7.

1 Magnet and its Characteristics

Long befurc till' hcgmmng ot the Chn:,llan era ll \, a:, c:,tabh:,hcd tha.t p1c1..c') ii the 1run Jrc ,Iu~11t:111t'
.\fagn<'., 111 h:i, c the properly of attracttng cenam ot.her :,Ub:,tanLc:, and po11:tmg 1n 1urth-~outh Jt rcttu,n Ath..:n u')pc ,; .
Thc!st' pieces are cnlkd natu ral magnets and the phenomenon magnetism.

tJ'I

I
\
I
\

1S
0
, _-f;:1/-. -----------
Iron Bar NI
------:tx.::------
1 S Iron Bar N '

S1ngle-1ouch D1v1aeo-toucn \1agnetJc dieci .;r .~m:::r 1

(A) BJ
Fig. 7.1

Due to their odd shapes anJ " eak attract mg po'w er natural
magnets are rarely used. Now a days piece::. of 1wn and other matenab /""::: --~
of suitable shapes and s11es ,lrL' made magnets either b) rubbmg them S N
wnh natural magnets or by pa::.~1ng J irecl current through a wire
wo und around them. ·r hL· magm:li> lh w, creat ed are cal led artificial Bar-magnet U-snape mc1g'6t
(A ) B)
magneh anJ ex ist 111 vari uw, sizes and shapes !>Ul'h as bar-magnet,
Fig. 7 2
L ·,hapc magnet or magnetic nceJ !e, etc
 ~, \ i
I' ' .~l\'f\<'ll 'm
I \l\ 1)-!lh' I \( ,, \\\I\ th lll\1 111g 111111 Note '' 1 ~ II i '1' n•• a 1"~ •

111\1! ,I • .. t• (' I I' • I I .l !

K, ~.11 , ··ti', •• l'rtl'rH' rt ~ .trnd Poh,, : \\'lwn ,, mMtll'I ,,
I
I • (l"J\\ • • r" p1rt(l' Jgrt't
, \I (, 11\,11 hhngs 11 1, 101111d 1hi11 1ht· r ~ e ,. 1 1 • m .,h ;11 ,vi , )
11 1 1111
,hrl~~ 11·1t11'n (\( \1\11\ fil ing,, I 1', ,l111dC11l\g J)(t\\ l'r (II I!~ S!fr,. f T' r, 1/o>
. ,11,' n, ,c s 111:l\ 111111m :it t\\ (' p1>1nt!- ncu1 II1t: end-. and ftp rlP l ' igr,-1• p \I jf l fr ,,,., 1 ,1 r
''
11 11 I
1h,' l\\,ll.; 11 ll'd >' d Jn'i •tr•
, ., "Vf>Vg,lt i i>•PP' 1 P"'" i-• I I".,
' 1n1 •it tlH' l'.l'llll\' 11t' /' cl<< '' 111 11 111a~11et 11'11e1 1
1 ' r • "I ' ,. • , ' J, d ,1•1~ 1.i i>,;,1 ' ' 1 f
1111nt1ll
, . , .,111 ,, / '<i11·a is 111, n ,11111111 ,m· culled poks wh,I,,
1{,' "' .... good f PHO 1 • )r ' ,,.. P• 1

' ' ,,' i,<' 1 ,1 mi11111111111 11ffl'11C'l111g po11 ·1•r ,., culled the $<1 at p•e~P"lt t J~ Hf''( b,. p,., .; i>1 h;J' ..,.,Jr>r.:or 1 '"
••1, I , 1
· 't,·lll n' gion. e.r,st tho ~gM orv-;,: sis Altll go Jn ,PJr ,r rig Jnt ,.,.,.., " rt,,-, nd
Ol'II magne· c monopoles or d1S(IJv••r J 1•J1Jd ""~on f , ,._t- 1 '
nor e"< stence
N
(6) Consequent-pole and \ o-pole. Herc 1 , ..,,1rh, o
w
c;::::;:tral
l
P2 s gf'e\lC(1'
ef'o1af'
E note that chough monopl1k, J,1 ri11t t'\,,r ind ' i
magnet there are t\\-O pole') l>f t'quJJ ,rrcngth 11,d
; region ~a opposite nature:
(a) There can be nwf!llt'/1· ,1 ,rl, 110 po/,,., t' ~
~ttract1ve-property
Directive-property magnetised nng c,1lled toroul ur ,oknord or
(A)
(B) mfimte length has propcrtre'i of J magnet our 110
Fig. 7.3 poles.
,) Directive Property and N-S Poles : When a magnet (b) There can be magnets wuh rwo rnmlar 110/e.\ (Ir
l· is suspended, its length becomes parallel to N-S with rhree poles). e g. due to faulty magnetlsamm
direction. The pole at the end poi111ing north is called of a bar. temporarily 1dent1cal poles at the rwo ends
rhc north pole while 1he other pointing south is called with an opposite pole or double -,rrength dt the
centre of bar (called consequent pole J m:
rhe south pole.
developed.
(3) Magnetic Axis and Magnetic Meridian : The line
Joining the two poles of a magnet is called magnetic Consequent-pole,
axis and the vertical plane passing through the axis of a
freely suspended or pivoted magnet is called magnetic ,s N s
meridian. Magnet with s1m1lar poles
Magnel with no poles (or with three poles)
---~ 21 N -~-a-~~:~~~i~-- S - - -- ---- N - ---
(A) (Bi
L
'
' ,..,,____ , .,~,J
Fig. 7.6

Effective length = 2/ Effective length = 2R (7) Repulsion is a Sure Test of Polarity : A pole oj a
Actual length = L Actual length = rrR magnet attracrs rhe opposite pole while repels similar
(A) (B) pole. However, a sure rest a/polarity is repulsion and
Fig. 7.4 not alfraction, as attraction can rake place between
(4) Magnetic Length (2/) : The distance between two opposite poles or a pole and a piece oj unmagnec,sed
poles along the axis ofa magnet is called its effective magnetic marerial due to 'induction effect .
or magnetic length. As poles are not exactly at the (8) Pole-strength m : The pole-strength of north and
ends, the effective length is lesser than the actual south poles of a magnet is conventionally represented
length of the magnet. by +m and - m respecti vely and is a scalar with
(S) Poles Exist in Pairs : In a magnet the two poles are dimension [AL] and SI unit A-m•. The pole-strength
of a magnet depends on the nature of the material of
found robe equal in strength and opposite in nature. l f the magnet, the state of magnetisacion (with an upper
a magnet is broken into number of pieces, each piece limit called saturation) and area of cross-secuon. So if
becomes a magnet with two equal and opposite poles. a given magnet is_divid~d into two equal parts such
This in tum implies that monopoles do not exist (as far ~h~~ the cross-sect1_on of each part is half that of the
as we know). 1mt1al, each part_wtl l be a magnet with half the initial
IT NI Is Nl/s N§s N/ pole~strength [Fig. 7. 7 (B)]. However, if the magnet is
cut mto twoh·equal parts such that its cro~s ·
:s -section
· .
(A) (B) remams unc anged, each part will be a maon .h
Fig. 7.5 same pole-strength [Fig. 7.7 (C)]. c, et wit

-·=-- ,.., ,.... ,.. ..... 1 ; ... r ... __ _ J _, ,

 -'
\

I '<l •

,,, \ la).:n,-11, \ l,tiih lit \f I lit 11rn~111 IH m11r111111 ,

•.,\ ', 1 d, nw, 1 "· , Jlldllllli ha,1ri,
\l•1t111
'' ' lt thi, ,'~ 11,1 h 1 1l1t p 1 11d11, 1 ,'1 poll ~11enf!th • 11h
,' ,', ', , w1h 1111 .l11t·1 l1p11 d11np thL zt'.I' /)f tht
).11 ·,, 11-_,n, ,,,11th,,, 11,111h r1,1L , ,
'
\\ .n1, 12, \"' wi th M ~ml
n
:,. ,, ,11, ,,n11nL-rkld \L'l'-JO!l 1ls l11men<;1on<. are IAL-J
m,i umb \ -111' ,, h1l'l1 1:-- cqu1\'alcnt to (J '1 ). Here 1111,
",,11h~ h' noh.' that ~
"' lt .. magnet 1~ L'llt mto two equal pa11s either along
tt:- kngth or perpendi cular to 11~ length, the
m::ig11c11c moment Meach part becomes half of the
ongmal value I Fig. 7.7].
b \ A!- magneuc moment is a vector, 111 case of tv. o
magnets having magnetic momenls M and M with
I 2
angle 8 between them, the resulting magnetic
moment ,
~
M = l MI + M ~2 + '2 MI M 2 cos 0] I
l
:'.

_h
ran q> =[ -----
\Vlt M , sin---8
M 1 + M 2 cos 0
(10) Inverse-square Law : The force between two isolated
poles of strength 111 1 and 111 2 separated by a distance,- in
vacuum is given by :
Ill
i.e.. F= 4-I 1112
-
. (,/
where A is a constant of proportionality and depends
on the system of units.
I
Qt
[n CGS system , lo SJ (Sommerfeld In SI (Kennelly) nil
1
units) units Ar
A =I IA = µ o = 10- 7 I to
A =--
4Jt 4rrµ 0 111l
So F = m1 m 2 [t)J'

(r )2 de1
Wll
with ,- in cm, F in r in m, Fin N and min r in m, Fin N and min
dyne and m in A -m Wb Ql
emu wi/
Here µ 0 is a constant called permeability of free tlir
space. Though in analogy with electrostatics soml."
authors and books use Kennelly version, in this book
Sommerfeld version is adopted.
(11) Magnetic Induction : A magnet -attracts certain other
substances through the phenomenon of' magnetic
induction, i.e., by inducing opposite pole in a
magnetic material on the side facing it as shown in Fig.
7.8 (A).
 \ t

, , 1 ~· 0 , ,h , nd , 11
11 t
\ ll \I l
\'\ h1h ,uh 1 HH
'ill~' \.\ ,.(,d da~~ ct
11
111 r o1l t f h, 1he m~gne
/1, 1/1 /l/ 1/i,! f/l 'f l(

NoH Hf'r r> 1t ,,, worthy t o notf that r,o 'u f;,1 ar;;ce,
1t1,lfH1Ptl< P ff (•< t ff1ay br v,)ry w,_Ma~ , ~1 b tar'
of rni1erH'tt· m

( I~ )Pl'rrna1u~nt and 1 <.•mpora~ \llaen~r, : ~\ n~t

retain s it :--. aur~h'ltng po~1er f<•t a long un e u ,~ ,ud ,
IK' ,u.. r111a nt·n1 ~ otherw1~c ten1porar~ . Pem ~lnt.;nt
n1ngnct "i :11c n1ade 0f steel. 4/nt(O Ale 11 0
I 1co11,rl, whtk tc1nporary oJ sott ,ron~ nu1n1c tal r
stal/01
( 14) Dcn1agnetisation : A 111ugnet gels dt:111sgnensed , t'
lose~ its po,1'1 er oi attraction 1f JI i~ h~att.~.
or ac ts passed thrl)Ugh a V\ ire v, ound ()\ er n.
( 15) Magnetic Keepers : A n1agne1 tcnu, to bee
weaker v,·ith age 0~ ing to self-dcn1dgnel1=>at1on oue t
1

pole~ al the ends \\ hich tend to neutrah~~ each othe

1

1-lo\V~\ er, by using piece~ of soft 1ron calle\.. keeper

the po)es at the ends are neuc ralised and co1.sequer:t
the de1nagnetising cffect disappear~ and the magn
can retain its n1agnetisn1 for a longer period.
 . :, \ L\).~ I l i'l ll l II It •., \I I I ti II f ' 1HI il 'II (' I f'
\ h,u .ll (t ' t r, {H ,

' ' I
\\ i

I I

Bar-magnet U-Shaoe magnet

(A) {8 )
Fig. 7.13

In ord~r to visualise a magnetic field graph1call1 , :Vlichael

Faraoay introduced the concept of lines of force. _t\ccord1ng to
him a line o.(force is an i,naginary cun 1e the tangent to which at
a point gives the direction o.(thefield ar that poinl.
Regarding n1agnetic lines of force it is worth noting that
( 1) Outside a magnet, lines of force are from north to
south pole while inside from south to north, i.e.,
magnetic lines o_(.force are closed curves, i.e., they
appear to converge or diverge at poles.
(2) The number of magnetic lines of force originating or
tenninating on a pole is proportional to its strength. µ 0
lines are assumed to be associated with a unit pole. So
if a body encloses a pole of strength m, total lines of
force linked with the body (called rnagnetic flux ) will
be µ0(n1).
 --------------------~ -~
GRB Ph_~ ics for ~ edi ca l f
~e Exams (2nQ~ r Pro.3rri1r,,
(_; ) .\ fo ~11 l' f1(' /1111·s of f11r l·c <'<Ill llt' 1·rr
ers ect each otheri111 lin es pa ss throu_gh t~e
h'\:~use if tht'\ -i~,tl.'rscc space inside
\ !\t a point , int ensit y at inside of the rmg 1s thu
p,, int wil\ h.w~ \ \\' O dircl' that
. s prote . 11''
lions which is absurd . ff
external magneti c e ec t. Cted ,
(-n Mag_1wtic \incs of for This pheno _a,.
ce ha ve a tendency to co magn etic sc reening or
h.,n;i\udina\\y like a stretc ntr act shielding Tnt.:r, ,.
hed elas\ic string (produc .
att~ction bt'tween opposit
e poles) and repel each oth
ing protect cost1y wrist -watche s and othand 1- •
laterally (resulting in rep er from externa I magneti.c ti
ulsion betw een similar po . 1elds by enc l er tn., '•
lF ig. 7. 14) . les ) soft-iron ca se. OS111~,
,

~ ~
~ nctd
Magnetic scr een ing u or r, .
Attraction
Repulsion (A) · ••
(A) (B
(B) Fig. 7.16
Fig . 7.14
(5) Number of lines of Note : Superconducto
force per unit area, norm rs _also provi de perf_
area at a point , represen al to the to exclusion of lines ect magne tic scr ee~ :,
ts the magnitude of field effect . of force . This effect
is call ed M
po in t So crowded lines at that
represent a strong field wh '~ll'~
distant lines represent we ile
ak field. Further, if the lin
es
Lines of Force in Some
of force are equidistant
and straight the field is un
Cases of Interest
otherwise not [Fig. 7.15 ifo rm The lines of force due
(D )l to a bar magnet (magnetic
- - - - - Non uni and horse-shoe magnet dioo .c
form f i e l d s - - are shown in Fig. 7.13
-- Uniform field respectively while the lin (A) and ~
es of force produced when
and like poles face each two un\11:
other are shown in Fig . 7.1
(B) respectively. 4l.\lit.
Magnitude is Direction is If two bar magnets are
not constant Both magnitude Both magnitude placed wi th their axes par
not constant and direction are each other, the lines of alle1·..
and direction force will be as shown
not constant in Fig .· ·
(A) are constant (A) when their opposit
(B) (C) e poles face each other
(D) 7.17 (B) when their sim and as ft'!-
Fig. 7.15 ilar poles face each other.
there is only one neutr lo case \A
(6) In a region of space al point (X) on the per
where there is no magneti bisector of the axes , eq pcndiculi
there will be no lines of c field, uidistant from the tw o ma
force . This is why, at a ne in case (B) two (X and gne tswh1.e
point (where resultant utral X) on a line equidistant
field is zero) there canno fro m th~
any line of force . t be of the magnets . J\c'

(7) Magnetic lines of

force emanate from or en
surface of a magnetic ma ter in the
terial at any angle [Fig. 7.
(8) Magnetic lines of for l 3l
ce exist inside every ma
material (Fig. 7.13). gn eti sed
(9) As monopoles do
not exist , the tot al magn
linked with a closed sw etic f lux
fac e is always zero, i.e.,

This law is ca lled Gaus

s's law for magn etism .
( \ 0) Though imaginary
, magneti c lin es of for (A) (B)
mapp ed either by using ce can be
iron filings or using a comp Fig. 1.11
need le (which is simila ass However, if we co nsider rnagn/1
r to photographing a vir the lin es of force of a bar - .
tual _,
obj_ect) . in the earth's magnetic· f -Id B (w hich is ass um e(i to b,
( 11) lf a soft iron rin g is .. ,e H
. • . t fielu
,
dir
place d in a ma gnetic field,
most of umtonn a11d .ectedd from south to north), d1fferen ,net ,
the lines are fo und to
pass throu gh the ring and patterns are. po ss1blef epe
man ding on the position of the ina~
no lf the north pole O a gnet point s south. the fields (1 t the