p-n Junction

A p-n junction is formed by joining p-type and n-type semiconductors together in very
close contact. The term junction refers to the boundary interface where the two regions
of the semiconductor meet. If they were constructed of two separate pieces this would
introduce a grain boundary, so p-n junctions are created in a single crystal of
semiconductor by doping, for example, by ion implantation, diffusion of dopants, or by
epitaxy (growing a layer of crystal doped with one type of dopant on top of a layer of
crystal doped with another type of dopant). p-n junctions are elementary “building
blocks” of almost all semiconductor electronic devices such as diodes, transistors, solar
cells, LEDs, and integrated circuits; they are the active sites where the electronic action
of the device takes place. For example, a common charge. The regions nearby the p-n
interfaces lose their neutrality and become charged, forming the space charge region or
depletion layer.
Space
charge
Neutral region region Neutral region

Holes
 Electrons


p-doped  n-doped




x
E-field
“Diffusion force”on holes “Diffusion force”on electrons

E-field force on holes E-field force on electrons

Figure 2.1 A p-n junction in thermal equilibrium with zero bias voltage applied

The electric field created by the space charge region opposes the diffusion process for
both electrons and holes. There are two concurrent phenomena: the diffusion process
that tends to generate more space charge, and the electric field generated by the space
charge that tends to counteract the diffusion. The carrier concentration profile at
equilibrium is shown in Fig. 2.1.
The space charge region is a zone with a net charge provided by the fixed ions (donors
or acceptors) that have been left uncovered by majority carrier diffusion. When
equilibrium is reached, the charge density is approximated by the displayed step
function. In fact, the region is completely depleted of majority carriers (leaving a charge
density equal to the net doping level), and the edge between the space charge region and
the neutral region is quite sharp. The space charge region has the same charge on both
sides of the p-n interfaces, thus it extends farther on the less doped side.
2.3 Forward Biasing and Reverse Biasing
Forward Biasing
When external voltage applied to the junction is in such a direction that it cancels the
potential barrier, thus permitting current flow is called forward biasing. To apply
forward bias, connect +ve terminal of the battery to p-type and –ve terminal to n-type
as shown in Fig. 2.2. The applied forward potential establishes the electric field which
acts against the field due to potential barrier. Therefore, the resultant field is weakened
and the barrier height is reduced at the junction as shown in Fig. 2.2. Since the potential
barrier voltage is very small, a small forward voltage is sufficient to completely eliminate
the barrier. Once the potential barrier is eliminated by the forward voltage, junction
resistance becomes almost zero and a low resistance path is established for the entire
circuit. Therefore, current flows in the circuit. This is called forward current.

p n

+ –
No external field
External field

Figure 2.2 Forward biasing of p-n junction

Reverse Biasing
When the external voltage applied to the junction is in such a direction the potential
barrier is increased it is called reverse biasing. To apply reverse bias, connect –ve
terminal of the battery to p-type and +ve terminal to n-type as shown in Fig. 2.3.
The applied reverse voltage establishes an electric field which acts in the same
direction as the field due to potential barrier. Therefore, the resultant field at the
junction is strengthened and the barrier height is increased as shown in Fig. 2.3. The
increased potential barrier prevents the flow of charge carriers across the junction.
Thus, a high resistance path is established for the entire circuit and hence current does
not flow.
 p n

– +

External field

No external field

Figure 2.3 Reverse biasing of p-n junction

2.4 Volt-Ampere (V-I) Characteristics Of P-Junction Diode

The V-I characteristics of a semiconductor diode can be obtained with the help of the
circuit shown in Fig. 2.4 (i). The supply voltage V is a regulated power supply, the diode
is forward biased in the circuit shown. The resistor R is a current limiting resistor. The
voltage across the diode is measured with the help of voltmeter and the current is
recorded using an ammeter.
By varying the supply voltage different sets of voltage and currents are obtained. By
plotting these values on a graph, the forward characteristics can be obtained. It can be
noted from the graph the current remains zero till the diode voltage attains the barrier
potential.
For silicon diode, the barrier potential is 0.7 V and for germanium diode, it is 0.3 V.
The barrier potential is also called knee voltage or cut-in voltage. The reverse
characteristics can be obtained by reverse biasing the diode. It can be noted that at a
particular reverse voltage, the reverse current increases rapidly. This voltage is called
breakdown voltage.
R
+ –

+ Diode
V V
–

(i)
 IF(mA)

Break over
voltage

VR Knee voltage VF

IR(A)

(ii)

Figure 2.4 V-I characteristics of p-n junction diode.

(i) Circuit diagram
(ii) Characteristics

The control of electric motor drives requires control of electric power. Power
electronics have eased the concept of power control. Power electronics signifies the
word power electronics and control or we can say the electronic that deal with power
equipment for power control.

Ref signal

Control Digital Power Load

Circuit Circuit Electronic
circuit

Feedback Signal

Main power source

Power electronics based on the switching of power semiconductor devices. With the
development of power semiconductor technology, the power handling capabilities and
switching speed of power devices have been improved tremendously.

Power Semiconductor Devices

The first SCR was developed in late 1957. Power semiconductor devices are broadly
categorized into 3 types:
1. Power diodes (600V,4500A)
 2. Transistors
3. Thyristors (10KV,300A,30MW)

Thyristors:

Thyristor is a four layer three junction pnpn semiconductor switching device. It has 3
terminals these are anode, cathode and gate. SCRs are solid state device, so they are
compact, possess high reliability and have low loss.

SCR is made up of silicon, it act as a rectifier; it has very low resistance in the forward
direction and high resistance in the reverse direction. It is a unidirectional device.

Static V-I characteristics of a Thyristor

The circuit diagram for obtaining static V-I characteristics is as shown

Anode and cathode are connected to main source voltage through the load. The gate and
cathode are fed from source 𝐸𝑆.
A typical SCR V-I characteristic is as shown below:

𝑉𝐵𝑂=Forward breakover voltage

𝑉𝐵𝑅=Reverse breakover voltage
𝐼𝑔=Gate current
𝑉𝑎=Anode voltage across the thyristor terminal A,K.
𝐼𝑎=Anode current
 It can be inferred from the static V-I characteristic of SCR. SCR have 3 modes of
operation:
1. Reverse blocking mode
2. Forward blocking mode ( off state)
3. Forward conduction mode (on state)

1. Reverse Blocking Mode

When cathode of the thyristor is made positive with respect to anode with switch open
thyristor is reverse biased. Junctions 𝐽1 and 𝐽2 are reverse biased where junction 𝐽2 is
forward biased. The device behaves as if two diodes are connected in series with reverse
voltage applied across them.
• A small leakage current of the order of few mA only flows. As the thyristor is reverse
biased and in blocking mode. It is called as acting in reverse blocking mode of operation.
• Now if the reverse voltage is increased, at a critical breakdown level called reverse
breakdown voltage 𝑉𝐵𝑅,an avalanche occurs at 𝐽1 and 𝐽3 and the reverse current
increases rapidly. As a large current associated with 𝑉𝐵𝑅 and hence more losses to the
SCR, this results in Thyristor damage as junction temperature may exceed its maximum
temperature rise.

2. Forward Blocking Mode

When anode is positive with respect to cathode, with gate circuit open, thyristor is said
to be forward biased.
Thus junction 𝐽1 and 𝐽3 are forward biased and 𝐽2 is reverse biased. As the forward
voltage is increases junction 𝐽2 will have an avalanche breakdown at a voltage called
forward breakover voltage𝑉𝐵𝑂. When forward voltage is less then 𝑉𝐵𝑂 thyristor offers
high impedance. Thus a thyristor acts as an open switch in forward blocking mode.

3. Forward Conduction Mode

Here thyristor conducts current from anode to cathode with a very small voltage drop
across it. So, a thyristor can be brought from forward blocking mode to forward
conducting mode:

1. By exceeding the forward breakover voltage.

2. By applying a gate pulse between gate and cathode.

During forward conduction mode of operation thyristor is in on state and behave like a
close switch. Voltage drop is of the order of 1 to 2mV. This small voltage drop is due to
ohmic drop across the four layers of the device.
 Different turn ON methods for SCR
1. Forward voltage triggering
2. Gate triggering
3. triggering
4. Light triggering
5. Temperature triggering

1. Forward voltage triggering

A forward voltage is applied between anode and cathode with gate circuit open.

• Junction 𝐽1 and 𝐽3 is forward biased.

• Junction 𝐽2 is reverse biased.
• As the anode to cathode voltage is increased breakdown of the reverse biased junction
𝐽2 occurs. This is known as avalanche breakdown and the voltage at which this
phenomena occurs is called forward breakover voltage.
• The conduction of current continues even if the anode cathode voltage reduces below
𝑉𝐵𝑂 till 𝐼𝑎 will not go below𝐼ℎ . Where 𝐼ℎ is the holding current for the thyristor.

2. Gate triggering

This is the simplest, reliable and efficient method of firing the forward biased SCRs. First
SCR is forward biased. Then a positive gate voltage is applied between gate and cathode.
In practice the transition from OFF state to ON state by exceeding 𝑉𝐵𝑂 is never employed
as it may destroy the device. The magnitude of 𝑉𝐵𝑂, so forward breakover voltage is
taken as final voltage rating of the device during the design of SCR application.
First step is to choose a thyristor with forward breakover voltage (say 800V) higher than
the normal working voltage. The benefit is that the thyristor will be in blocking state
with normal working voltage applied across the anode and cathode with gate open.
When we require the turning ON of a SCR a positive gate voltage between gate and
cathode is applied. The point to be noted that cathode n- layer is heavily doped as
compared to gate p-layer. So when gate supply is given between gate and cathode gate
p-layer is flooded with electron from cathode n-layer. Now the thyristor is forward
biased, so some of these electron reach junction 𝐽2 .As a result width of 𝐽2 breaks down
or conduction at 𝐽2 occur at a voltage less than 𝑉𝐵𝑂.As 𝐼𝑔 increases 𝑉𝐵𝑂 reduces which
decreases then turn ON time. Another important point is duration for which the gate
current is applied should be more then turn ON time. This means that if the gate current
is reduced to zero before the anode current reaches a minimum value known as holding
current, SCR can’t turn ON.

In this process power loss is less and also low applied voltage is required for triggering.

3. dv/dt triggering

This is a turning ON method but it may lead to destruction of SCR and so it must be
avoided.
When SCR is forward biased, junction 𝐽1 and 𝐽3 are forward biased and junction 𝐽2 is
reversed biased so it behaves as if an insulator is place between two conducting plate.
Here 𝐽1 and 𝐽3 acts as a conducting plate and 𝐽2 acts as an insulator. 𝐽2 is known as
junction capacitor. So if we increase the rate of change of forward voltage instead of
increasing the magnitude of voltage. Junction 𝐽2 breaks and starts conducting. A high

value of changing current may damage the SCR. So SCR may be protected from high .
4. Temperature triggering

During forward biased, 𝐽2 is reverse biased so a leakage forward current always

associated with SCR. Now as we know the leakage current is temperature dependant, so
if we increase the temperature the leakage current will also increase and heat
dissipation of junction 𝐽2occurs. When this heat reaches a sufficient value 𝐽2 will break
and conduction starts.
Disadvantages
• This type of triggering causes local hot spot and may cause thermal run away of
the device.
• This triggering cannot be controlled easily.
• It is very costly as protection is costly.

5. Light triggering

First a new recess niche is made in the inner p-layer. When this recess is irradiated, then
free charge carriers (electron and hole) are generated. Now if the intensity is increased
above a certain value then it leads to turn ON of SCR. Such SCR are known as Light
activated SCR (LASCR).

Some definitions:

Latching current

The latching current may be defined as the minimum value of anode current which at
must attain during turn ON process to maintain conduction even if gate signal is
removed.

Holding current

It is the minimum value of anode current below which if it falls, the SCR will turn OFF.