Computer Networking

The Computer Network

A computer network is a group of computers/devices(Nodes)
that use a set of common communication protocols over digital
interconnections for the purpose of sharing resources located on
or provided by the network nodes.
The nodes of a computer network may include personal
computers, servers, networking hardware, or other specialised or
general-purpose hosts.
The interconnections between nodes are formed from a broad
spectrum of telecommunication network technologies, based on
physically wired, optical, and wireless technologies.
A communication protocol is a set of rules for exchanging
information over a network. physically wired, optical, and
wireless
 The Network Diagram
(Click on the Words Below and Learn More About Each Component)

Wired Network PC Firewall The Internet

Fiber Optic Network Cable

Router
Switch

Server Other LANS

Wireless Network
 The Advantages/Uses of Network
Simultaneous Access
There are moments in any business when several workers
may need to use the same data at the same time.
Shared Peripheral Devices

Personal Communications
Videoconferencing
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP):-VoIP transmits the sound
of voice over a computer network using the Internet Protocol
(IP ) rather than sending the signal over traditional phone
wires
Easier Data Backup
 Uses of Network

• Business Applications:
• Resource Sharing
• VPNs (Virtual Private Networks)
• A computer network can provide a powerful communication medium
among employees.
• Virtually every company that has two or more computers now has
email (electronic mail), which employees generally use for a great
deal of daily communication.
• Telephone calls between employees may be carried by the computer
network instead of by the phone company.
• This technology is called IP telephony or Voice over IP (VoIP)
when Internet technology is used.
• Video can be added to audio so that employees at distant locations
can see and hear each other as they hold a meeting.
 Uses of Network

• Business Applications:
• Desktop sharing lets remote workers see and interact with a graphical
computer screen.
• This makes it easy for two or more people who work far apart to
read and write a shared blackboard or write a report together.
• A third goal for many companies is doing business electronically,
especially with customers and suppliers.
• This new model is called e-commerce (electronic commerce) and it
has grown rapidly in recent years.
 Uses of Network

• Home Applications:

• Mobile Users
 The Networking Devices(Nodes)
1. NIC Card
2. Repeater
3. Hub
4. Switch
5. Bridge
6. Router
7. Gateway
8. Firewall
 1. Network Interface Card
NIC is used to physically
connect host devices to the
network media.
A NIC is a printed circuit board
that fits into the expansion slot
of a bus on a computer
motherboard.
It can also be a peripheral
device. NICs are sometimes
called network adapters.
Each NIC is identified by a
unique code called a Media
Access Control (MAC) address.
This address is used to control
data communication for the host
on the network.
 2. Repeaters
A repeater is a network device used to
regenerate a signal.
Repeaters regenerate analog or digital
signals that are distorted by transmission
loss due to attenuation.
A repeater does not make an intelligent
decision concerning forwarding packets
 3. Hubs
Hubs concentrate on connections.
In other words, they take a group
of hosts and allow the network to
see them as a single unit. This is
done passively, without any other
effect on the data transmission.
Active hubs concentrate hosts and
also regenerate signals.
 4. Bridges
Bridges convert network data
formats and perform basic data
transmission management.
Bridges provide connections
between LANs.
They also check data to
determine if it should cross the
bridge. This makes each part of
the network more efficient
 5. Switches
Switches add more intelligence to data transfer management.
They can determine if data should remain on a LAN and
transfer data only to the connection that needs it.
Another difference between a bridge and switch is that a
switch does not convert data transmission formats
 6. Routers
Routers have all the capabilities listed
above.
Routers can regenerate signals,
concentrate multiple connections,
convert data transmission formats, and
manage data transfers.
They can also connect to a WAN, which
allows them to connect LANs that are
separated by great distances.
 7. Gateway
A gateway is a piece of networking
hardware used in
telecommunications for
telecommunications networks that
allows data to flow from one discrete
network to another.
Gateways are distinct from routers or
switches in that they communicate
using more than one protocol to
connect a bunch of networks
 8. Firewall
A firewall is a network device or
software for controlling network
security and access rules.
Firewalls are inserted in connections
between secure internal networks
and potentially insecure external
networks such as the Internet.
Firewalls are typically configured to
reject access requests from
unrecognized sources while allowing
actions from recognized ones.
The vital role firewalls play in network
security grows in parallel with the
constant increase in cyber attacks.
 Network Media
The function of the media is to carry a flow of information through a LAN.

A. Wired Media:- A widely adopted family that uses copper and fiber media in
local area network (LAN) technology are collectively known as Ethernet

1. Copper Cable
a. Coaxial Cables
b. Shielded Twisted Pair(STP)
c. Unshielded Twisted Pair

2. Fibre Optic Cable

B. Wireless Media:- use the atmosphere, or space, as the medium.

 1. Copper Cable
The most common, easiest, quickest,
and cheapest form of network media to
install.
The disadvantage of sending data over
copper wire is that the further the signal
travels, the weaker it becomes.
 a. Coaxial Cable
It can be run longer distances than Twisted pair Cables.

• Speed: 10-100Mbps
• Cost: Inexpensive
• Media and connector size: Medium
• Maximum cable length: 500m
b. Shielded Twisted Pair(STP)
• Speed: 0-100Mbps
• Cost: Moderate
• Media and connector size: Medium to large
• Maximum cable length: 100m
c. Unshielded Twisted Pair
UTP is a four-pair wire Speed: 10-100-1000 Mbps*
medium used in a variety of Cost: Least Expensive
networks. Media and connector size: Small
Each of the eight copper Maximum cable length: 100m * (Depending
wires in the UTP cable is on the quality/category of cable)
covered by insulating material
 UTP Implementation
EIA/TIA specifies an RJ-45 connector
for UTP cable.
The letters RJ stand for registered jack.
 Fiber Optic Cable
Glass fiber carrying light pulses, each pulse
a bit.
Based on the Total Internal Reflection of
Light.
High-speed point-to-point transmission
10-100’s Gbps
low error rate:
repeaters spaced far apart
immune to electromagnetic noise
 Communication Protocols
Internet Protocol Suite
Also called TCP/IP, is the foundation of all modern networking.
It defines the addressing, identification, and routing
specifications for IPv4 and for IPv6.
It is the defining set of protocols for the Internet.
IEEE 802
It is a family of IEEE standards dealing with local area networks
and metropolitan area networks.
They operate mostly at levels 1 and 2 of the OSI model.
Ethernet
It is a family of protocols used in wired LANs, described by a set
of standards together called IEEE 802.3
TCP/IP Protocol Suite
 Communication Protocols
Wireless LAN
It is standardized by IEEE 802.11 and shares many properties with wired
Ethernet.

SONET/SDH
Synchronous optical networking (SONET) and Synchronous Digital
Hierarchy (SDH) are standardized multiplexing protocols that transfer
multiple digital bit streams over optical Fibre using lasers.

Asynchronous Transfer Mode(ATM)

It uses asynchronous time-division multiplexing and encodes data into
small, fixed-sized cells.
Good choice for a network that handle both traditional high-throughput
data traffic, and real-time, low-latency content such as voice and video.
 Types of Networks
1. Personal Area Network (PAN)
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
3. Campus Area Network (CAN)
4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
5. Wide Area Network (WAN)
6. Storage-Area Network (SAN)
7. Virtual Private Network (VPN)
8. Client Server Network
9. Peer to Peer Network (P2P)
Classification of interconnected
processors by scale
 1. Personal Area Network
1. Personal Area Network (PAN) is a
computer network used for data
transmission amongst devices
such as computers, telephones,
tablets and personal digital
assistants.
2. Also Known as HAN (Home Area
Network)
3. PANs can be used for
communication amongst the
personal devices themselves
(interpersonal communication), or
for connecting to a higher level
network and the Internet (an uplink)
where one "master" device takes
up the role as internet router.
 2. Local Area Network
Xerox Corporation worked in
collaboration with DEC and
Intel to create Ethernet, which
is the most pervasive LAN
architecture used today.
Ethernet has evolved and has
seen significant improvements
in regard to speed and
efficiency.

An upside of a LAN is fast data transfer with data speed that can reach
up to 10Gbps.
Other significant LAN technologies are Fiber Distributed Data Interface
(FDDI) and token ring.
 3. Metropolitan Area Network

1. A MAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than or equal in size to a WAN.
2. The size range anywhere from 5 to 50km in diameter.
3. MANs are typically owned and managed by a single entity.
4. This could be an ISP or telecommunications company that sells its services
to end-users in that metropolitan area.
5. For all intents and purposes, a MAN has the same characteristics as a WAN
with distance constraints.
 4. Wide Area Network

• A Wide Area Network exist over a large area

• Data travels through telephone or cable lines
• Usually requires a Modem
• The world’s largest Wide Area Network in the Internet
 5. Virtual Private Network
VPN is a private network that can
access public networks remotely. VPN
uses encryption and security protocols
to retain privacy while it accesses
outside resources.
When employed on a network, VPN
enables an end user to create a virtual
tunnel to a remote location. Typically,
telecommuters use VPN to log in to
their company networks from home.

Authentication is provided to validate the identities of the two peers.

Confidentiality provides encryption of the data to keep it private from
prying eyes.
Integrity is used to ensure that the data sent between the two devices or
sites has not been tampered with.
 6. Client/Server Network
In a client/server arrangement,
network services are located on a
dedicated computer called a server.
The server responds to the requests
of clients.
The server is a central computer that
is continuously available to respond
to requests from clients for file, print,
application, and other services.
Most network operating systems adopt the form of a client/server
relationship.
Typically, desktop computers function as clients, and one or more
computers with additional processing power, memory, and specialized
software function as servers.
 7. Peer to Peer Network

Usually very small networks

Each workstation has equivalent capabilities and responsibilities
Does not require a switch or a hub.
These types of networks do not perform well under heavy data
loads.
 Network Topologies
Network topology defines the structure of the network.
A. Physical topology:- It define the actual layout of the wire or media.
1. Bus
2. Ring
3. Star
4. Tree(Hierarchical)
5. Mesh
B. Logical topology:- It defines how the hosts access the media to send data.
1. Broadcast
2. Token passing
D. Hybrid Topology
 1. Bus Topology
All devices are connected to a central
cable, called bus or backbone. T T
There are terminators at each end of
the bus that stops the signal and
keeps it from traveling backwards.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
1. There is no central controller. 1. It is possible that more than one station may
2. Control resides in each station attempt transmission simultaneously (collision or
contention).
3. The less interconnecting wire is
2. Difficult reconfiguration and fault isolation.
required.
3. A fault or break in the bus cable stops all
4. Ease of installation.
transmission, even between devices on the same
5. Backbone cable can be laid along the side of the problem.
most efficient path, and then
4. The damaged area reflects signals in the direction
connected to the nodes by drop lines
of various lengths of origin, creating noise in both directions
 2. Ring Topology
• All devices are connected to one another in the shape of
a closed loop.
• Each device is connected directly to two other devices,
one on either side of it.
Advantages:
1. Avoids the collisions that are possible in the bus topology.
2. Each pair of stations has a point-to-point connection.
3. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to
another, until it reaches its destination.
4. Each device incorporates a repeater.
5. Relatively easy to install and reconfigure.
6. Fault isolation is simplified.

Disadvantages:
1. A break in the ring (such as station disabled) can disable the entire
network.
2. Unidirectional traffic.
 3. Star Topology
• All devices are connected to a central hub.
• Nodes communicate across the network by passing data
through the hub or switch.
Advantages:
1. Easy to install and reconfigure.
2. Robustness, if one link fails; only that link is affected. All other
links remain active.
3. Easy fault identification and isolation. As long as the hub is
working, it can be used to monitor link problems and bypass
defective links.
Disadvantages:
1. The devices are not linked to each other.
2. If one device wants to send data to another, it sends it to the
controller, which then relays the data to the other connected device.
 4. Tree/Hierarchical Topology
Advantages:
1. It allows more devices to be attached to a
single central hub and can therefore increase
the distance a signal can travel between
devices.
2. It allows the network to isolate and prioritize
communications from different computers.

Disadvantages:
1. The devices are not linked to each other.
2. If one device wants to send data to another,
it sends it to the controller, which then relays
the data to the other connected device.
3. The addition of secondary hubs brings two
further advantages.
 6. Mesh Topology
Each host has its connections to all other hosts.
Mesh topology is implemented to provide as much
protection as possible from interruption of service.
1. A nuclear power plant might use a mesh
topology in the networked control systems.
2. Although the Internet has multiple paths to any
one location, it does not adopt the full mesh
topology.
Advantages: Disadvantages:
1. The use of dedicated links guarantees that each 1. A large amount of cabling required.
connection can carry its data load, thus eliminating 2. A large amount of I/O ports required.
the traffic problems that can occur when links must 3. Installation and reconfiguration are
be shared by multiple devices. difficult.
2. It is robust, if one link becomes unusable, it does 4. The sheer bulk of the wiring can be
not incapacitate (affect) the entire system. greater than the available space (in the
3. Privacy and Security (every message sent travels walls, ceiling, or floors) can accommodate.
along a dedicated line; only the intended recipient 5. The hardware required to connect each
sees it). link (I/O ports and cables) can be
4. Point-to-point links make fault identification and prohibitively expensive.
fault isolation easy.
 Wireless Networks
Wireless network is a type of
computer network that uses
wireless data connections for
connecting network nodes.
Example
Bluetooth
Wi-Fi
 Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a short-range
wireless technology standard
used for exchanging data
between fixed and mobile
devices over short distances.
It is using UHF radio waves in
the ISM bands, from 2.402
GHz to 2.48 GHz.
The IEEE standardized
Bluetooth as IEEE 802.15.1,
but no longer maintains the
standard.
 Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi Stands for Wireless Fidelity.
Wi-Fi, is a Local Area Wireless
technology.
Wi-Fi networks use radio technologies to
transmit and receive data at high speed.
It is based on the IEEE 802.11 family of
standards.
Access point: The access point is a wireless
LAN transceiver or “ base station” that can
connect one or many wireless devices
simultaneously to the internet
 The Internet
The simplest How Information Travel Through the Internet
definition of A page on the Internet—whether it's full of words, images or
the Internet both—doesn't come to you in one shipment. It's translated
into digital information, chopped into 1500 byte pieces called
is that it's a PACKETS, and sent to you like a puzzle that needs to be
network of reassembled. Each part of the packet has a specific
function:
computer Sequence ID
ID’s where the information
networks Header
Provides the
belongs in relation to the rest of
the information
complete
destination
address for the End of Message
packet ID’s the end of the
packet

Data Block
The portion of the overall information
carried by the packet
 The Internet
How Information Travel Through the Internet
When you connect to a Web site through an ISP and start exchanging information,
there isn't a fixed connection between your computer and the Web server computer
hosting the Web site. Instead, information is exchanged using the best possible path
at that particular time. Special computers called routers determine these paths,
avoiding slow links and favoring fast ones.

Your Web
Computer ISP Servers
Routers
 Cloud Computing
Cloud computing is Internet-based
computing, whereby shared resources,
software, and information are provided to
computers and other devices on demand, like
the electricity grid.
A Cloud is a type of parallel and distributed
system consisting of a collection of
interconnected and virtualized computers
that are dynamically provisioned and
presented as one or more unified computing
resources based on service-level agreements
established through negotiation between the
service provider and consumers.
Properties & Characteristics
 IaaS
Infrastructure as a Service – IaaS
The capability provided to the consumer is to provision processing,
storage, networks, and other fundamental computing resources
where the consumer is able to deploy and run arbitrary software,
which can include operating systems and applications.
The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud
infrastructure but has control over operating systems, storage,
deployed applications, and possibly limited control of select
networking components .
Examples :
Amazon EC2
Eucalyputs
OpenNebula
… etc
 PaaS
Platform as a Service – PaaS
The capability provided to the consumer is to deploy onto the cloud
infrastructure consumer-created or acquired applications created
using programming languages and tools supported by the provider.
The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud
infrastructure including network, servers, operating systems, or
storage, but has control over the deployed applications and possibly
application hosting environment configurations.
Examples :
Microsoft Windows Azure
Google App Engine
Hadoop(High Availability Distributed Object Oriented Platform)
… etc
 SaaS
Software as a Service – SaaS
The capability provided to the consumer is to use the provider’s
applications running on a cloud infrastructure. The applications are
accessible from various client devices through a thin client interface
such as a web browser (e.g., web-based email).
The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud
infrastructure including network, servers, operating systems, storage,
or even individual application capabilities, with the possible exception
of limited user-specific application configuration settings.
Examples :
Google Apps (e.g., Gmail, Google Docs, Google sites, …etc)
 Cloud-Deployment Model
There are four primary cloud deployment models :
1. Public Cloud
2. Private Cloud
3. Community Cloud
4. Hybrid Cloud
Public Cloud
Homogeneous Private Cloud
Infrastructure Homogeneous Heterogeneous
Policy Model Common defined Customized & Tailored
Resource
Shared & Multi-tenant Dedicated
Model
Cost Model Operational expenditure Capital expenditure
Economy
Large economy of scale End-to-end control
Model
 NETWORK SOFTWARE
• The first computer networks were designed with the hardware as the main
concern and the software as an afterthought.
• This strategy no longer works.
• Network software is now highly structured.
Homogeneous
 NETWORK SOFTWARE
PROTOCOL HIERARCHIES:

• To reduce their design complexity, most networks are organized as a stack

of layers or levels, each one built upon the one below it.
• The number of layers, the name of each layer, the contents of each layer,
and the function of each layer differ from network to network.
Homogeneous
• The purpose of each layer is to offer certain services to the higher layers
while shielding those layers from the details of how the offered services are
actually implemented.
• In a sense, each layer is a kind of virtual machine, offering certain services
to the layer above it.
 NETWORK SOFTWARE
PROTOCOL HIERARCHIES:

• When layer n on one machine carries on a conversation with layer n on

another machine, the rules and conventions used in this conversation are
collectively known as the layer n protocol.
• Basically, a protocol is an agreement between the communicating parties
on how communication is to Homogeneous
proceed.
 NETWORK SOFTWARE
PROTOCOL HIERARCHIES:

• A five-layer network is illustrated in

Figure.
• The entities comprising the
corresponding layers on different
machines are called peers. Homogeneous
• The peers may be software processes,
hardware devices, or even human
beings. In other words, it is the peers
that communicate by using the protocol
to talk to each other.
 NETWORK SOFTWARE
PROTOCOL HIERARCHIES:
• In reality, no data are directly transferred
from layer n on one machine to layer n
on another machine.
• Instead, each layer passes data and
control information to Homogeneous
the layer
immediately below it, until the lowest
layer is reached.
• Below layer 1 is the physical medium
through which actual communication
occurs.
• In Figure, virtual communication is
shown by dotted lines and physical
communication by solid lines.
 NETWORK SOFTWARE
PROTOCOL HIERARCHIES:
• Between each pair of adjacent layers is
an interface.
• The interface defines which primitive
operations and services the lower layer
makes available to the upper Homogeneous
one.
• When network designers decide how
many layers to include in a network and
what each one should do, one of the
most important considerations is
defining clean interfaces between the
layers.
 NETWORK SOFTWARE
PROTOCOL HIERARCHIES:
• A set of layers and protocols is called a network architecture.
• The specification of an architecture must contain enough information to allow
an implementer to write the program or build the hardware for each layer so
that it will correctly obey the appropriate protocol.
Homogeneous
• Neither the details of the implementation nor the specification of the
interfaces is part of the architecture because these are hidden away inside
the machines and not visible from the outside.
• It is not even necessary that the interfaces on all machines in a network be
the same, provided that each machine can correctly use all the protocols.
• A list of the protocols used by a certain system, one protocol per layer, is
called a protocol stack.
 NETWORK SOFTWARE
DESIGN ISSUES FOR LAYERS:
• Reliability is the design issue of making a network that operates correctly
even though it is made up of a collection of components that are themselves
unreliable.
• Think about the bits of a packet traveling through the network.
Homogeneous
• There is a chance that some of these bits will be received damaged
(inverted) due to fluke electrical noise, random wireless signals,
hardware flaws, software bugs and so on.
• How is it possible that we find and fix these errors?
 NETWORK SOFTWARE
DESIGN ISSUES FOR LAYERS:
• One mechanism for finding errors in received information uses codes for
error detection.
• Information that is incorrectly received can then be retransmitted until it is
received correctly.
Homogeneous
• More powerful codes allow for error correction, where the correct message is
recovered from the possibly incorrect bits that were originally received.
• Both of these mechanisms work by adding redundant information.
• They are used at low layers, to protect packets sent over individual links,
and high layers, to check that the right contents were received.
 NETWORK SOFTWARE
DESIGN ISSUES FOR LAYERS:
• Another reliability issue is finding a working path through a network.
• Often there are multiple paths between a source and destination, and in a
large network, there may be some links or routers that are broken.
• Suppose that the networkHomogeneous
is down in Germany.
• Packets sent from London to Rome via Germany will not get through,
but we could instead send packets from London to Rome via Paris.
• The network should automatically make this decision.
• This topic is called routing.
 NETWORK SOFTWARE
DESIGN ISSUES FOR LAYERS:
• Since there are many computers on the network, every layer needs a
mechanism for identifying the senders and receivers that are involved in a
particular message.
• This mechanism is called addressing or naming, in the low and high layers,
respectively. Homogeneous
 NETWORK SOFTWARE
DESIGN ISSUES FOR LAYERS:
• An allocation problem that occurs at every level is how to keep a fast sender
from swamping a slow receiver with data.
• Feedback from the receiver to the sender is often used.
• This subject is called flow control.
Homogeneous
• Sometimes the problem is that the network is oversubscribed because too
many computers want to send too much traffic, and the network cannot
deliver it all.
• This overloading of the network is called congestion.
 NETWORK SOFTWARE
DESIGN ISSUES FOR LAYERS:
• It is interesting to observe that the network has more resources to offer than
simply bandwidth.
• For uses such as carrying live video, the timeliness of delivery matters a
great deal.
Homogeneous
• Most networks must provide service to applications that want this real-time
delivery at the same time that they provide service to applications that want
high throughput.
• Quality of service is the name given to mechanisms that reconcile these
competing demands.
 NETWORK SOFTWARE
DESIGN ISSUES FOR LAYERS:
• The last major design issue is to secure the network by defending it against
different kinds of threats.
• One of the threats we have mentioned previously is that of eavesdropping
on communications.
Homogeneous
• Mechanisms that provide confidentiality defend against this threat, and they
are used in multiple layers.
• Mechanisms for authentication prevent someone from impersonating
someone else.
• They might be used to tell fake banking Web sites from the real one, or to let
the cellular network check that a call is really coming from your phone so
that you will pay the bill.
• Other mechanisms for integrity prevent surreptitious changes to messages.
 NETWORK SOFTWARE
CONNECTION ORIENTED Vs CONNECTIONLESS SERVICE:
• Layers can offer two different types of service to the layers above them:
connection-oriented and connectionless.

• Connection-oriented service is modeled after the telephone system.

• To talk to someone, you pick up the phone, dial the number, talk, and
Homogeneous
then hang up.
• Similarly, to use a connection-oriented network service, the service user
first establishes a connection, uses the connection, and then releases the
connection.
• The essential aspect of a connection is that it acts like a tube: the sender
pushes objects (bits) in at one end, and the receiver takes them out at the
other end.
• In most cases the order is preserved so that the bits arrive in the order they
were sent.
 NETWORK SOFTWARE
CONNECTION ORIENTED Vs CONNECTIONLESS SERVICE:
• In contrast to connection-oriented service, connectionless service is
modeled after the postal system.
• Each message (letter) carries the full destination address and each one is
routed through the intermediate nodes inside the system independent of all
the subsequent messages. Homogeneous
• There are different names for messages in different contexts; a packet is a
message at the network layer.
• When the intermediate nodes receive a message in full before sending it on
to the next node, this is called store-and-forward switching.
• The alternative, in which the onward transmission of a message at a node
starts before it is completely received by the node, is called cut-through
switching.
 NETWORK SOFTWARE
CONNECTION ORIENTED Vs CONNECTIONLESS SERVICE:
• Each kind of service can further be characterized by its reliability.
• Some services are reliable in the sense that they never lose data.
• Usually, a reliable service is implemented by having the receiver
acknowledge the receipt of Homogeneous
each message so the sender is sure that it
arrived.
• The acknowledgement process introduces overhead and delays, which are
often worth it but are sometimes undesirable.
• A typical situation in which a reliable connection-oriented service is
appropriate is file transfer.
• Reliable connection-oriented service has two minor variations: message
sequences and byte streams.
 NETWORK SOFTWARE
CONNECTION ORIENTED Vs CONNECTIONLESS SERVICE:
• Not all applications require connections.
• For example, spammers send electronic junk-mail to many recipients.

• Unreliable (meaning not acknowledged) connectionless service is often

called datagram service, in analogy with telegram service, which also does
not return an acknowledgementHomogeneous
to the sender.
• In other situations, the convenience of not having to establish a connection
to send one message is desired, but reliability is essential.
• The acknowledged datagram service can be provided for these
applications.
• It is like sending a registered letter and requesting a return receipt.
• When the receipt comes back, the sender is absolutely sure that the letter was
delivered to the intended party and not lost along the way.
• Text messaging on mobile phones is an example.
 NETWORK SOFTWARE
CONNECTION ORIENTED Vs CONNECTIONLESS SERVICE:
• Still another service is the request-reply service.
• In this service the sender transmits a single datagram containing a request; the reply
contains the answer.
• Request-reply is commonly used to implement communication in the client-server
model: the client issues a requestHomogeneous
and the server responds to it.
 REFERENCE MODELS
THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL:
• This model is based on a proposal developed by the International
Standards Organization (ISO) as a first step toward international
standardization of the protocols used in the various layers (Day and
Zimmermann, 1983). Homogeneous
• It was revised in 1995 (Day,1995).
• The model is called the ISO OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)
Reference Model because it deals with connecting open systems—that is,
systems that are open for communication with other systems.
• We will just call it the OSI model for short.
 REFERENCE MODELS
THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL:
• The OSI model has seven layers.
• The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven layers can be briefly
summarized as follows:
1. A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.
Homogeneous
2. Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
3. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining internationally
standardized protocols.
4. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the
interfaces.
5. The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be thrown
together in the same layer out of necessity and small enough that the architecture does not
become unwieldy.
 REFERENCE MODELS
THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL:

Homogeneous
 REFERENCE MODELS
THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL:
The Physical Layer
• The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits
over a communication channel.
• The design issues have to do with making sure that when one
side sends a 1 bit it is received by the other side as a 1 bit,
not as a 0 bit. Homogeneous
• Typical questions here are what electrical signals should be used to represent a 1
and a 0,
• how many nanoseconds a bit lasts, whether transmission may proceed
simultaneously in both directions,
• how the initial connection is established,
• how it is torn down when both sides are finished,
• how many pins the network connector has,
• and what each pin is used for.
• These design issues largely deal with mechanical, electrical, and timing interfaces, as
well as the physical transmission medium, which lies below the physical layer.
 REFERENCE MODELS
THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL:
The Physical Layer
Functions of the Physical Layer
•Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by providing a
clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at the bit level.
Homogeneous
•Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent
per second.
•Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes are arranged in a
network i.e. bus, star, or mesh topology.
•Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between the two connected
devices. The various transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
 REFERENCE MODELS
THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL:
The Data Link Layer

• The main task of the data link layer is to transform a raw transmission facility into a line that
appears free of undetected transmission errors.

• It does so by masking the real errors so the network layer does not see them.

• Homogeneous
It accomplishes this task by having the sender break up the input data into data frames (typically
a few hundred or a few thousand bytes) and transmit the frames sequentially.

• If the service is reliable, the receiver confirms correct receipt of each frame by sending back an
acknowledgement frame.

• Another issue that arises in the data link layer (and most of the higher layers as well) is how to
keep a fast transmitter from drowning a slow receiver in data.

• Some traffic regulation mechanism may be needed to let the transmitter know when the receiver
can accept more data.
 REFERENCE MODELS
THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL:
The Data Link Layer

• Broadcast networks have an additional issue in the data link layer: how to control access to the
shared channel.

• A special sublayer of the data link layer, the medium access control sublayer, deals with this
problem.
Homogeneous
• The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:

• Logical Link Control (LLC)

• Media Access Control (MAC)

• The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the frame
size of the NIC(Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC
address in the header.

• The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution

Protocol) request onto the wire asking “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will
reply with its MAC address.
 REFERENCE MODELS
THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL:
The Data Link Layer

Functions of the Data Link Layer

•Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to transmit a set of bits
that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning
and end of the frame.
Homogeneous
•Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical addresses (MAC addresses) of
the sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.

•Error control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects and retransmits
damaged or lost frames.

•Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted thus, flow control
coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before receiving an acknowledgment.

•Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of
the data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the channel at a given time.
 REFERENCE MODELS
THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL:
The Network Layer

• The network layer controls the operation of the subnet.

• A key design issue is determining how packets are routed from source to destination.

• Routes can be based on static tables that are ‘‘wired into’’ the network and rarely changed, or
Homogeneous
more often they can be updated automatically to avoid failed components.

• They can also be determined at the start of each conversation,

• for example, a terminal session, such as a login to a remote machine.

• Finally, they can be highly dynamic, being determined a new for each packet to reflect the current
network load.

• If too many packets are present in the subnet at the same time, they will get in one another’s way,
forming bottlenecks.
 REFERENCE MODELS
THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL:
The Network Layer

• Handling congestion is also a responsibility of the network layer, in conjunction with higher layers
that adapt the load they place on the network.

• More generally, the quality of service provided (delay, transit time, jitter, etc.) is also a network
layer issue.
Homogeneous
• When a packet has to travel from one network to another to get to its destination, many problems
can arise.

• The addressing used by the second network may be different from that used by the first one.

• The second one may not accept the packet at all because it is too large.

• It is up to the network layer to overcome all these problems to allow heterogeneous networks to be
interconnected.

• In broadcast networks, the routing problem is simple, so the network layer is often thin or even
nonexistent
 REFERENCE MODELS
THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL:
The Network Layer
Functions of the Network Layer

•Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to destination. This
function of the network layer is known as routing.

•Logical Addressing: To identify each deviceHomogeneous

on Internetwork uniquely, the network layer defines an addressing
scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer. Such an address
distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.
 REFERENCE MODELS
THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL:
The Transport Layer

• The basic function of the transport layer is to accept data from above it, split it up into smaller units
if need be, pass these to the network layer, and ensure that the pieces all arrive correctly at the
other end.

• Furthermore, all this must be done efficiently and in a way that isolates the upper layers from the
Homogeneous
inevitable changes in the hardware technology over the course of time.

• The transport layer also determines what type of service to provide to the session layer, and,
ultimately, to the users of the network.

• The most popular type of transport connection is an error-free point-to-point channel that delivers
messages or bytes in the order in which they were sent.

• However, other possible kinds of transport service exist, such as the transporting of isolated
messages with no guarantee about the order of delivery, and the broadcasting of messages to
multiple destinations.

• The type of service is determined when the connection is established.

 REFERENCE MODELS
THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL:
The Transport Layer

• The transport layer is a true end-to-end layer; it carries data all the way from the source to the
destination.

• In other words, a program on the source machine carries on a conversation with a similar program
on the destination machine, using the message headers and control messages.
Homogeneous
• In the lower layers, each protocols is between a machine and its immediate neighbors, and not
between the ultimate source and destination machines, which may be separated by many routers.
 REFERENCE MODELS
THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL:
The Transport Layer

Functions of the Transport Layer

•Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer, and breaks the
Homogeneous
message into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a header associated with it. The transport layer at
the destination station reassembles the message.

•Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the transport layer header includes a
type of address called service point address or port address. Thus by specifying this address, the transport layer
makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process.
 REFERENCE MODELS
THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL:
The Session Layer

• The session layer allows users on different machines to establish sessions between them.

• Sessions offer various services, including dialog control (keeping track of whose turn it is to
transmit), token management (preventing two parties from attempting the same critical operation
simultaneously), and synchronization (checkpointing long transmissions to allow them to pick up
Homogeneous
from where they left off in the event of a crash and subsequent recovery).
 REFERENCE MODELS
THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL:
The Session Layer

Functions of the Session Layer

•Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer allows the two processes to establish, use
and terminate a connection.

•Synchronization: This layer allows a process Homogeneous

to add checkpoints that are considered synchronization points in
the data. These synchronization points help to identify the error so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and
ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.

•Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each other in half-duplex
or full-duplex.
 REFERENCE MODELS
THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL:
The Presentation Layer

• Unlike the lower layers, which are mostly concerned with moving bits around, the presentation
layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information transmitted.

• In order to make it possible for computers with different internal data representations to
communicate, the data structures to be exchanged can be defined in an abstract way, along with
Homogeneous
a standard encoding to be used ‘‘on the wire.’’

• The presentation layer manages these abstract data structures and allows higher-level data
structures (e.g., banking records) to be defined and exchanged.
 REFERENCE MODELS
THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL:
The Presentation Layer

Functions of the Presentation Layer

•Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

•Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code. The encrypted data is
Homogeneous
known as the ciphertext and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting as well
as decrypting data.

•Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.
 REFERENCE MODELS
THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL:
The Application Layer

• The application layer contains a variety of protocols that are commonly needed by users.

• One widely used application protocol is HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol), which is the basis for
the World Wide Web.

• When a browser wants a Web page, Homogeneous

it sends the name of the page it wants to the server hosting
the page using HTTP.

• The server then sends the page back.

• Other application protocols are used for file transfer, electronic mail, and network news.
 REFERENCE MODELS
THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL:
The Application Layer

Functions of the Application Layer

The main functions of application layer are given below.

•Network Virtual Terminal: It allows a user to log on to a remote host.

Homogeneous
•FTAM- File transfer access and management : This application allows a user to access file in a remote host,
retrieve files in remote host and manage or control files from a remote computer.

•Mail Services : Provide email service.

•Directory Services : This application provides distributed database sources and access for global information
about various objects and services.
 REFERENCE MODELS
THE TCP/IP MODEL:

• The OSI Model we just looked at is just a reference/logical model.

• It was designed to describe the functions of the communication system by dividing the
communication procedure into smaller and simpler components.

• TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department of Defense (DoD) in the 1960s and is
Homogeneous
based on standard protocols.

• It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.

• The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI model.

• It contains four layers, unlike the seven layers in the OSI model.
 REFERENCE MODELS
THE TCP/IP MODEL:

What Does TCP/IP Do?

• The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a computer from one device to another.

• The main condition of this process is to make data reliable and accurate so that the receiver will
receive the same information which isHomogeneous
sent by the sender.

• To ensure that, each message reaches its final destination accurately, the TCP/IP model divides
its data into packets and combines them at the other end, which helps in maintaining the
accuracy of the data while transferring from one end to another end.
 REFERENCE MODELS
THE TCP/IP MODEL:

What is the Difference between TCP and IP?

• TCP and IP are different protocols of Computer Networks.

• The basic difference between TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and IP (Internet Protocol) is
in the transmission of data. Homogeneous
• In simple words, IP finds the destination of the mail and TCP has the work to send and receive
the mail.

• UDP is another protocol, which does not require IP to communicate with another computer.

• IP is required by only TCP.

• This is the basic difference between TCP and IP.

 REFERENCE MODELS
THE TCP/IP MODEL:

How Does the TCP/IP Model Work?

• Whenever we want to send something over the internet using the TCP/IP Model, the TCP/IP
Model divides the data into packets at the sender’s end and the same packets have to be
recombined at the receiver’s end to form the same data, and this thing happens to maintain the
accuracy of the data. Homogeneous
• TCP/IP model divides the data into a 4-layer procedure, where the data first go into this layer in
one order and again in reverse order to get organized in the same way at the receiver’s end.
 REFERENCE MODELS
THE TCP/IP MODEL:

Layers of TCP/IP Model

1.Application Layer

2.Transport Layer(TCP/UDP)

3.Network/Internet Layer(IP) Homogeneous

4.Physical Layer/ Network Access Layer
 REFERENCE MODELS
THE TCP/IP MODEL:

1. Physical Layer

• It is a group of applications requiring network communications.

• Homogeneous
This layer is responsible for generating the data and requesting connections.

• It acts on behalf of the sender and the Network Access layer on the behalf of the receiver.
 REFERENCE MODELS
THE TCP/IP MODEL:
2. Internet Layer

• This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer.

• It defines the protocols which are responsible for the logical transmission of data over the entire
network.

• Homogeneous
The main protocols residing at this layer are as follows:
•IP: IP stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the source
host to the destination host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers.
•IP has 2 versions: IPv4 and IPv6.
•IPv4 is the one that most websites are using currently.
•But IPv6 is growing as the number of IPv4 addresses is limited in number when
compared to the number of users.
•ICMP: ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.
•It is encapsulated within IP datagrams and is responsible for providing hosts with
information about network problems.
 REFERENCE MODELS
THE TCP/IP MODEL:
2. Internet Layer
•ARP: ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.
•Its job is to find the hardware address of a host from a known IP address.
•ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP, and Inverse ARP.
• The Internet Layer is a layer in the Internet Protocol (IP) suite, which is the set of protocols that
define the Internet. Homogeneous
• The Internet Layer is responsible for routing packets of data from one device to another across a
network.

• It does this by assigning each device a unique IP address, which is used to identify the device
and determine the route that packets should take to reach it.
 REFERENCE MODELS
THE TCP/IP MODEL:
3. Transport Layer

• The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt acknowledgments and retransmit
missing packets to ensure that packets arrive in order and without error.

• End-to-end communication is referred to as such.

• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)Homogeneous

and User Datagram Protocol are transport layer protocols
at this level (UDP).
•TCP: Applications can interact with one another using TCP as though they were physically
connected by a circuit.
•TCP transmits data in a way that resembles character-by-character transmission rather than
separate packets.
• A starting point that establishes the connection, the whole transmission in byte order, and an
ending point that closes the connection make up this transmission.
 REFERENCE MODELS
THE TCP/IP MODEL:
3. Transport Layer

•UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP, the other transport layer protocol.
•Connections between receiving and sending hosts are not verified by UDP.
•Applications that transport little amounts of data use UDP rather than TCP because it
Homogeneous
eliminates the processes of establishing and validating connections.
 REFERENCE MODELS
THE TCP/IP MODEL:
4. Application Layer

• It is responsible for end-to-end communication and error-free delivery of data.

• It shields the upper-layer applications from the complexities of data.

• The three main protocols present in this layer are:

Homogeneous
•HTTP and HTTPS:
•HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol.
•It is used by the World Wide Web to manage communications between web
browsers and servers.
•HTTPS stands for HTTP-Secure.
• It is a combination of HTTP with SSL(Secure Socket Layer).
• It is efficient in cases where the browser needs to fill out forms, sign in,
authenticate, and carry out bank transactions.
 REFERENCE MODELS
THE TCP/IP MODEL:
4. Application Layer

•SSH: SSH stands for Secure Shell.

•It is a terminal emulations software similar to Telnet.

•The reason SSH is preferred is because of its ability to maintain the encrypted
connection. Homogeneous
•It sets up a secure session over a TCP/IP connection.

•NTP: NTP stands for Network Time Protocol.

•It is used to synchronize the clocks on our computer to one standard time source.

•It is very useful in situations like bank transactions.

•Assume the following situation without the presence of NTP. Suppose you carry out a
transaction, where your computer reads the time at 2:30 PM while the server records it at
2:28 PM. The server can crash very badly if it’s out of sync.
 REFERENCE MODELS
THE TCP/IP MODEL:

Homogeneous
 REFERENCE MODELS
THE TCP/IP MODEL:
Difference between TCP/IP and OSI Model

Homogeneous
 DIGITAL MODULATION &
MULTIPLEXING
• Wires and wire less channels carry analog signals such as continuously varying
voltage, light intensity, or sound intensity. To send digital information, we must devise
analog signals to represent bits.

• The process of converting between bits and signals that represent them is called
digital modulation.

• Channels are often shared by multiple signals. After all, it is much more convenient to
use a single wire to carry several signals than to install a wire for every signal.

• This kind of sharing is called multiplexing. It can be accomplished in several different

ways.
 FREQUENCY DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING
• In telecommunications, frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is a technique by
which the total bandwidth available in a communication medium is divided into a
series of non-overlapping frequency bands, each of which is used to carry a separate
signal.

• This allows a single transmission medium such as a microwave radio link, cable or
optical fiber to be shared by multiple independent signals.

• Another use is to carry separate serial bits or segments of a higher rate signal in
parallel.
 FREQUENCY DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING
• The most common example of frequency-division multiplexing is radio and television
broadcasting, in which multiple radio signals at different frequencies pass through the
air at the same time.

• Another example is cable television, in which many television channels are carried
simultaneously on a single cable.

• FDM is also used by telephone systems to transmit multiple telephone calls through
high capacity trunklines, communications satellites to transmit multiple channels of
data on uplink and downlink radio beams, and broadband DSL modems to transmit
large amounts of computer data through twisted pair telephone lines, among many
other uses.
 FREQUENCY DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING
• Here's how Frequency Division Multiplexing works:

1. Frequency Bands Allocation: The total available bandwidth is divided into

multiple non-overlapping frequency bands. Each band is assigned to a specific
communication channel.

2. Signal Input: The signals from different sources, which may be voice, data, or
other types of information, are modulated onto carrier waves at different
frequencies. Each signal is assigned to a specific frequency band within the
overall bandwidth.

3. Combining Signals: The modulated signals are then combined or multiplexed

into a composite signal. This composite signal contains all the individual signals,
each occupying a distinct frequency band.
 FREQUENCY DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING
4. Transmission: The composite signal is transmitted over the communication
medium, such as a cable or through the air.

5. Demultiplexing: At the receiving end, the composite signal is demultiplexed to

separate the individual signals. Each signal is then demodulated to retrieve the
original information.
 FREQUENCY DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING
• FDM is commonly used in various communication systems, including:-

• Analog Transmission: FDM is often used in analog communication systems for

broadcasting multiple audio or video channels simultaneously, such as in traditional
radio and television broadcasting.

• Digital Transmission: In digital communication systems, FDM is used to transmit

multiple digital data streams over a shared medium. Each digital signal is assigned a
specific frequency band.

• Telephony: FDM is also employed in telephone systems to transmit multiple

conversations over a single telephone line.
 FREQUENCY DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING
• It's important to note that FDM requires careful coordination and precise tuning of
frequencies to avoid interference between channels.

• Advanced modulation and filtering techniques are employed to ensure that each
channel remains distinct and can be separated at the receiving end.
 FREQUENCY DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING
Principle:
• The multiple separate information (modulation) signals that are sent over an FDM
system, such as the video signals of the television channels that are sent over a
cable TV system, are called baseband signals.

• At the source end, for each frequency channel, an electronic oscillator generates a
carrier signal, a steady oscillating waveform at a single frequency that serves to
"carry" information.

• The carrier is much higher in frequency than the baseband signal.

• The carrier signal and the baseband signal are combined in a modulator circuit.
 FREQUENCY DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING
Principle:
• The modulator alters some aspect of the carrier signal, such as its amplitude,
frequency, or phase, with the baseband signal, "piggybacking" the data onto the
carrier.

• Similarly, additional baseband signals are used to modulate carriers at other

frequencies, creating other channels of information.

• The carriers are spaced far enough apart in frequency that the band of frequencies
occupied by each channel, the passbands of the separate channels, do not overlap.

• All the channels are sent through the transmission medium, such as a coaxial cable,
optical fiber, or through the air using a radio transmitter
 FREQUENCY DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING
Principle:
• As long as the channel frequencies are spaced far enough apart that none of the
passbands overlap, the separate channels will not interfere with each other.

• Thus the available bandwidth is divided into "slots" or channels, each of which can
carry a separate modulated signal.
 FREQUENCY DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING
Principle:
• For example, the coaxial cable used by cable television systems has a bandwidth of
about 1000 MHz, but the passband of each television channel is only 6 MHz wide, so
there is room for many channels on the cable (in modern digital cable systems each
channel in turn is subdivided into subchannels and can carry up to 10 digital
television channels).
• At the destination end of the cable or fiber, or the radio receiver, for each channel a
local oscillator produces a signal at the carrier frequency of that channel, that is
mixed with the incoming modulated signal. The frequencies subtract, producing the
baseband signal for that channel again.
• This is called demodulation.
 FREQUENCY DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING
Principle:
• The resulting baseband signal is filtered out of the other frequencies and output to the
user.
 TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
• An alternative to FDM is TDM (Time Division Multiplexing).

• Here, the users take turns (in a round-robin fashion), each one periodically getting the
entire bandwidth for a little burst of time.

• An example of three streams being multiplexed with TDM is shown in Fig..

• Bits from each input stream are taken in a fixed time slot and output to the aggregate
stream.

• This stream runs at the sum rate of the individual streams.

• For this to work, the streams must be synchronized in time.

• Small intervals of guard time analogous to a frequency guard band may be added to
accommodate small timing variations.
TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
 TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
There are two main types of Time Division Multiplexing:

1.Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing (STDM): In STDM, time slots are assigned
to users in a fixed, pre-determined manner. Each user is allocated a specific time slot,
and the system follows a strict schedule. This ensures that the receiving end knows
when to expect data from a particular source.

2.Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing (ATDM): In ATDM, time slots are not
pre-allocated, and users transmit data whenever they have it. This is more flexible than
synchronous TDM but requires additional signaling to inform the receiving end about the
timing of each transmission.
 TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
• TDM is widely used in various communication systems, including traditional
telephony, digital communication, and data networking.
• It enables the efficient use of the available bandwidth by allowing multiple users to
share the same channel without interfering with each other's data.