Korean

Korean: A Comprehensive Grammar is a reference to Korean

grammar, and presents a thorough overview of the language,
concentrating on the real patterns of use in modern Korean.
The book moves from the alphabet and pronunciation through
morphology and word classes to a detailed analysis of sentence
structures and semantic features such as aspect, tense, speech
styles and negation.
Updated and revised, this new edition includes lively descriptions
of Korean grammar, taking into account the latest research in
Korean linguistics. More lower-frequency grammar patterns have
been added, and extra examples have been included throughout
the text.
The unrivalled depth and range of this updated edition of Korean:
A Comprehensive Grammar makes it an essential reference source
on the Korean language.
Jaehoon Yeon is Professor of Korean Language and Linguistics at
SOAS, University of London.
Lucien Brown is Senior Lecturer of Korean Studies at Monash
University.
Routledge Comprehensive Grammars

Titles in this series:

Modern Welsh
A Comprehensive Grammar, 3rd Edition
Gareth King
Chinese
A Comprehensive Grammar, 2nd Edition
Yip Po-Ching, Don Rimmington
Kazakh
A Comprehensive Grammar
Raihan Muhamedowa
Panjabi
A Comprehensive Grammar
Mangat Bhardwaj
French Creoles
A Comprehensive Grammar
Anand Syea
Dutch
A Comprehensive Grammar, 3rd Edition
Bruce Donaldson
Finnish
A Comprehensive Grammar
Fred Karlsson
Persian
A Comprehensive Grammar
Saeed Yousef
Norwegian
A Comprehensive Grammar
Philip Holmes, Hans-Olav Enger
Korean
A Comprehensive Grammar, 2nd edition
Jaehoon Yeon, Lucien Brown

For more information on this series, please visit: www.routledge.

com/languages/series/SE0550
Korean
A Comprehensive Grammar
Second Edition

Jaehoon Yeon and

Lucien Brown
Second edition published 2019
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa
business
© 2019 Jaehoon Yeon and Lucien Brown
The right of Jaehoon Yeon and Lucien Brown to be identified as au-
thors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with
sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or re-
produced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including pho-
tocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval
system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
First edition published by Routledge 2011
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British
Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book has been requested
ISBN: 978-1-138-06448-5 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-138-06449-2 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-16035-1 (ebk)
Typeset in Sabon and Gill Sans
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
 Contents

Preface to the second edition xix

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Korean Language 1

1.1 Characteristic features of Korean 1
1.1.1 Word classes 2
1.1.2 Word order: Korean is an SOV
language3
1.1.2.1 Flexible word order 3
1.1.2.2 The postpositional
characteristic of Korean 5
1.1.2.3 The position of complements 6
1.1.2.4 Interrogative word order 6
1.1.3 An intricate system of honorific
categories7
1.1.4 Korean as an elliptical language 8
1.2 Korean script and pronunciation 9
1.2.1 Basic principles of Hangul writing 10
1.2.1.1 Letter names and
dictionary order 10
1.2.1.2 Writing syllabically 11
1.2.2 Hangul pronunciation guide 13
1.2.2.1 Simple vowels 13
1.2.2.2 Y-vowels 14
1.2.2.3 W-vowels 15
1.2.2.4 The compound vowel 의16
1.2.2.5 Basic consonants 17
v
Contents 1.2.2.6 Aspirated consonants 20
1.2.2.7 Tensed or ‘Double’
consonants20
1.2.3 Pronunciation changes 21
1.2.3.1 Pronunciation of syllable-
final consonants 22
1.2.3.2 Simplification of
consonant clusters 23
1.2.3.3 Re-syllabification 24
1.2.3.4 Nasal assimilation 26
1.2.3.5 ㄹ r/l pronounced as ㄴ n28
1.2.3.6 ㄴ n pronounced as ㄹ l29
1.2.3.7 Palatalization of ㄷ t
and ㅌ t’30
1.2.3.8 ㄴ n addition 31
1.2.3.9 ㅎ h reduction 32
1.2.3.10 Aspiration 32
1.2.3.11 Reinforcement 33

Chapter 2 Nouns, nominal forms, pronouns

and numbers 36
2.1 Nouns 36
2.1.1 Lack of articles, number and gender 36
2.1.1.1 Lack of articles 37
2.1.1.2 Lack of number 37
2.1.1.3 Lack of gender 38
2.1.2 Bound/dependent nouns 39
2.1.2.1 것 ‘thing’, ‘object’ or ‘affair’ 39
2.1.2.2 겸 ‘-cum-’ 40
2.1.2.3 곳 ‘place’ 41
2.1.2.4 김 ‘occasion’, ‘chance’ 41
2.1.2.5 대로 ‘in accordance with’ 41
2.1.2.6 덕분 ‘thanks to’ 41
2.1.2.7 데 ‘place’ 42
2.1.2.8 동안 ‘during’ 42
2.1.2.9 둥 ‘may or may not’ 43
2.1.2.10 듯 ‘as if’ 43
2.1.2.11 따름 ‘only, alone’ 43
2.1.2.12 때 ‘when’ 43
vi 2.1.2.13 때문 ‘reason’ 44
 2.1.2.14 리 ‘reasons’ 45 Contents
2.1.2.15 무렵 ‘around the time’ 45
2.1.2.16 바 ‘thing’ 45
2.1.2.17 뿐 ‘only’, ‘just’, ‘nothing but’ 46
2.1.2.18 수 ‘case’, ‘circumstance’ 46
2.1.2.19 적 ‘event’ 46
2.1.2.20 줄 ‘the way’, ‘the fact’ 47
2.1.2.21 중/도중 ‘the middle’ 47
2.1.2.22 지 ‘since’ 48
2.1.2.23 쪽 ‘side’ 48
2.1.2.24 채 ‘just as it is’ 49
2.2 Nominal forms 49
2.2.1 Nominal form –이50
2.2.2 Nominal form –개/게50
2.2.3 Nominal form –기50
2.2.4 Sentence patterns with –기52
2.2.4.1 –기 나름이– ‘depending on’ 52
2.2.4.2 –기 때문(에) ‘because’ 53
2.2.4.3 –기/게 마련이– ‘be bound to’ 54
2.2.4.4 –기(에) 망정이–
‘fortunately . . . otherwise’ 55
2.2.4.5 –기 시작하– ‘start’ 55
2.2.4.6 –기 십상이– ‘it is easy to . . .’ 56
2.2.4.7 –기 위하– ‘in order to’ 56
2.2.4.8 –기 이를 데 없–/그지 없–
‘boundless, endless’ 57
2.2.4.9 –기 일쑤이– ‘be apt to’ 58
2.2.4.10 –기 전 ‘before’ 58
2.2.4.11 –기 짝이 없– ‘very’ 59
2.2.4.12 –기나 하– ‘just’ 60
2.2.4.13 –기는 ‘no way’ 60
2.2.4.14 –기는 하– ‘indeed’ 61
2.2.4.15 –기(는)커녕 ‘far from’ 62
2.2.4.16 –기도 하– ‘also’ 63
2.2.4.17 –기만 하– ‘only’ 64
2.2.4.18 –기로 하– ‘decide to . . .’ 64
2.2.4.19 –기로 되– ‘be supposed to . . .’ 65
2.2.4.20 –기를/길 바라– ‘hope’ 66
2.2.4.21 –기에 ‘upon’, ‘because’ 68
2.2.4.22 –기에 따라 ‘depending on’ 69
2.2.5 Nominal form –음69 vii
Contents 2.2.6 Using –(으)ㄴ/는 것 to create
nominal forms 72
2.3 Pronouns 74
2.3.1 Personal pronouns 74
2.3.1.1 First-person pronouns 74
2.3.1.2 Second-person pronouns 75
2.3.1.3 Third-person pronouns 77
2.3.2 Demonstrative pronouns 80
2.3.3 Reflexives and reciprocals 81
2.3.4 Interrogative pronouns 82
2.4 Numbers and counting 84
2.4.1 Pure Korean and Sino-Korean numbers 84
2.4.2 Which system to use 86
2.4.3 Sentence patterns with numbers 88
2.4.4 Counting and naming periods of time 90
2.4.4.1 Years 90
2.4.4.2 Months 91
2.4.4.3 Weeks 92
2.4.4.4 Days 92
2.4.4.5 Telling the time 93
2.4.4.6 Telling the date 95

Chapter 3 Particles 96
3.1 Defining particles 96
3.2 Case particles 97
3.2.1 The subject particle 이/가98
3.2.2 The object particle 을/를100
3.2.3 The possessive particle 의103
3.2.4 Particles of movement and location 106
3.2.4.1 에 ‘to/in/at’ 106
3.2.4.2 에다(가) ‘in/on’ 109
3.2.4.3 에서 ‘from/in/at’ 110
3.2.4.4 에게/한테 ‘to’ 113
3.2.4.5 더러 ‘to’ 115
3.2.4.6 보고 ‘to’ 116
3.2.4.7 에게서/한테서 ‘from’ 116
3.2.4.8 (으)로부터 ‘from’ 117
3.2.4.9 Particle phrase (으)로
하여금 ‘letting/making
viii (someone do something)’ 118
 3.2.5 Instrumental particles 118 Contents
3.2.5.1 (으)로 ‘by/with/as’ 119
3.2.5.2 (으)로서 ‘as’ 121
3.2.5.3 (으)로써 ‘by means of’ 122
3.2.5.4 Particle phrase (으)로
인해(서) ‘due to’ 123
3.2.6 Comitative particles 123
3.2.6.1 과/와 ‘and/with’ 123
3.2.6.2 하고 ‘and/with’ 125
3.2.6.3 (이)랑 ‘and/with’ 126
3.2.7 Vocative particle 아/야127
3.3 Special particles 129
3.3.1 Plural particle 들129
3.3.2 Particles of topic and focus 131
3.3.2.1 Topic particle 은/는132
3.3.2.2 (이)야 ‘if it’s . . .’ 138
3.3.2.3 (이)야말로 ‘indeed’ 138
3.3.3 Particles of extent 139
3.3.3.1 만 ‘only’ 139
3.3.3.2 뿐 ‘only’ 141
3.3.3.3 밖에 ‘except for’ 141
3.3.3.4 부터 ‘from’ 143
3.3.3.5 까지 ‘up until’ 144
3.3.3.6 도 ‘also’, ‘even’ 146
3.3.3.7 조차 ‘even’ 149
3.3.3.8 마저 ‘even’ 150
3.3.3.9 치고/치고는 ‘with
exception’, ‘pretty . . . for
a . . .’ 150
3.3.3.10 (은/는)커녕 ‘far from’ 151
3.3.4 Particles of frequency 152
3.3.4.1 마다 ‘every’ 152
3.3.4.2 씩 ‘apiece’ 153
3.3.5 Particles of approximation and
optionality154
3.3.5.1 쯤 ‘about’ 154
3.3.5.2 (이)나 (‘about’, ‘or’, ‘just’) 155
3.3.6 Particles of comparison and contrast 158
3.3.6.1 처럼 ‘like’ 158
3.3.6.2 같이 ‘like’ 159
3.3.6.3 만큼 ‘as . . . as’ 160 ix
Contents 3.3.6.4 보다 ‘more than’ 160
3.3.6.5 따라 ‘unusually’ 162
3.3.6.6 대로 ‘in accordance with’ 163

Chapter 4 Verbs164
4.1 Characteristics of Korean verbs 164
4.1.1 Types of verbs: processive and
descriptive164
4.1.2 Types of verbs: 하– verbs 167
4.1.3 Types of verbs: negative verbs 169
4.1.4 Types of verbs: the copula
(equational verb) 170
4.1.5 Verb bases 172
4.1.6 The infinitive form 173
4.1.7 The dictionary form 175
4.1.8 Attaching verb endings 176
4.2 Negatives 179
4.2.1 Short negatives with 안 and 못179
4.2.2 Long negatives with –지 않– and
–지 못하–180
4.2.3 Negative commands and proposals
with –지 말–182
4.2.4 Expressions that require negative
verbs184
4.3 Tense 185
4.3.1 Past tenses 185
4.3.1.1 Simple past –았/었–186
4.3.1.2 Past-past or discontinuous
past –았/었었–187
4.3.1.3 Observed or perceived past
tense –더189
4.3.2 Future tenses 193
4.3.2.1 –겠–193
4.3.2.2 –(으)ㄹ 거–196
4.3.2.3 Other forms with future-
related meanings 198
4.3.2.4 Summary of Korean futures 199
4.3.3 Continuous tense 200
4.3.3.1 Continuous states with
x –아/어 있–200
 4.3.3.2 Continuous actions with Contents
–고 있–202
4.4 Derived verbs: passives, causatives and others 205
4.4.1 Passives 205
4.4.1.1 Derived passive verbs
–이–/–기–/–히–/–리–206
4.4.1.2 Passives with 되–209
4.4.1.3 Passives with other
support verbs 210
4.4.1.4 Passives with –아/어 지–213
4.4.2 Causatives 214
4.4.2.1 Derived causative verbs 215
4.4.2.2 Causatives with –게 하–219
4.4.2.3 Causatives with –도록 하–221
4.4.2.4 Causatives with 시키–222
4.4.3 Transforming descriptive verbs into
processive verbs 222
4.4.3.1 Forming processive verbs
with –지–223
4.4.3.2 Forming processive verbs
with –하–223

Chapter 5 Auxiliary (support) verbs226

5.1 Auxiliary verbs with –(아/어)226
5.1.1 –(아/어) 가– (ongoing activity ‘away’) 227
5.1.2 –(아/어) 오– (ongoing activity
‘towards’)227
5.1.3 –(아/어) 내– (finish, achieve) 228
5.1.4 –(아/어) 놓– (do all the way) 229
5.1.5 –(아/어) 두– (do for future reference) 230
5.1.6 –(아/어) 대– (do repeatedly) 231
5.1.7 –(아/어) 버리– (do completely for
regret or relief) 232
5.1.8 –(아/어) 보– (try doing) 233
5.1.9 –(아/어) 보이– (seem) 236
5.1.10 –(아/어) 빠지– (lapse into a
negative state) 236
5.1.11 –(아/어) 쌓– (do repeatedly) 237
5.1.12 –(아/어) 주– (perform a favour) 237
5.1.13 –(아/어) 치우– (do rashly) 239 xi
Contents 5.2 Auxiliary verbs with –다240
5.2.1 –다 말– (stop after) 240
5.2.2 –다 보– (after trying doing) 240
5.2.3 –(아/어)다 주– (run an errand) 241
5.3 Auxiliary verbs with –고242
5.3.1 –고 나– (after finishing) 242
5.3.2 –고 말– (end up) 243
5.3.3 –고 보– (do and then realize) 244
5.3.4 –고 싶– (want to do) 245
5.4 Auxiliary verbs with –(으)ㄹ까246
5.4.1 –(으)ㄹ까 보– (think it might) 246
5.4.2 –(으)ㄹ까 싶– (afraid it might) 247
5.4.3 –(으)ㄹ까 하– (think of doing) 248
5.5 Auxiliary verbs with –나/–(으)ㄴ가249
5.5.1 –나/–(으)ㄴ가 보– (look like) 250
5.5.2 –나/–(으)ㄴ가 싶– (think it might) 250
5.6 Auxiliary verbs with –게251
5.6.1 –게 되– (turn out so that) 251
5.6.2 –게 보이– (seem) 252
5.7 Auxiliary verb with –(아/어)야253
5.7.1 –(아/어)야 되–/하– (must, have to) 253

Chapter 6 Honorifics254
6.1 Speech styles (hearer honorifics) 255
6.1.1 The polite style 256
6.1.2 The formal style 258
6.1.3 The intimate style – Panmal style 261
6.1.4 The plain style 263
Plain style statements 264
Plain style questions 266
Plain style proposals 268
Plain style commands 268
6.1.5 Familiar style 270
6.1.6 Semi-­formal style 272
6.2 Referent honorifics 272
6.2.1 Subject honorifics 273
6.2.1.1 The subject honorific
marker –(으)시–273
6.2.1.2 Verbs with special subject
xii honorific forms 275
 6.2.1.3 Subject honorific particle Contents
께서276
6.2.2 Object honorifics 277
6.2.2.1 Verbs with special object
honorific forms 277
6.2.2.2 Object honorific particle 께278
6.2.3 Honorific nouns 279
6.2.4 Putting the honorifics system together 280
6.3 Terms of address 282
6.3.1 Names 283
6.3.2 Titles 284
6.3.3 Kinship terms 286
6.3.4 How to address someone 290

Chapter 7 Clausal connectives292

7.1 Causal connectives 292
7.1.1 –­(아/어)서293
7.1.2 –­아/어296
7.1.3 –­아/어서 인지297
7.1.4 –­아/어서(는) 안 되–­ 297
7.1.5 –(아/어) 가지고298
7.1.6 –­(으)니까300
7.1.7 –­(으)니304
7.1.8 –(으)ㄹ테니까304
7.1.9 –(으)므로305
7.1.10 –길래306
7.1.11 –느라고308
7.1.12 –(으)랴309
7.1.13 –더니 and –(았/었)더니309
7.1.14 –(으)ㄹ라310
7.2 Contrastive connectives 311
7.2.1 –지만311
7.2.2 –(으)나313
7.2.3 –(으)나 마나314
7.2.4 –(으)되315
7.2.5 –(아/어)도315
7.2.5.1 –(아/어)도 in permissive
constructions317
7.2.5.2 Don’t have to . . . with –지
않아도318 xiii
Contents 7.2.5.3 Idiomatic –(아/어)도
expressions318
7.2.6 –더라도319
7.2.7 –고도320
7.2.8 –(아/어)서라도320
7.2.9 –(으)ㄴ들321
7.2.10 –(으)ㄹ지라도321
7.2.11 –(으)ㄹ지언정322
7.2.12 –(으)ㄹ망정322
7.2.13 –거늘323
7.2.14 –느니323
7.2.15 –(아/어) 봤자324
7.3 Additional and sequential connectives 325
7.3.1 –고325
7.3.2 –고서328
7.3.3 –고는329
7.3.4 –고 나–330
7.3.5 –답시고/랍시고330
7.3.6 –거니와331
7.3.7 –(으)면서332
7.3.8 –(으)면서부터333
7.3.9 –(으)며333
7.3.10 –자(마자)334
7.3.11 –다(가)335
7.3.12 –(으)ㄴ/는데339
7.3.13 –(으)ㄹ텐데344
7.4 Optional connectives 345
7.4.1 –거나345
7.4.2 –든지347
7.4.3 –든가348
7.4.4 –(으)ㄴ/는지 in oblique questions 349
7.4.5 –(으)ㄹ지 in oblique questions 351
7.4.6 –(었/았)던지 in oblique questions 352
7.4.7 –(으)ㄹ락 말락 (하–)353
7.5 Conditional connectives 353
7.5.1 –(으)면353
7.5.1.1 –(았/었)으면 좋–355
7.5.1.2 –(으)면 고맙겠–356
7.5.1.3 –(았/었)으면 하–356
7.5.1.4 –(으)면 되–356
xiv 7.5.1.5 –(으)면 안 되–357
 7.5.1.6 –지 않으면 안 되 –/안 . . . Contents
면 안 되–358
7.5.2 –다면/–라면358
7.5.3 –(으)려면359
7.5.4 –다(가) 보면360
7.5.5 –(았/었)더라면360
7.5.6 –거든361
7.5.7 –(아/어)야362
7.5.7.1 –(아/어)야 되/하–363
7.5.8 –(아/어)서야364
7.5.9 –(으)면 . . . –(으)ㄹ수록365
7.6 Causative connectives 366
7.6.1 –게366
7.6.2 –게끔367
7.6.3 –도록368
7.7 Intentive connectives 369
7.7.1 –(으)러369
7.7.2 –(으)려고370
7.7.3 –고자373
7.8 Comparison connectives 374
7.8.1 –듯이374
7.8.2 –다시피375

Chapter 8 Modifiers377
8.1 Modifying forms 377
8.1.1 The future/prospective modifier
–(으)ㄹ378
8.1.2 The present dynamic modifier
–는380
8.1.3 The state/result modifier –(으)ㄴ381
8.1.4 The continuous past modifier –던384
8.1.5 The discontinuous past modifier
–(았/었)던385
8.1.6 The prospective past modifier
–(았/었)을387
8.1.7 Intentive –(으)려 with modifiers 387
8.2 Sentence patterns with modifier clauses 388
8.2.1 –는 가운데 ‘in the middle of ’ 388
8.2.2 modifier + 것 ‘the fact that’ 388
8.2.3 modifier + 것 같– ‘it seems that’ 391 xv
Contents 8.2.4 –(으)ㄹ 겸 ‘with the combined
purpose of’ 392
8.2.5 –(으)ㄹ 계획이– ‘plan to’ 392
8.2.6 –(으)ㄴ|는 김에 ‘while you’re at it’,
‘seeing as’ 393
8.2.7 –는|던 길(에) ‘on the way to’ 394
8.2.8 –(으)ㄴ 나머지 ‘as a result’ 394
8.2.9 –(으)ㄴ다음/뒤/후에 ‘after’ 395
8.2.10 –는|–(으)ㄴ 대로 ‘in accordance with’ 395
8.2.11 –는 데 ‘in the matter of’ 396
8.2.12 –는 동안/사이에 ‘while’ 396
8.2.13 –(으)ㄹ|–는|–(으)ㄴ 둥 ‘may or may
not’398
8.2.14 –(으)ㄹ|–는|–(으)ㄴ 듯 ‘just like’ 398
8.2.15 –(으)ㄹ|–는|–(으)ㄴ 듯하–/듯
싶– ‘seem like’ 399
8.2.16 –(으)ㄹ 따름이– ‘only’ 399
8.2.17 –(으)ㄹ 때 ‘when’ 400
8.2.18 –(으)ㄹ 리 없– ‘no way that’ 401
8.2.19 –는/ –(으)ㄴ 마당에 ‘in the
situation where’ 402
8.2.20 –(으)ㄹ 만하– ‘worth’ 402
8.2.21 –(으)ㄹ|–는|–(으)ㄴ 모양이– ‘seem
like’403
8.2.22 –(으)ㄹ 바에(는/야) ‘rather . . . than’ 403
8.2.23 –(으)ㄴ|–는 바람에 ‘because of’ 404
8.2.24 –(으)ㄴ|–는 반면(에) ‘but on the
other hand’ 404
8.2.25 –(으)ㄹ 뻔하– ‘nearly’ 405
8.2.26 –(으)ㄹ 뿐 ‘only’ 406
8.2.27 –(으)ㄹ 수 있–/없– ‘can /cannot’ 408
8.2.28 –(으)ㄴ|는 이상(에(는)) ‘since’;
‘unless’410
8.2.29 –(으)ㄴ|–는 일/적이 있–/없– ‘ever/
never’411
8.2.30 –(으)ㄹ 정도로 ‘to the extent that’ 411
8.2.31 –(으)ㄹ|–는|–(으)ㄴ 줄 알– /모르–
‘think/know’412
8.2.32 –는 중에/도중에 ‘in the middle
of . . .’ 414
xvi 8.2.33 –는 중– ‘be in the middle of’ 414
8.2.34 –(으)ㄹ 즈음(에) ‘when’ 415
 8.2.35 –(으)ㄴ 지 ‘since’ 416 Contents
8.2.36 –(으)려던 참이– ‘just about to’ 416
8.2.37 –(으)ㄴ 채(로) ‘as it is’ 417
8.2.38 –는 척하– ‘pretend’ 418
8.2.39 –는|–(으)ㄴ 탓 ‘due to’ 419
8.2.40 –(으)ㄴ|–는 통에 ‘in the
commotion’419
8.2.41 –(으)ㄴ|는 한– ‘as much as’ 420

Chapter 9 Sentence endings421

9.1 –고말고 ‘of course’ 422
9.2 –거든 ‘it’s because’, ‘you see’ 423
9.3 –나?/ –(으)ㄴ가? dubitative questions 424
9.4 –(는)군, –(는)구나, –(는)구려,
–(는)구만/구먼 exclamations 426
9.5 –네 evidential exclamations 428
9.6 –다마다 ‘of course’ 429
9.7 –담/람 disapproval 429
9.8 –(으)ㄹ걸 presumptions, regrets 430
9.9 –(으)ㄹ게 promise-like futures 432
9.10 –(으)ㄹ까? suggestions, tentative questions 433
9.11 –(으)ㄹ래 ‘feel like (doing)’ 436
9.12 –(으)ㄹ텐데 ‘I’m afraid’ 436
9.13 –(으)랴 ‘could . . . really?’ 437
9.14 –(으)련마는/ –(으)련만 ‘should, must’ 438
9.15 –(으)렴/–(으)려무나 granting permission;
orders439
9.16 –(으)마 promise-like futures 440
9.17 –잖아 ‘you know’ 440
9.18 –지 tag questions 442

Chapter 10 Quotations446
10.1 Direct quotations 446
10.2 Indirect quotations 447
10.2.1 Quoted statements 448
10.2.2 Quoted questions 450
10.2.3 Quoted proposals 452
10.2.4 Quoted commands 453
10.2.5 The verb 주– in quoted commands 454 xvii
10.2.6 Quoting verbs 455
Contents 10.3 Reduced indirect quotations in reported
speech458
10.3.1 –다고, –냐고, –라고, –자고459
10.3.2 –대, –냬, –래, –재461
10.4 Special patterns with indirect quotations 463
10.4.1 –다/냐/자/라니(까)464
10.4.2 –다면/ –라면465
10.4.3 –다/라면서465
10.4.4 –다/라는데466
10.4.5 –(이)라는467
10.4.6 –단/냔/잔/란 말이–468

Chapter 11 Other word classes469

11.1 Adnouns 469
11.2 Adverbs 472
11.2.1 Grammatical classification of adverbs 472
11.2.1.1 Proper adverbs 472
11.2.1.2 Derived adverbs 474
11.2.1.3 Sentence adverbs 479
11.2.1.4 Conjunctive adverbs 481
11.2.2 Semantic classification of adverbs 482
11.2.2.1 Time adverbs 482
11.2.2.2 Degree adverbs 485
11.2.2.3 Manner adverbs 486
11.2.2.4 Onomatopoeic/mimetic
adverbs488
11.3 Prefixes and suffixes 494
11.3.1 Prefixes 494
11.3.2 Suffixes 498
11.3.2.1 Noun-deriving suffixes 498
11.3.2.2 Adverb-deriving suffixes 504
11.3.2.3 Verb-deriving suffixes 504
11.3.2.4 Adnominal suffix –적506

Glossary of linguistic terms508

Related readings and bibliography515
Index of grammatical constructions (Korean) 519
xviii Index of translation equivalents (English) 539
General index 547
 Preface to the second
edition

This revised edition of Korean: A Comprehensive Grammar is

a thorough reference guide to Korean grammar updated based
on the latest research. The level of description that the revised
book offers of Korean grammatical constructions throughout is
perhaps unrivalled by other English-language publications in the
field. Revisions from the first edition include:

• A separate chapter on honorifics, reflecting new research in this

field
• Updated descriptions of Korean grammar taking into account
the latest research in functional syntax, pragmatics and lan-
guage variation and change
• More low-frequency grammar patterns have been added

With the exception of chapter 1 (which provides an introduc-

tion to the Korean language), the book is organized according to
grammatical categories. In turn, we look at nouns, nominal forms,
pronouns and numbers (chapter 2), case particles (chapter 3),
verbs (chapter 4), support (or ‘auxiliary’) verbs (chapter 5), hon-
orifics and politeness (chapter 6), verbal connectives (chapter 7),
modifiers (chapter 8), sentence endings (chapter 9), quotations
(chapter 10) and other word classes (chapter 11). In cases where
a grammatical pattern may belong to more than one category,
the pattern is allotted to the category that it fits best and is then
cross-referenced under the other possible category. Three indexes
are included at the back of the book: a grammatical patterns index
(in Korean), an English equivalents index and a general index.

xix
 Preface to the As readers who already have some familiarity with the language
second edition will know, the way that Korean is spoken (or written) will vary
greatly depending on whom you are talking (or writing) to. This
phenomenon – and the use of honorifics and speech styles – is
covered in Chapter 6. Elsewhere, the common practice has been
to represent examples in the so-called ‘polite’ speech style wher-
ever possible. At times, the inclusion of other speech styles is
necessitated by the fact that the grammatical construction being
described or the example being given is more ‘natural’ in another
style rather than the ‘polite’.
We would like to express our thanks to many people who pro-
vided us with various forms of comments and feedback on the
first edition. We are particularly indebted to Professor Hyo-Sang
Lee at Indiana University Bloomington for his numerous insight-
ful comments. Thanks also to Professor Hee Rak Chae at Hankuk
University of Foreign Studies for providing us with a list of correc-
tions, and Professor Jung Soo Mok at University of Seoul for writ-
ing a useful review. We would like to thank Dr. Adam Zulawnik
for his help compiling the index.
This work was supported by Laboratory Program for Korean
Studies through the Ministry of Education of the Republic of
Korea and Korean Studies Promotion Service of the Academy of
Korean Studies (AKS-2016-LAB-2250003).

xx
 Chapter 1

Introduction to the
Korean Language

1.1 Characteristic features of Korean

Overview
Korean is a language with approximately 82 million speakers which
include 51 million in South Korea, 25 million in North Korea, and
nearly 6 million outside of Korea – mainly in China, the US, Japan,
and central Asia (the former U.S.S.R). The data used in this book
represents the standard Seoul speech in the Central dialectal zone.
Due to its prevalence in education and the media, Standard Seoul
Korean is intelligible across South Korea. Although the post-1945
division between North and South Korea and their different lan-
guage policies have made the two Koreas linguistically divergent,
North and South Korean languages are mutually intelligible.
Korean has a number of characteristic features that distinguish
it from other languages, particularly English and European lan-
guages. For example, Korean has neither the definite nor indefi-
nite article (such as ‘the’ and ‘a/an’ in English). There is no sharp
distinction of gender and plurality of a noun. There is no special
distinction for the third-person present singular in a verb. There
is no conspicuous accent for a word, although there are some
accents in a sentence and these vary according to the region of the
country. As a general rule, Korean usually puts stress on the first
syllable of a word.
The linguistic affinity of Korean to other languages is still disput-
1
able. The most convincing hypothesis about its origin is the Altaic
 1 hypothesis, that is Korean is one of the Altaic languages along
Introduction with Mongolian, Turkic and Manchu-Tungus. The difficulty of
to the Korean reconstructing genetic ties to other languages is mainly due to the
Language lack of evidence of written data.

1.1.1 Word classes

As in any language, Korean words can be classified into several

different classes according to the way they are used.
Korean verbs minimally consist of a base and an ending. The base
cannot stand alone without an ending, and endings can be added
to the base to alter the meaning in various ways, including the
expression of tense:

먹어요. I am eating.
먹었어요. I ate.
먹겠어요. I will eat.

In the examples above, the verb base in each sentence is the same.
It means ‘eat’ – and its base is 먹–. However, by attaching three
different endings, three different meanings are produced.
While languages such as English have a separate category of
adjectives (and use these adjectives in combination with the verb
‘to be’ – ‘He is tall’, etc.), in Korean adjectives can be consid-
ered a subset of verbs. These are known as descriptive verbs,
whereas other verbs (that typically depict an action) are known
as processive verbs. In most ways, descriptive verbs behave
the same as processive verbs and can take a lot of the same
endings:

예뻐요. [She, it, etc.] is pretty.

예뻤어요. [She, it, etc.] was pretty.
예쁘겠어요. [She, it, etc.] will be pretty.

However, there are some differences in the way that descriptive

and processive verbs operate. These differences are summarized
later in this book (refer to 4.1.1). The major properties of Korean
2 verbs are discussed in Chapter 4.
Unlike verbs, Korean nouns can be used with no endings attached Characteristic
to them. Instead, particles are added to show the relationship features of
between the noun and the rest of the sentence (especially the verb). Korean
In the following sentence, 가 marks 민수 as being the grammati-
cal subject of the sentence (i.e., the person performing the action
connoted in the verb) and 를 marks 오징어 ‘squid’ as being the
grammatical object (i.e., the thing having the action connoted by
the verb performed on it). Without these markers, the sentence
could (in context) be taken to mean that it was the squid that ate
Minsu rather than the other way around!

민수가 오징어를 먹었어요

Minsu squid ate Minsu ate squid.

Korean nouns are described in more depth in Chapter 2 and parti-

cles are discussed in Chapter 3. Korean also contains more minor
word classes (such as adnouns and adverbs), which are explained
in Chapter 10.

1.1.2 Word order: Korean is an SOV language

The basic (i.e., most frequent, neutral and canonical) word order
of Korean can be described as SOV: Subject-Object-Verb. With
the verb coming after rather than before the object, this makes
Korean word order quite different from English:

English: Minsu ate kimchi

SUBJECT VERB OBJECT

Korean: 민수가 김치를 먹었어요

Minsu kimchi ate
SUBJECT OBJECT VERB

As an SOV language, Korean has several other features which are

typical of such languages (but different to English). These features
are summarized below.

1.1.2.1 Flexible word order

Although the word order presented above is the most typical,

Korean word order can actually be quite flexible. In addition to 3
 1 ‘Minsu kimchi ate’, it is quite possible to also say ‘kimchi Minsu
Introduction ate’.
to the Korean
Language 김치는 민수가 먹었어요
Kimchi Minsu Ate
OBJECT SUBJECT VERB

As in the example above, when a non-subject element is moved to

the start of the sentence, it often takes the topic particle 는 rather
than the object particle 를 (refer to 3.2.2).
So how do speakers choose which word order to use? As a general
rule of thumb, the noun that conveys new or added knowledge to
the hearer will come closer to the verb, whereas nouns that rep-
resent already mentioned or entertained information may come
at the start of the sentence. By this logic, if a speaker asks ‘what
did 민수 eat?’, the interlocutor will put 민수 at the start of the
answer and the type of food (김치) before the verb. Conversely, if
a speaker asks ‘who ate the kimchi?’, the order of the nouns will
be reversed, as shown here:

A: 민수는 뭐 먹었어요? WHAT did Minsu eat?

B: (민수는) 김치를 먹었어요 Minsu ate KIMCHI (new information)

A: 누가 김치를 먹었어요? WHO ate the kimchi?

B: (김치는) 민수가 먹었어요. MINSU ate the kimchi

Like in the above examples, as long as the verb is properly placed

at the end of the sentence, the position of the remaining words
is relatively free. Although, technically speaking the verb should
always come last in a Korean sentence, in real speech this is not
always the case. On occasions, other elements may be heard fol-
lowing the verb:

내 친구는 뛰어갔어요, 집으로. My friend ran to his house.

나는 영희를 보았어요, 어제 여기서. 

I saw Yonghi, yesterday here.

As in these examples, once a complete sentence has been uttered,

it may be supplemented with further constituents which appear
after the verb. This tends to happen when the speaker realizes that
he/she has omitted important information from the sentence or
4
when, judging from the hearer’s reaction, he/she realizes that more Characteristic
clarification is needed. Although such word order is considered features of
nonstandard and does not appear in writing, it can frequently be Korean
heard in casual speech.

1.1.2.2 The postpositional characteristic of Korean

Another distinctive feature of Korean which is connected to its

SOV word order is the fact that it has postpositions (that come
after the noun) rather than prepositions (which come before the
noun). Rather than saying ‘at school’ as in English, Korean speak-
ers say ‘school-at’:

민수가 학교에 있어요.

Minsu-subject school-at is
Minsu is at school.

In addition to postpositions that are the equivalent of English prep-

ositions, Korean uses particles attached to the end of nouns to mark
their grammatical function, as noted above. As well as particles
coming after nouns, typical of languages with an SOV language,
Korean also attaches suffixes (or verb endings) to the end of verbs.
Although it is true that English also has suffixes that attach to verbs
(e.g., works, worked, working, eaten), these suffixes in English are
few in number, whereas in Korean they are numerous.

민수가 산에서 뱀을 잡았어요.

Minsu-subject mountain-on snake-object catch-past
tense-polite
Minsu caught a snake on the mountain.

선생님은 좋으시었겠습니다.
You (lit. ‘teacher’)-topic happy-honorific-past-
must-formal
You must have been happy.

As we can see, particles must come after the noun, and verbal suf-
fixes must be attached behind the stem. Also, it is clear that two
or more particles may follow the noun, and, as you can see in the
5
 1 last example above, even as many as four verb endings may attach
Introduction to a verb stem. It is to this extent that in Korean important items
to the Korean are established at the very end of the sentence.
Language

1.1.2.3 The position of complements

In Korean, words that complement or modify (i.e., elaborate,

describe, clarify, identify, delimit) a noun always and without
exception come before the noun in question:

Adnoun (refer 다른 사람 another person

to 11.1) other person

Possessive + 민호의 담배 Minho’s cigarettes

Noun Minho’s cigarettes

Modifying clause 마신 술 the alcohol that

+ Noun drink alcohol I drank

Adverb + Verb 빨리 갔어요 went quickly

quickly went

On this point, Korean differs from Indo-European languages, in

which the modifier may also follow the modified. In particular,
note how the last two patterns listed above result in different
word orders than those found in English.

1.1.2.4 Interrogative word order

In Korean, the word order in yes/no interrogatives (questions)

does not change from that of statements. Unlike in English, the
position of subject and verb does not alter. In fact, in certain styles
of speech (refer to 6.1), the same sentence can be interpreted as a
statement or as an interrogative purely depending on intonation:
민수가 집에 가요
Minsu is going home. (with falling intonation)
Is Minsu going home? (with rising intonation)
6
In so-called wh-questions, the question word (where, why, Characteristic
when, what, etc.) does not need to come at the beginning of features of
the sentence (as it typically does in English). Usually, it stays in Korean
the same place where the ‘missing’ information being asked for
would be included in the corresponding answer. In the following
examples, see how the Korean word for ‘what’ in the question
appears in the same position as ‘fruit’ in the answer. Also note
how this is not the case in English, where ‘what’ moves to initial
position.

A: 민수가 지금 무엇을 사고 있어요? What is Minsu buying now?

B: 민수는 지금 과일을 사고 있어요. Minsu is buying fruit now.

1.1.3 An intricate system of honorific categories

Although every language has different registers and levels of

politeness, in few languages is this system encoded in an elabo-
rate system of honorifics as it is in Korean. Along with Japanese,
Korean is one of the few languages in which the speaker can sys-
tematically encode his/her social relationship with the hearer and
people he/she is talking about (and between different people he/
she is talking about) through the addition of grammatical mark-
ers and special sets of vocabulary. When speaking Korean, it is
practically impossible to utter a single sentence without bearing in
mind your social position in relation to the hearer and people you
are referring to (i.e., comparative age and rank, level of intimacy,
etc.).
Honorifics can commonly be broken into two groups: hearer hon-
orifics and referent honorifics. Hearer honorifics – more frequently
referred to as ‘speech styles’ in the case of Korean (refer to 6.1)
index the relationship between the speaker and the hearer (and/
or immediate audience). In Korean, this is achieved by a range of
six different ‘speech styles’. As a taster of this, when addressing
an intimate of similar age or younger (or a child), the speaker may
apply the ‘intimate’ speech style as in the sentence below, which
consists of the –어 verb ending:

버스가 벌써 갔어 The bus has gone (intimate speech style)

7
 1 However, when speaking to a non-intimate or someone of supe-
Introduction rior age or rank, the –어요 ending of the ‘polite’ speech style
to the Korean would be more appropriate:
Language
버스가 벌써 갔어요 The bus has gone (polite speech style)

Referent honorifics (refer to 6.2) mark the relationship between

the speaker and the grammatical subject/object of the sentence.
This may either be the hearer him/herself or a third person. In the
most complex of cases, this can result in an ‘honorific’ sentence
that looks quite different to its ‘non-honorific counterpart’:

The teacher is eating a meal.

선생님께서 진지를 잡수십니다. 
(honorific)
제 친구가 밥을 먹습니다. My friend is eating a meal.

In the ‘honorific’ sentence, respect is shown to the teacher by using

the honorific subject particle –께서, the honorific noun for meal
진지 and the honorific verb for eat 잡수시– (which incorporates
the honorific marker –시–). In the ‘non-honorific sentence’, when
discussing one’s friend, the plain counterparts of these words may
be used instead. Although the two sentences have the same mean-
ing, they are composed of two totally different vocabulary sets.
The reasons why Korean and Japanese have developed such elab-
orate systems of honorifics are not totally clear. However, the per-
petuation of the Korean system has seemingly been influenced by
the hierarchical structure of Korean society. Even in modern-day
South Korea, families, companies, schools, etc. have rigid vertical
social structures in which younger parties are expected to show
deference and compliance towards elders and seniors. In some sit-
uations, an age difference of only one year may be enough to trig-
ger a non-reciprocal pattern of honorifics (in which the younger
party uses honorifics, but receives plain forms).

1.1.4 Korean as an elliptical language

Every language has full sentences in which all constituents are

present, and elliptical sentences in which certain words are
dropped. However, a peculiar feature of Korean is that major
8 constituents such as the subject and the object can readily be
dropped from the sentence. On this point Korean differs from Korean
Indo-European languages, in which – apart from certain gram- script and
matically sanctioned drops (for example, ‘you’ does not need to pronunciation
be included in English imperatives such as ‘go home!’) – the sub-
ject should normatively be present in order to produce a well-
formed sentence. To be sure, English speakers sometimes drop
major constituents too (consider examples such as ‘Hope this
helps!’ or ‘Going home?’), but such utterances always sound
casual and may not be considered as complete, well-formed sen-
tences. In Korean, however, dropping major constituents is highly
frequent and usually does not result in any question that the sen-
tence is incomplete or poorly formed.
The general rule is that major constituents such as subjects and
objects can be dropped when these can easily be worked out from
context. For example, when two acquaintances meet by chance on
the street, the following question is understood as meaning ‘where
are you going?’ even though there is no explicit mention of ‘you’:

어디 가요? Where are [you] going?

With this dropping of constituents, many Korean sentences

contain nothing but a verb. In the following, unless a different
contextual frame is in operation, the sentence will normally be
understood as referring to the first person:

먹었어요. I’ve eaten.

Although including the subject (and/or object) is hardly ever incor-

rect, in many cases it seems superfluous and could even sound
clumsy.

1.2 Korean script and pronunciation

Overview
Korean is written using an alphabetic writing system known
both in South Korea and internationally as Hangul (한글) but
in North Korea as Chosŏngul (조선글). Unlike the majority
of writing systems that came into being through a process of
evolution, Hangul is a deliberate invention dating back to the
15th century (1443). The invention of Hangul is attributed to 9
 1 King Sejong the Great, who was the fourth King of the Chosŏn
Introduction dynasty (1392–1910).
to the Korean
Although Korean people today exclusively use Hangul in most
Language
everyday writing activities, Korean can also be written in a mixed
script combining this phonemic system with logographic Chinese
characters, known in Korean as Hancha (한자; 漢字). In South
Korea, the use of Hancha has greatly decreased in recent years and
is now mainly limited to sporadic use in broadsheet newspapers
and some academic publications. North Korea does not use Chi-
nese characters at all.
There are several different systems for rendering Korean in the
Roman script. When Romanizations are given in this book (such
as for the word Hancha above), they typically appear in the
McCune-Reischauer system, as this is generally the most conve-
nient for native English speakers. It should be noted however that
South Korea has now stopped using this system in favour of the
Revised Romanization system.
The current section provides a concise introduction to Hangul
and the sounds of Korean that are associated to it. It should be
noted that the pronunciations given are based on the ‘standard’
language of Seoul. This may at times differ from the pronunci-
ations you will hear in real everyday conversation, particularly
from Koreans who speak regional dialects.

1.2.1 Basic principles of Hangul writing

Hangul is an alphabetic writing system. This means that vowels

and consonants are represented with letter-like symbols. Modern
Korean has a total of 24 basic letter shapes, which extends to 40
when one includes compound letters.
The current section introduces the names of the characters and the
way that they are written syllabically.

1.2.1.1 Letter names and dictionary order

The Hangul letters are summarized in the following table, with their
10 names and sorted by the normal South Korean dictionary order.
Regarding the names of consonants, note that these are norma- Korean
tively composed of two syllables that are most commonly formed script and
as follows, taking ㅂ as an example: pronunciation

First syllable: Character in question, followed by the vowel ‘ㅣ’

(e.g., for ㅂ, ‘비’)
Second syllable: The Character in question, preceded by the vowel ‘으’
(e.g., for ㅂ, ‘읍’)

Note that the consonant names 기역, 디귿 and 시옷 are exceptions

to this formula. However, in North Korea, these exceptions have
been abolished and the regular 기윽, 디읃 and 시읏 are used instead.
Regarding the dictionary order of characters, note that consonants
and vowels have separate sequences. The consonant sequence has
priority, and letters in the same line appear in sequence after the
left-most letter:

Consonant signs (with names) Vowels

ㄱ (기역) ㄲ (쌍기역) ㅏ ㅐ ㅑ ㅒ
ㄴ (니은) ㅓ ㅔ ㅕ ㅖ
ㄷ (디귿) ㄸ (쌍디귿) ㅗ ㅘ ㅙ ㅚ ㅛ
ㄹ (리을) ㅜ ㅝ ㅞ ㅟ ㅠ
ㅁ (미음) ㅡ ㅢ
ㅂ (비읍) ㅃ (쌍비읍) ㅣ
ㅅ (시옷) ㅆ (쌍시옷)
ㅇ (이응)
ㅈ (지읒) ㅉ (쌍지읒)
ㅊ (치읓)
ㅋ (키읔)
ㅌ (티읕)
ㅍ (피읖)
ㅎ (히읗)

1.2.1.2 Writing syllabically

Although Hangul has individual letters for consonants and vow-

els, these ‘letters’ are not written in a linear fashion such as in the 11
 1 Roman alphabet. Instead, they are grouped together into square
Introduction syllable blocks according to the following principles:
to the Korean
Language 1 Each syllable block must begin with a consonant sign. Where
a spoken syllable begins with a vowel, the absence of the initial
consonant is written with the ‘zero’ letter ㅇ:
Spoken Written Meaning
[a-u] 아우 younger brother/sister
[o-i] 오이 Cucumber

2 The consonant letter (represented below as ‘C’) is placed either

to the left or above the sign for the following vowel (‘V’),
depending on the vowel sign’s shape, resulting in two possible
patterns:

when vowel sign is vertical 㞚 ⻚ 㰖

when vowel sign is horizontal
㭒 㥶 ㏢
Note that in the case of [Horizontal + Vertical] vowel letter
compounds (ㅘ, ㅙ, ㅚ, ㅝ, ㅞ, ㅟ, ㅢ), where the horizon-
tal letter represents a w-like sound, the initial consonant sign
appears in the empty top left corner:

when vowel sign is vertical

and horizontal 㣎 ὒ
3 A syllable-final consonant letter is always written underneath
the initial consonant-vowel grouping, with height adjustments
for a square end product:

when vowel sign is vertical

㩫 Ⱖ
when vowel sign is horizontal
㦢 㤊

12
when vowel sign is vertical
and horizontal 원
4 There are no Hangul blocks with two initial consonant signs Korean
(except for the double consonant letters ㄲ, ㄸ, ㅃ, ㅆ, ㅉ). script and
There are, however, some Hangul blocks with two final conso- pronunciation
nant signs written at the bottom:

when vowel sign is vertical

㌌ ╃
when vowel sign is horizontal
ⴁ ῌ
Note, however, that due to restrictions against consonant clusters,
both of these consonants can only be pronounced if they are fol-
lowed by a vowel (refer to 1.2.3.1, 1.2.3.2).

1.2.2 Hangul pronunciation guide

The current section provides basic guidelines regarding how

each of the 40 Hangul letter shapes should most normally be
pronounced. Note, however, that there are a number of changes
between the way that Korean is written and the way that it is
pronounced. Although some basic sound changes are dealt with in
this section, the majority of irregular pronunciations are described
in the next section (refer to 1.2.3).

1.2.2.1 Simple vowels

In terms of their graphic representation, it can be said that Korean

has six simple vowel shapes (ㅏ, ㅓ, ㅗ, ㅜ, ㅡ, ㅣ). However, in
terms of phonetics, ㅐ and ㅔ should also be included as sim-
ple vowels since they are pronounced as such in contemporary
Korean even though they historically originate in the combina-
tions [ㅏ+ㅣ] and [ㅓ+ㅣ]. This means that phonetically Korean
has eight vowels, although this typically reduces to seven since
most speakers pronounceㅐ and ㅔ identically (see below).
Since any Hangul block must begin with a consonant symbol, syl-
lables that begin with a vowel in pronunciation are written with
the zero symbol ‘ㅇ’ to the left or above the vowel sign. Writ-
13
ten in syllable-block form, the eight simple vowels are as follows.
 1 For each vowel, we give an English equivalent, the relevant pho-
Introduction netic symbol and how the vowel is represented in the McCune-­
to the Korean Reischauer system of Romanization:
Language
English parallels Phonetic McCune-
symbol Reischauer
아 A in father [ɑ] a
어 British English: O in often [ʌ] ŏ
American English: U in burn
오 O in core [o] o
우 like OO in moon [u] u
으 like U in urgh! [ɯ] ŭ
이 EE in feet (but usually shorter!) [i] i
애 British English: A in care [æ] ae
American English: A in apple
에 E in bed [ɛ] e

It should be noted that many native speakers of Korean (particularly

younger generations) do not differentiate between 애 and 에 and pro-
nounce both of these as a sound somewhere between the two.

1.2.2.2 Y-vowels

Korean has six Y-vowels that consist of a ‘y’-like sound before a

simple vowel. The Y vowels are written by adding one additional
short stroke to the relevant simple vowel signs. Written in syllable-
block form, the Y vowels are as follows:

Hangul sign English Parallels Phonetic McCune-­

symbol Reischauer
Simple Y-vowel
아 야 YA in yahoo [jɑ] ya
어 여 British English: Yo in yob [jʌ] yŏ
14 American Eng: YEA in yearn
 오 요 YO in yoga [jo] yo Korean
script and
우 유 YOU in youth [ju] yu
pronunciation
애 얘 British English: YA in yay! [jæ] yae
American Eng: YA in yak
에 예 like YE in yet or yes [jɛ] ye

Many native speakers of Korean (particularly younger genera-

tions) do not differentiate between 얘 and 예 and pronounce both
of these as a sound somewhere between the two.

1.2.2.3 W-vowels

Korean has six W-vowels that consist of a ‘w’-like sound (as in

English was) before a simple vowel. The W vowels are written by
combining the horizontal letters ㅗ [o] or ㅜ [u] with one of the ver-
tical letters ㅏ, ㅓ, ㅐ, ㅔ and ㅣ. Their pronunciation is generally
what one would expect from these combinations, except for the W
vowel that is written as [ㅗ+ㅣ] but usually pronounced as [wɛ].

Hangul sign English parallels Phonetic McCune-­

symbol Reischauer
Elements W-vowel
오+아 와 British Eng: WA in wag [wɑ] wa
Am Eng: WA in swan
우+어 워 like WO in wonder [wʌ] wŏ
오+애 왜 like WEA in wear [wæ] wæ
우+에 웨 like WE in wet [wɛ] we
오+이 외 usually like WE in wet [wɛ] oe
우+이 위 like WEE in weep [wi] wi

Not only do native speakers tend to pronounce 웨 and 외 the

same, but many speakers (particularly younger generations) do
not differentiate between these two and 왜.
Note that, although 외 and 위 are pronounced as [wɛ] and [wi]
by the majority of speakers of Seoul Korean, these are not the 15
 1 original pronunciations of these vowels. Historically, 외 and 위
Introduction were pronounced in accordance with the way that they are written
to the Korean as combinations of [o] and [u] followed by a ‘y’-like sound [j].
Language These complex vowels then transformed into the simple vowels
[ö] (similar to the German ö umlaut) and 위 as [ü] (similar to the
vowel sound in French ‘rue’ or ‘tu’), before finally changing into
the pronunciations we know today. You may still hear 외 and 위
pronounced as [ö] and [ü] by some older speakers.

1.2.2.4 The compound vowel 의

Korean has one complex vowel, 의, which consists of a glide from 으

[ɨ] to 이 [i] (and which is romanized in the McCune-­Reischauer sys-
tem as ŭi). However, this vowel is only ever pronounced in this way
when it occurs at the start of a word without being preceded by any
consonant. In other positions, it is pronounced the same as ‘이’ (i.e.,
like EE in feet). These two pronunciations are summarized below:

Position Pronunciation Examples

Word-initial Quick glide 의자 = [으이자]/

(at the start of a word, from [으] [ɨi-ja]
with no preceding to [이]
consonant)
Not word-initial [이] only 띄고 = [띠고]/
(after consonant or in [tti-ko]
second or later syllable)
거의 = [거이]/[kʌ-i]

Also, bear in mind that 의 typically takes on the irregular pro-

nunciation of 에 (i.e., like E in bed) when it appears as the posses-
sive particle 의 (refer to 3.2.3). In the most complex of examples,
의 may be pronounced in three different ways within one short
phrase:

written as: 민주주의의 의의 pronounced as:

[민주주이에 의이]
the significance of democracy

16 Even when 의 appear in initial position, you may sometimes hear

it pronounced as a simple vowel (i.e., like 으 or 이), particularly
in dialectal speech.
1.2.2.5 Basic consonants Korean
script and
Korean has ten basic consonants that are presented in the table below. pronunciation
As can be seen, the first four consonants have separate ‘voiced’ and
‘unvoiced’ pronunciations. These will be explained below.

Sign (Name) English Parallels Phonetic McCune-­

symbol(s) Reischauer

When When
unvoiced: voiced:
ㅂ (비읍) P, as in park, B, as in [p]/[b] p, b
but more relaxed about
ㄷ (디귿) T, as in tall, but D, as in [t]/[d] t, d
more relaxed idea
ㅈ (지읒) CH, as in child, J, as in [ʧ ]/[ʤ] ch, j
but more relaxed injury
ㄱ (기역) K, as in kill, G, as in [k]/[g] k, g
but more relaxed again
ㅅ (시옷) S, as in sky, [s] s
but more relaxed [ʃ] sh
or
SH as in shin
(see below)
ㅁ (미음) M, as in mother [m] m
ㄴ (니은) N, as in net [n] n
ㅇ (이응) NG, as in sing [ŋ] ng
ㄹ (리을) Tongue-flap R as [ɾ] r
in Scottish rock [l] l
or Mary
or
Tongue-tip L in
British let or lip
(see below)
ㅎ (히읗) H, as in hack or [h] h
hope, but with
much heavier 17
breath release
 1 Further notes regarding the pronunciation of these consonants are
Introduction as follows:
to the Korean
Language
1. Pronunciation of ㅂ, ㄷ, ㅈ, ㄱ

As shown in the above table, the primary pronunciation of

these is similar to English P, T, CH and K. Like P, T, CH and K,
they are unvoiced (i.e., pronounced without voice sounds in the
vocal cords). However, unlike English P, T, CH and K, they are
unaspirated (pronounced followed by no or very little release
of air). To approximate the Korean pronunciations, attempt to
pronounce the corresponding English sounds without a follow-
ing puff of air.
However, the table also shows that these consonants can – in
some environments – become voiced (i.e., pronounced with voice
sounds in the vocal cords) and thus sound similar to the English
B, D, J and G respectively. This happens under the following
conditions:

1 When the consonant occurs between two vowels. Note how, in

the following examples, the first appearance of the consonant is
unvoiced and the second (between two vowels) is voiced:
Hangul McCune-Reischauer Meaning
바보 pabo fool
도둑 toduk thief
자주 chaju often
고기 kogi meat

2 When the consonant occurs after the voiced consonants ㅁ, ㄴ,

ㅇ and ㄹ:
갈비 kalbi ribs
침대 ch’imdae bed
안주 anju appetizers
경기 kyŏngi game, match

2. Pronunciation of ㅅ

The basic pronunciation of ㅅ is akin to that of S in English, if

18 somewhat weaker. Whereas in English the tongue is grooved,
making a narrow path for the airflow and producing more hiss- Korean
ing, in Korean the tongue is flattened out and relaxed. Perhaps script and
due to this more relaxed tongue shape, when ㅅ occurs before pronunciation
‘ㅣ’, any of the Y-vowels or 위, its pronunciation softens to SH:

사실 sashil truth, fact

샤워 shawŏ shower
쉼표 shwimp’yo a pause

3. Pronunciation of ㅇ

As previously noted, when ㅇ occurs at the start of syllable, it is

a ‘zero consonant’ that is not pronounced. The pronunciation as
NG [ŋ] only applies when it occurs at the bottom of a syllable
block:

영양 Yŏngyang nutrition
잉어 ing-ŏ a carp

4. Pronunciation of ㄹ

ㄹ has multiple pronunciations depending on where it appears in

a word:

1 When it occurs between vowels (such as in 보라 purple or 머리

head), it is pronounced as ‘tongue-flap’ R. ‘Tongue-flap’ R is pro-
nounced by briefly tapping the front of the tongue against the
bone ridge behind the teeth, slightly behind the position used for
[t] or [d]. Although there is no equivalent sound in most varieties
of English, Scottish English, Japanese and Spanish have similar
sounds.
2 When it is pronounced at the end of a syllable (비율 ratio)
or when it occurs twice in succession (빌려요 borrow), it is
pronounced as ‘tongue-tip’ L. ‘Tongue-tip’ L is pronounced by
pressing the front of the tongue against the bone ridge behind
the teeth, as in British let or lip (but not lack or all, which
involve the whole tongue).
3 ㄹ does not tend to occur at the start of Korean words. In fact
when Sino-Korean words starting with a character featuring an
initial ㄹ, this ㄹ drops (for example, 이론 theory) or changes
to ㄴ (for example, 노동 labour). Note that this rule does not
apply in North Korea (where you will see words such as 리론
and 로동). Any words that do start with initial ㄹ tend to be 19
 1 of foreign origins, such as 라면 ramen and 립스틱 lipstick. In
Introduction such cases, ㄹ is most typically pronounced as ‘tongue-flap’ R,
to the Korean but you may also hear it pronounced as ‘tongue-tip’ L (partic-
Language ularly in words such as립스틱 lipstick where the underlying
English word starts with an L).

1.2.2.6 Aspirated consonants

In addition to its simple consonants, Korean has two other con-

sonant sets. The first are the four Aspirated Consonants ㅍ, ㅌ,
ㅊ, and ㅋ. These are the aspirated equivalents of ㅂ, ㄷ, ㅈ and
ㄱ. Traditional descriptions claim that ㅍ/ㅌ/ㅊ/ㅋ are differen-
tiated from ㅂ/ㄷ/ㅈ/ㄱ since they are pronounced accompanied
by a heavy puff of air (this is what ‘aspirated’ means). However,
more recent descriptions (for example, refer to Kang 2014) show
that many speakers (particularly younger generations) pronounce
both ㅂ/ㄷ/ㅈ/ㄱ and ㅍ/ㅌ/ㅊ/ㅋ with similar levels of air output
and that the more important distinction is that ㅍ/ㅌ/ㅊ/ㅋ are
pronounced with higher pitch on the following vowel.
Unlike ㅂ/ㄷ/ㅈ/ㄱ, ㅍ/ㅌ/ㅊ/ㅋ never become voiced.

Sign (Name) English ­parallels Phonetic MR

symbol Romanization

ㅍ (피읖) P, as in park [ph] p’

ㅌ (티읕) T, as in talk [th] t’
ㅊ (치읓) CH, as in chat [ʧ h] ch’
ㅋ (키읔) K, as in kill [kh] k’

1.2.2.7 Tensed or ‘Double’ consonants

Korean also has five tensed consonants, which are written with the
five ‘double’ consonant letters ㅃ, ㄸ, ㅉ, ㅆ, and ㄲ. These are pro-
nounced by putting the mouth into the same position as that for the
simple counterpart, holding the mouth tense and tight in that position,
and then suddenly releasing the sound with virtually no voice and little
aspiration (breath release). The following vowel takes high pitch.
20 The tensed ‘double’ consonants of Korean have no close parallel
in English. They are, however, somewhat similar to Italian double
consonants (PP, TT, CC) and to Japanese tensed consonants. As Korean
for English pronunciation, the closest we get to Korean ㅃ, ㄸ, script and
ㄲ are English P, T, K when they appear after S (as in ‘spy’, ‘style’ pronunciation
and ‘sky’), which are also pronounced without aspiration (breath
release), but much less tensing. Korean ㅉ is also somewhat sim-
ilar to English TCH in words such as ‘matching’, but more tense
and with no puff of air. As for Korean ㅆ, the best parallel is a
succession of English words finishing and starting on S, such as
‘mass suicide’, with a strong volume increase on the second S.

Sign (Name) English parallels Phonetic MR

symbol ­Romanization

ㅃ (쌍비읍) P, as in spy, but [pp]/[p͈ ] pp

with more
tensing
ㄸ (쌍디귿) T, as in style, [tt]/[t͈ ] tt
but with much
more tensing
ㅉ (쌍지읒) TCH, as in [tʧ ]/[ʧ͈ ] tch
matching, but
with tensing
and no breath
release
ㅆ (쌍시옷) S+S, as in mass [ss]/[s͈ ] ss
suicide, but
with initial
tensing and
later volume
increase
ㄲ (쌍기역) K, as in sky, [kk]/[k͈ ] kk
but with much
more tensing

1.2.3 Pronunciation changes

The pronunciation of Korean is complicated by a number of changes

between how it is written and how it is actually pronounced. The
reason for these spelling-pronunciation irregularities is that modern
Hangul spellings are not supposed to be strict transcriptions of pro- 21
nunciations, but representations of underlying forms.
 1 1.2.3.1 Pronunciation of syllable-final consonants
Introduction
to the Korean Generally speaking Korean consonants may appear both at the
Language beginning or the end of a syllable. However, they are only pro-
nounced fully according to the pronunciations detailed above
(refer to 1.2.2.4, 1.2.2.5, 1.2.2.6) when they appear at the start of
a syllable. When they are pronounced at the end of a syllable, they
lose much of their sound mass and distinctiveness.
The reason for this is that Korean final consonants are never
released. Non-release means that the speaker puts his/her mouth
into the position for the consonant, but then tenses up the mouth,
and finishes by relaxing it again without producing any sound.
With the consonants ㅂ p, ㄷ t and ㄱ k this produces pronun-
ciations quite different from English, where the corresponding
sounds rely on the release of sound (and a puff of air). If you ask
a Korean speaker to read the Korean words below, you should
immediately feel this difference. In fact, you may find it hard to
hear the final consonants at all.

Korean word Compare with the English . . .

국 soup cook
밥 rice pap
곧 immediately cot

The non-release of final consonants means that many of the distinc-

tions between consonant sounds are lost. Without being released,
many of the distinctive features of consonant sounds simply cannot
be realized. This includes the plain consonants ㅈ ch, ㅅ s and ㅎ h
and all of the aspirated and tensed consonants. Thus, although these
consonants may be written in final position (except for ㅃ pp, ㄸ tt
and ㅉ tch), they can never be pronounced in final position. Instead,
as shown in the table below, these consonants are pronounced
according to the closest possible non-released sound (i.e. the sound
which is produced by the same part of the mouth).

Written Pronunciation in Example

consonant final position

ㄹ ㄹ 팔 arm
22 ㄴ ㄴ 은 silver
 Korean
ㅁ ㅁ 몸 body
script and
ㅇ ㅇ 용 dragon pronunciation
ㅂ ㅂ 집 house
ㅍ 짚 [집] straw
ㄷ ㄷ 받– receive
ㅌ 같– [갇] be the same
ㅈ 갖– [갇] have, hold
ㅊ 살갗 [살갇] complexion, skin
ㅅ 등갓 [등갇] lampshade
ㅆ 갔– [갇] went [past stem of ‘go’]
ㅎ 히읗 [히읃] (name of letter ㅎ)
ㄱ ㄱ 역 station
ㄲ 엮– [역] compile, weave
ㅋ 녘 [녁] around, about

Note that although ㅎ is conventionally listed as being pronounced

as ㄷ in final position, the only word where this is actually the case
is 히읗. This should be considered as a convention for pronounc-
ing the name of this letter, rather than as a general sound rule. In
other cases where ㅎ occurs at the end of a syllable (e.g., in verb
bases such as 좋– ‘good’ and 많– ‘many’) it is not pronounced at
all (refer to 1.2.3.9), although it may affect the pronunciation of
any consonants that follow it (refer to 1.2.3.10).
What is written as a final consonant of one syllable block can in
some cases be pronounced as the opening sound of the next sylla-
ble block (refer to 1.2.3.3). In such cases, the full pronunciation
can be maintained.

1.2.3.2 Simplification of consonant clusters

A ‘consonant cluster’ refers to instances in which two or more con-

sonants appear in succession without any vowel sounds between
them (examples in English include strike, helps, crisps).
In Korean pronunciation, consonant clusters are not allowed. How- 23
ever, clusters of two consonants do sometimes appear in writing
 1 in final consonant position. In such cases, one of the sounds must
Introduction always drop (or otherwise move to another syllable through ‘re-syl-
to the Korean labification’ (refer to 1.2.3.3)). Luckily, knowing which consonant
Language drops and which is pronounced is usually totally predictable, as
shown in the following table. Note however, that for the combina-
tions ㄺ lk and ㄼ lp, some speakers may pronounce the ㄹ l rather
than the prescribed ㄱ k or ㅂ p in certain words.

Consonant Sound Example

cluster pronounced

ㄳ ㄱ 넋 [넉] soul, spirit

ㄶ ㄴ 많– [만-] be many
ㄻ ㅁ 삶– [삼] boil
ㄽ ㄹ 외곬 [외골] single way track
ㄿ ㅍ [ㅂ] 읊– [읍] recite
ㅄ ㅂ 값 [갑] price
ㄵ ㄴ 앉– [안] sit
ㄺ ㄱ 읽– [익] read
맑– [막] clear – but frequently
pronounced as [말]
ㄼ ㅂ 밟– [밥] step on
넓– [넙] wide – but frequently
pronounced as [널]
ㄾ ㄹ 핥– [할] lick
ㅀ ㄹ 뚫– [뚤] bore [a hole]

1.2.3.3 Re-syllabification

Re-syllabification refers to the process whereby a consonant is writ-

ten at the end of one syllable block but pronounced at the start of
the next syllable. This happens whenever one syllable block ends in
a consonant and the following syllable has no opening consonant
24 sound. The two exceptions to this rule are ㅇ ng and ㅎ h. ㅇ ng
cannot become the opening sound of the following syllable block
because ng can only appear as a final consonant sound. As for ㅎ, Korean
it does not get pronounced at all in such cases (for example, 좋아요 script and
‘good’ is pronounced as cho-a-yo, not cho-ha-yo). pronunciation

Here are some basic examples of nouns that show re-syllabification:

How it is How it is Meaning

written pronounced
독일 [도길] Germany
언어 [어너] language
신인 [시닌] new person (i.e., newcomer,
‘new face’, etc.)

As in the above examples, most nouns that show re-syllabification

are Sino-Korean words composed of compounds of two or more ele-
ments originating from separate Chinese characters (for example, 신
인 ‘new person’ is composed of the elements 신 (新) ‘new’ and 인 (人)
‘person’). The words are written to reflect the base forms of these two
separate elements (i.e., 신-인) rather than pronunciation (i.e. 시-닌).
Re-syllabification also occurs when particles (refer to Chapter 3)
(with no opening consonant sound) and the copula (refer to 4.1.4)
are attached to nouns (ending in a consonant) and when verb
endings (with no opening consonant sound) are attached to verb
stems (ending in a consonant):

Written Pronunciation Meaning

한국이 [한구기] Korea-subject
물을 [무를] water-object
약이에요 [야기에요] medicine-copula
입어서 [이버서] wear –아/어서 verb ending
(refer to 7.1.1)
입으면 [이브면] wear –(으)면 verb ending
(refer to 7.5.1)

The rule of re-syllabification can be said to override the rules regard-

ing the pronunciation of syllable-final consonants described above
(refer to 1.2.3.1). If a consonant can be re-syllabified, it can natu-
rally be rendered according to its full pronunciation. For this reason,
adding a particle (with no opening consonant sound) or the copula 25
to a noun (ending in a consonant) and adding verb endings (with
 1 no opening consonant sound) to verb stems (ending in a consonant)
Introduction allow the final nouns to ‘recover’ their original pronunciation.
to the Korean
Original noun Noun + particle/copula
Language
짚 [집] straw 짚이 [지피] straw-subject
낫 [낟] sickle 낫으로 [나스로] sickle-instrumental

Verb stem Verb + ending

같– be the same 같아서 [가타서] be the same
–아/어서 (refer to 7.1.1)
갔– went [past stem of ‘go’] 갔으면 [가쓰면] went –(으)면
(refer to 7.5.1)

The rule of re-syllabification also overrides the rules regarding

the simplification of consonant clusters. If a consonant cluster is
followed by a vowel at the start of the next syllable, the first con-
sonant of the cluster can be pronounced as the final sound of the
current syllable and the second consonant of the cluster can sim-
ply move across to the next syllable. This also allows for sounds
at the end of nouns and verb stems to be ‘recovered’ when certain
particles, the copula and verb endings are added:

Original noun Noun + particle/copula

넋 [넉] soul, spirit 넋을 [넉슬] spirit-object
값 [갑] price 값으로 [갑스로] price-instrumental

Verb stem Verb + ending

삶– boil 삶아서 [살마서] boil –아/어서 verb
ending (refer to 7.1.1)
읽– read 읽으면 [일그면] read –(으)면 verb
ending (refer to 7.5.1)

1.2.3.4 Nasal assimilation

‘Assimilation’ refers to a phonological change whereby a sound

‘assimilates’ to become similar to a neighbouring sound.
What is known as nasal assimilation happens when a stop conso-
nant (i.e., a consonant whose sound is formed by slowing down or
26 stopping the flow of air through the mouth before being released
with an expulsion of breath and sound – in Korean, ㄱ k, ㅋ k’, Korean
ㄲ kk, ㄷ t, ㅌ t’, ㄸ tt, ㅂ p, ㅍ p’, ㅃ pp) occurs before a nasal script and
consonant (i.e., a consonant produced through the nose with the pronunciation
mouth closed – in Korean ㄴ n, ㅁ m, ㅇ ng, althoughㅇ ng does
not apply here as it never appears in initial position). When this
happens, the stop consonant assimilates to the nasal sound that is
produced using the same point of articulation:

ㄱ k, ㅋ k’, ㄲ kk  ㅇ ng
ㄷ t, ㅌ t’, ㄸ tt  ㄴn
ㅂ p, ㅍ p’, ㅃ pp  ㅁm

Here are some examples of these changes:

ㄱ k, ㅋ k’, ㄲ kk  ㅇ ng
국물  [궁물] broth
먹는다  [멍는다] eat
부엌만  [부엉만] kitchen-only
묶는다  [뭉는다] tie

ㄷ t, ㅌ t’, ㄸ tt  ㄴn
받는다  [반는다] receive
붙는다  [분는다] stick to

ㅂ p, ㅍ p’, ㅃ pp  ㅁm
법망  [범망] net of the law
돕는다  [돔는다] help
[plain speech style]
앞마당  [암마당] front yard
없는  [엄는] not exist-modifier
(refer to 8.1.2)

The final example shows the results of two pronunciation changes.

The consonant cluster at the end of the first syllable first simplifies
to ㅂ p (없는  업는) (refer to 1.2.3.2). Then, ㅂ p assimilates to
ㅁ m (업는  엄는). 27
 1 In casual speech, one further type of nasal assimilation may occur.
Introduction This involves the nasal ㄴ n changing to another nasal sound,
to the Korean either ㅇ ng ㅁ or m. This happens when ㄴ n occurs before con-
Language sonants pronounced using the same point of articulation as ㅇ ng
or ㅁ m, namely ㄱ k (in the case of ㅇ ng) and ㅂ p and ㅁ m itself
(in the case of ㅁ). Put more simply, ㄴ n changes to ㅇ ng before
ㄱ k, and ㄴ n changes to ㅁ before ㅂ p or ㅁ m:

ㄴn  ㅇ ng
한국어  [항구거] Korean language

ㄴn  ㅁm
난방  [남방] heating
신문  [심문] newspaper

1.2.3.5 ㄹ r/l pronounced as ㄴ n

The appearance and pronunciation of ㄹ r/l is quite restricted

in Korean. As noted above (refer to 1.2.2.5), ㄹ r/l rarely occurs
at the start of Korean words. In addition, when it occurs in the
middle of words, ㄹ r/l only tends to be retain its original pro-
nunciation after vowels, after another ㄹ r/l and after ㄴ (refer to
1.2.3.6). When it occurs after consonants such as ㅁ m and ㅇ ng,
its pronunciation changes to ㄴ n:

ㅁㄹ  ㅁㄴ
금리  [금니] interest on money
담론  [담논] discussion

ㅇㄹ  ㅇㄴ
등록  [등녹] registration
영리  [영니] profit, gain

In cases where the preceding consonant is ㅂp, ㄱ k or ㄷ (or

any other consonants that neutralize toㅂp, ㄱ k or ㄷ (refer to
1.2.3.1)), the change from ㄹ l to ㄴ n (or the anticipation of
it) triggers nasal assimilation (refer to 1.2.3.4) on the preceding
consonant. This means that ㅂp is pronounced as ㅁ m, ㄷ t is
28 pronounced as ㄴ n and ㄱ k is pronounced as ㅇ ng:
 ㄱㄹ  ㅇㄴ Korean
script and
독립  [동닙] independence
pronunciation
ㄷㄹ  ㄴㄴ
꽃룸  [꼰눔]* flower-room
ㅂㄹ  ㅁㄴ
압력  [암녁] pressure
*  The ㄷㄹ combination is not commonly found in contemporary Korean.

1.2.3.6 ㄴ n pronounced as ㄹ l

One important exception to the rule described in the previous

section (whereby ㄹ r/l changes to ㄴ n after other consonants)
occurs when ㄹ r/l meetsㄴ n itself. In these cases, it is ㄴ n that
changes to ㄹ r/l. In other words, the combination ㄴㄹ is pro-
nounced as ㄹㄹ:

ㄴㄹ  ㄹㄹ
난로  [날로] heater
신라  [실라] Shilla (name of Kingdom on Korean
peninsula)

This change also occurs when the order of ㄴ n and ㄹ l/r is

reversed. ㄹㄴ is also pronounced as ㄹㄹ:

ㄹㄴ  ㄹㄹ
칼날  [칼랄] knife blade
핥는다  [할른다]* lick
*  The ㄾ consonant cluster simplifies to ㄹ

It should be noted, however, that the rule whereby ㄴㄹ is pro-

nounced as ㄹㄹ only applies to word-internal cases (i.e., when
ㄴ precedes ㄹ within a word). When ㄴ n occurs at the end of
a word and this word then takes a suffix beginning with ㄹ, the
combination is most commonly pronounced as ㄴㄴ (although
you may here some speakers use ㄹㄹ). 29
 1 Original word Word plus suffix Pronunciation
Introduction ending in ㄴ starting with ㄹ
to the Korean
입원 hospitalization 입원료 hospital expenses [이붠뇨]
Language
신문 newspaper 신문로 ‘newspaper street’ [신문노]

1.2.3.7 Palatalization of ㄷ t and ㅌ t’

When ㄷ t or ㅌ t’ occurs before the vowel ㅣ i, the pronuncia-

tion becomes ‘palatalized’. Basically, this means that ㄷ t and ㅌ
t’ change to ㅈ ch and ㅊ ch’ respectively. Note however, that this
change only occurs when the ㄷ t or ㅌ t’ is at the end of a word
or stem and theㅣ is part of a suffix, verb ending, particle or the
copula. It does not occur elsewhere (for example, in words such
어디 where, 마디 joint, 티 speck).

ㄷ  ㅈ
해돋이  [해도지] sunrise [해 sun + 돋– rise + suffix –이]
맏이  [마지] first born [맏– eldest + 이 person]
굳이  [구지] firmly [굳– firm + adverb ending –이]

ㅌ  ㅊ
밭이  [바치] field (subject) [밭 field + subject particle 이]
솥이면  [소치면] if it’s a kettle [솥 kettle + copula 이 + (으)면]
같이  [가치] together [같– ‘be the same’ + adverb ending –이]

As well as occurring before ㅣ i, this process also occurs before

y-vowels:

ㅌ  ㅊ
붙여요  [부쳐요] stick [붙– be stuck + causative 이 + 어요]

A slightly more complicated thing happens when a final-position

ㄷ t is followed by a suffix starting in 히 hi. The combination
of ㄷ t and ㅎ h creates the aspirated ㅌ t’ through a process of
30 aspiration (refer to 1.2.3.10). This then becomes palatalized to
produce ㅊ ch’:
 ㄷㅎ  ㅊ Korean
script and
닫히–  [다치–] be shut [닫– shut +
pronunciation
passive –히]
굳히–  [구치–] harden [굳– be hard +
causative –히]

1.2.3.8 ㄴ n addition

In some complex words (i.e., words made up of two or more mean-

ingful units such as the English flowerpot (flower+pot) or undo
(un+do)) in which the second part of the compound begins with ㅣ
i or any of the y-vowels, an extra ㄴ n is added in pronunciation.
For some words, the addition of ㄴ n is reflected in Hangul spell-
ing (for example, 앞니 front tooth). In other cases, there is no clue
in the spelling that tells us that ㄴ n has to be added:

담요  [담뇨] blanket
한여름  [한녀름] midsummer
면양말  [면냥말] cotton socks

When the first element of the compound ends in a stop conso-

nant (i.e., ㄱ k, ㅋ k’, ㄲ kk, ㄷ t, ㅌ t’, ㄸ tt, ㅂ p, ㅍ p’, ㅃ pp),
the addition of ㄴ n triggers nasal assimilation (refer to 1.2.3.4):

ㄱ/ㅋ/ㄲ + ㄴ  ㅇㄴ
내복약  [내봉냑] internal medicine
부엌일  [부엉닐] kitchen work

ㄷ/ㅌ/ㄸ + ㄴ  ㄴㄴ
꽃잎  [꼰닙]* petal
깻잎  [깬닙]* sesame leaf
* Here, ㅊ and ㅅ at the end of the respective first syllables are both pronounced as
ㄷ in the original components 꽃 and 깻- respectively. (refer to 1.2.3.1)

ㅂ/ㅍ/ㅃ+ ㄴ  ㅁㄴ
앞일  [암닐] the future
31
영업용  [영엄뇽] business use/purposes
 1 1.2.3.9 ㅎ h reduction
Introduction
to the Korean Full deletion of ㅎ h is obligatory when it occurs at the end of a
Language verb base in front of a vowel sound. In words such as the follow-
ing, ㅎ is never pronounced.

좋아요  [조아요] is good

많아요  [마나요] is many

Note, however, that the presence of ㅎ h at the end of the base will
trigger aspiration when verb endings starting with certain conso-
nants are added (refer to 1.2.3.10).
In addition, when ㅎ occurs between voiced sounds (i.e., all vow-
els and/or the consonants ㅁ m ㄴn, ㅇ ng, ㄹ r), it is pronounced
very weakly or is even lost entirely in fast everyday speech:

영화  [영와] film, movie

여행  [여앵] travel
미안합니다  [미아남니다] I’m sorry
전화  [저놔] telephoning

1.2.3.10 Aspiration

When ㅎ h occurs next to the basic consonants ㄱ k, ㄷ t, ㅂ p and

ㅈ ch, it causes them to change into their aspirated counterparts
ㅋ k’, ㅌ t’, ㅍ p’ and ㅊ ch’ respectively (ㅎ h is then not pro-
nounced as a separate sound).
This aspiration process can occur both when ㅎ h precedes or fol-
lows the basic consonant in question. In the first set of examples,
ㅎ h precedes the consonant:

ㅎㄱ  ㅋ
그렇게  [그러케] like that

ㅎㄷ  ㅌ
좋다  [조타] is good

32 ㅎㅂ  ㅍ [this combination is not

found in modern Korean]
 ㅎㅈ  ㅊ Korean
script and
그렇지만  [그러치만] like that
pronunciation

In the next set of examples, ㅎ h follows the consonants:

ㄱㅎ  ㅋ
백화점  [배콰점] department store

ㄷㅎ  ㅌ
맏형  [마텽] the eldest brother

ㅂㅎ  ㅍ
급히  [그피] urgently

ㅈㅎ  ㅊ
맞히–  [마치–] hit [the mark]

1.2.3.11 Reinforcement

Reinforcement refers to the process by which the basic consonants

ㄱ k, ㄷ t, ㅂ p and ㅈ ch become pronounced as their tensed or
‘double’ counterparts ㄲ kk, ㄸ tt, ㅃ pp and ㅉ tch. There are
several situations in which this may occur.
The first situation in which reinforcement occurs is when two of
the basic consonants (ㄱ k, ㄷ t, ㅂ p and ㅈ ch) occur together in
a word (one ending the one syllable block and the other starting
the next). When this happens, the second consonant will always
be pronounced with reinforcement:

Reinforcement of ㄱ 받고  [받꼬] receive + –고

(refer to 7.3.1)
Reinforcement of ㄷ 법대  [법때] law school
Reinforcement of ㅂ 국밥  [국빱] soup with rice
Reinforcement of ㅈ 곧장  [곧짱] straight away

This kind of reinforcement will also take place when the final con-
sonant of the first syllable is not written asㄱ k, ㄷ t, ㅂ p and 33
ㅈ ch but is pronounced as such due to the rules regarding the
 1 pronunciation of final consonants (refer to 1.2.3.1) or simplifica-
Introduction tion of consonant clusters (refer to 1.2.3.2):
to the Korean
Spelling Sound change Reinforcement
Language
옆집  엽집  [엽찝] next door
꽃바구니  꼳바구니  [꼳빠구니] flower basket

Spelling Simplified cluster Reinforcement

닭살  닥살  [닥쌀] goose bumps
없다  업다  [업따] not exist

Reinforcement does not usually occur after a nasal consonant

(i.e., ㄴ n, ㅁ m, ㅇ ng). However, the exception to this is when
the nasal sound in question occurs at the end of a verb stem and
an ending beginning with a plain consonant is added to it:

신고  [신꼬] report + –고 (refer to

7.3.1)
다듬다가  [다듬따가] trim, refine + –다가
(refer to 7.3.11)

A more complicated variety of reinforcement can occur in com-

plex nouns (i.e., nouns composed of two or more morphemes).
This first of all happens in complex nouns in which the two ele-
ments are linked together by the addition of the so-called ‘genitive
s’ (사이시옷) – an additional ㅅ s written at the bottom of the
syllable. Although written as ㅅ s, it is never pronounced as such
(at least not in the modern language). All that it does is to cause
the following plain consonants to become reinforced:

사잇길  [사이낄] the way between

뱃길  [배낄] shipping route
종잇장  [종이짱] sheet of paper
텃밭  [터빧] backyard vegetable plot

The ‘genitive s’ can only be written when the first element in

the complex noun ends in a vowel. However, ‘genitive s’ may
be phonologically present in complex nouns that end in a con-
34 sonant as well (although Hangul orthography does not allow
it to be written). Due to this, other compounds may also see Korean
tensing on the second element with no indication at all in the script and
spelling: pronunciation

안방  [안빵] inner room

안과  [안꽈] opticians; eye clinic
눈동자  [눈똥자] pupil (of eye)
잠보  [잠뽀] sleepyhead
김밥  [김빱] rice rolled in seaweed
강가  [강까] riverside

Non-predictable tensing may also occur in other complex nouns

where there is no etymological evidence of there being a ‘genitive s’:

한자  [한짜] Chinese characters

글자  [글짜] letters
문법  [문뻡] grammar
산보  [산뽀] a stroll
조건  [조껀] condition
인기  [인끼] popularity
결정  [결쩡] decision

35
 Chapter 2

Nouns, nominal forms,

pronouns and numbers

2.1 Nouns

Overview
The current sub-chapter provides important information regard-
ing the grammatical appearance of Korean nouns.
Section one considers three points on which Korean nouns differ
greatly from their counterparts in English and other European lan-
guages: the absence of articles, the limited appearance of number and
the lack of importance of gender. Section two then considers an import-
ant category of noun that requires further comment: bound nouns.
One important feature of Korean nouns not covered in this chap-
ter is the fact that some Korean nouns have a separate ‘honorific’
form. This situation is discussed in the chapter on honorifics (6.2.3)

2.1.1 Lack of articles, number and gender

Unlike many European languages, Korean does not have articles

(such as ‘a/an’ and ‘the’ in English), does not typically mark num-
ber (i.e., whether a noun is singular or plural) and does not usually
mark gender (as in European languages such as French, German,
Spanish and Russian). On these points, however, Korean is similar
to other East Asian languages such as Chinese and Japanese.
Although the lack of these categories can sometimes be disori-
36 enting to European learners, Korean has ways to express these
meanings where necessary.
2.1.1.1 Lack of articles Nouns

Due to the lack of articles, a Korean sentence such as the follow-

ing can be ambiguous regarding whether the ‘man’ that Yumi met
is a specific man (‘the man’) or an unspecified man (‘a man’)

어제 유미가 남자를 만났어요.

Yesterday,Yumi met the man. / Yesterday,Yumi met a man.

However, where need be, Korean can use other resources to tell
us whether a specific man or an unspecified man is being talked
about. For definite reference (‘the man’), 그 ‘that’ (or, according to
context, 이 ‘this’) can be used:

어제 유미가 그 남자를 만났어요.

Yesterday,Yumi met the man.

For indefinite reference (‘a man’), 한 ‘one’ or 어떤 ‘some (kind of)’

can be used:

어제 유미가 어떤 남자를 만났어요.

Yesterday,Yumi met a man.

2.1.1.2 Lack of number

Since Korean nouns are not normally marked for number, it is

often unclear (unless there is a clarifying context), whether the
speaker is talking about a single item or plural items. In the fol-
lowing sentence, ‘책’ could translate as ‘book’ or ‘books’:

책이 있어요. I’ve got a book. / I’ve got some books.

However, if it is necessary to specify that what is being talked

about is not a single item but plural items, Korean does have a
grammatical marker that can fulfil this function: the plural marker
들 (refer to 3.3.1). The following sentence can only mean that
I have ‘books’, not that I have ‘a book’:

책들이 있어요. I’ve got some books.

Another way to make a noun plural is to use a number expression

(refer to 2.4). Note that when one of these number expressions is
used, since this makes it obvious that what you are talking about 37
is plural (or singular), the plural marker is not normally used.