flat lands but offer slopes Himalayas. It is, in actuality, bounded
that are terraced for cultivation. The by the Himalayas in the north and the
major crop is rice. Crops like maize, Deccan plateau on the south.
wheat, ginger, potatoes, and tobacco
are also cultivated. Tea is a unique crop • This plain stretches for about 3,200 km.
which grows only on hill slopes. Many from west to east and 200 to 400 km.
fruits such as pears, mulberries, apples, from north to south. It covers an area of
peaches, cherries along with citrus fruits about 5,80,000 sq. km.
are grown in the Himalayan region. • The Great Plains of Northern India
• Mineral Resources: Himalayan region was formed by the sediments or
contains many valuable mineral alluvial deposits carried down by the

15
 Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputra and their • The area is unsuitable for agriculture
tributaries from the Himalayas. and only big trees with large roots
• The rivers which were flowing into thrive in this belt.
Tethys sea in very early period (Before Terai
Indian Plate collided with Eurasian
Plate) deposited enormous amount of • South of the Bhabar belt is the Terai
sediments in the Tethys Geosyncline. belt.

• After upliftment of Himalayas, • Terai is basically a poorly drained,

sediments and debris carried down damp (marshy) and thickly forested
by the rivers, started to gather there narrow tract to the south of Bhabar
to form the massive alluvial plain of running parallel to it.
northern India. • The Terai is about 15-30 kilometers
• This widespread plain is level and wide.
monotonous; it is characterized by • The underground streams from the
some local diversities. Bhabar belt re-emerge in this region.
• This densely forested region provides
shelter to a variety of wildlife. Kaziranga
From north to south, these National Park in Assam and Jim
plains can be divided into Corbett National Park in Uttarakhand
are situated in the Terai region.
three major zones:
• The Terai is more noticeable in the
Bhabar eastern part compared to the western
• Bhabar is a porous narrow belt found in part because the eastern parts
the northern-most stretch of the Great receive relatively greater quantity of
Plains. precipitation.

• It is around 8-16 km. wide running in an • Most of the Terai land, particularly in
east-west direction along the foothills Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and Uttarakhand,
(alluvial fans) of the Shivaliks. is turned into agricultural land which
yields good crops of sugarcane, rice
• Descending rivers from the Himalayas and wheat.
deposit their load alongside the
foothills in the form of alluvial fans. Alluvial Plains
These alluvial fans merged together to • The south of Terai belt is characterized
form Bhabar belt. by deposits of new and old alluvium
• The porosity of Bhabar is the very deposit. Now alluvial plains are divided
unique feature. This porosity is because into Bhanger and Khadar.
of deposition of large number of • These plains have characteristic
pebbles and rock debris through the features of mature stage of fluvial
alluvial fans. erosional and depositional features
• The streams fade once they reach the such as sandbars, meanders, oxbow
Bhabar region due to this porosity. lakes, and braided channels.
Hence, the area is noticeable by dry river • The Brahmaputra plains are famous
courses excluding in the rainy period. for the riverine islands and sandbars.
• The Bhabar belt is reasonably narrow in These regions are very prone to floods
the east, however extensive in the west and shifting river courses.
and north-west mountainous region.

16
 Himalaya
• The UT of Delhi and State of Haryana
Bhabar
forms a water divide between the Indus
and the Ganga river system.
Terai
Bhangar
• Due to soil fertility and thriving
Khadar agriculture in this region, it supports a
large population.
River valley

I M A G E 2 .6 : M A J O R Z O N E S IN NORTHERN PLAIN

Bhanger
• Bhangar is the older alluvium beside
the riverbeds forming terraces higher
than the floodplain.
• The terraces are often saturated with
calcareous stone like pebbles termed
as ‘Kankar’.
• ‘The Barind plains’ in the delta region
of Bengal and the ‘bhur formations’ in
middle Ganga and Yamuna doab are
the regional variants of Bhangar.
• Bhur represents an elevated piece of I M A G E 2 .7: N O R T H R N P L A I N S
land situated along the banks of the
Ganga river, especially in the upper
Ganga- Yamuna Doab. This is formed On the basis of region, the
due to accumulation of wind-blown Great Plains may be classified
sands during the hot dry months of the
year.
into three divisions
Khadar The Punjab plain drained by the
Indus
• Khadar is made up of novel alluvium
and makes the flood plains alongside • Western portion of the Northern plain is
the riverbanks. called as Punjab plain.
• A new stratum of alluvium is deposited • This plain is drained by the Indus and
by river floods almost every year. her tributaries, like the Satluj, Beas,
and Ravi. Only a fragment of the Indus
• This makes them the most fertile soils basin lies in India.
of Ganga region.
• The plain slopes lightly down towards
the south-west; hence the rivers follow
• It is in these plains that the world’s the slope of the land.
largest delta is formed. The Sundarbans • The plain is mostly made of silts. The soil
delta is one of the most important is porous. The plains that are shaped by
examples. the accumulation of new alluvium near
• Apart from these features, the Northern the riverbanks is termed as Bet.
Plains are overall very featureless with
general elevation of only 100-150 m.
above the mean sea level.

17
The Ganga plain drained by the included in the tentative list of World
Ganga Heritage Sites by UNESCO.
• The green Brahmaputra valley is
• It is spreads from the east margin of renowned for tea plantation.
the Punjab in the west to Bangladesh
border in the east. This is a widespread Significance of Northern Plains:
plain encompassing state like Uttar • This one fourth region of the country’s
Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal. land hosts half of the Indian population.
• It is divided into Rohilkhand Plains, • Flat surface, fertile alluvial soils, slow
Awadh Plains and Bihar Plains. moving perennial rivers, and favorable
• It is drained by the rivers like Yamuna, climate facilitate the intense agricultural
Ghaghara, Ganga, Gandak, Kosi and activity in this region.
Tista from the Himalayas in the north • The extensive use of irrigation and
side and Chambal, Betwa, Son and intensive agriculture practice has made
Damodar from the plateau in the south. the Punjab, Haryana and western part
The entire region slopes towards south of Uttar Pradesh became the granary
and south- east. of India.
Divisions of the Ganga Plains
• The entire plain has a close network
• Upper Ganga plain: It extends from the of roads and railways which has led
Yamuna river in the west to Allahabad to large scale industrialization and
city in the east. urbanization.
• Middle Ganga plain: It stretches from • There are many religious places
Allahabad in the west to Rajmahal hills present along the banks of the sacred
in the east. rivers of Ganga and Yamuna which are
• Lower Ganga plain: It extends from very sacred to Hindus. The religions of
Rajmahal hill to the Bay of Bengal. Buddha and Mahavira flourished here
and the movements of Bhakti and
Sufism. This makes northern plains as
The Brahmaputra plain drained by destination for the cultural tourism.
the Brahmaputra
• This region is located in the north-
eastern part of the country and is edged
The Peninsular
between the Arunachal Himalayas in
the north and the Meghalaya Plateau
Plateau
in south. • Peninsular plateau is triangular in shape
• Ranges of mountains are found & encircled by hills, composed of oldest
standing on both sides of the river. rocks as it was formed from the drifted
• Innumerable Sandbars and islets are part of Gondwanaland.
found on the Brahmaputra and the river • It is a tableland made up of old
flows out in different channels avoiding crystalline, igneous and metamorphic
obstacles of sandbar. rocks.
• Majuli Island is the India's First island • The broad & shallow valleys and
district and biggest inhabited riverine rounded hills are the characteristic
islands in the world located in the river features of this plateau.
Brahmaputra. It is the nerve centre of • The Peninsular plateau stretches from
Neo-Vaishnavite culture. It has been the Aravali range till the southern tip

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