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Ceramics International xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Ceramics International
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ceramint

Application of grits waste as a renewable carbonate material in


manufacturing wall tiles

F.B. Siqueira, J.N.F. Holanda
Laboratory of Advanced Materials/GMCer, State University of Northern Fluminense, Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ 28013-602, Brazil

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This work focuses on the reuse of grits waste, from cellulose industry, as a raw material to replace traditional
A. Firing carbonate material in ceramic wall tiles. Wall tile formulations bearing up to 15 wt% of the grits waste were
B. Porosity prepared for replacement of calcareous. The tile manufacturing route consisted of dry powder granulation,
E. Structural applications uniaxial pressing, and firing at temperatures ranging from 1100 °C to 1180 °C by using a fast-firing cycle. The
Grits waste
wall tile specimens were tested to determine their physical and mechanical properties (linear shrinkage, water
absorption, apparent porosity, apparent density, breaking strength, and flexural strength). The firing behavior,
phase transformations, and microstructure were evaluated by dilatometry, XRD, and SEM. The results showed
that the fired wall tile specimens are composed of anorthite and quartz, as major mineral phases, and mullite as a
minor phase. It was found that the grits waste had a positive influence on the properties and microstructure of
the wall tile specimens. The results also revealed that the grits waste from cellulose industry could be used as a
total replacement of traditional calcareous material in wall tile formulations.

1. Introduction and conventional ceramic raw materials.


Wall tiles are porous ceramic products with very high open porosity
Cellulose is a biomass produced on a large scale in many parts of the suitable for indoor coverage and decorative work. They are character-
world. Brazil is currently the fourth worldwide producer of cellulose, ized by excellent dimensional stability, good adherence, low hydrat-
behind the United States, China, and Canada. However, the cellulose ability, and low weight per square meter [11,12]. Wall tile formulations
industry produces huge amounts of by-products worldwide, including are mainly composed of non-renewable ceramic raw materials, such as
grits waste derived from the liquor causticizing step [1–3]. In Brazil, for kaolinitic and illitic clays, carbonates, quartz, feldspars, and talc in
example, the cellulose industry yields approximately 690,000 t per year variable amounts [12,13]. The wall tiles are fired in industrial single-
of grits waste. The grits waste is environmentally classified to be a non- layer roller kilns using single fast-firing cycles (< 60 min) at peak
inert solid waste material (class IIA) [4], potentially pollutant. At the temperatures between 1080 and 1150 °C. On firing, the main compo-
present, most of the grits waste produced is commonly disposed of in nents of the wall tile formulations (clay/carbonate material/quartz)
private solid waste sites without any pretreatment. However, such react to form calcium-based crystalline phases, such as calcium alu-
waste management method presents economic and environmental dis- minosilicates and calcium silicates. Such crystalline phases formed
advantages. This fact evidences the need to the use of grits waste in upon firing are of paramount importance for the technical properties
added-value products as an option that meets current needs in terms of and performance of ceramic wall tiles.
sustainable development. It is well known that, in ceramic wall tiles, the carbonate material
At present, there is an increasing interest in the valorization of solid plays an important role as a fluxing agent during firing. In particular,
waste materials worldwide. Previous works [5–10] have reported the the carbonate material influences the whole wall tile properties, such as
potential of replacing non-renewable ceramic raw materials by different degree of whiteness, shrinkage on firing, water absorption capacity
types of solid wastes in the manufacture of ceramic tile materials. As a (open porosity), firing temperature range, thermal expansion coeffi-
rule, this valorization approach is more favorable, from the technical, cient, and moisture expansion [12]. The wall tile formulations are
economic and environmental point of view, when there are similarities characterized by the presence of appreciable amount of carbonate
between the chemical and mineralogical compositions of solid wastes material, whose recommended amount usually ranges from 10 to 16 wt


Corresponding author.
E-mail address: holanda@uenf.br (J.N.F. Holanda).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2018.07.203
Received 12 May 2018; Received in revised form 5 July 2018; Accepted 23 July 2018
0272-8842/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd and Techna Group S.r.l. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Siqueira, F.B., Ceramics International (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2018.07.203
F.B. Siqueira, J.N.F. Holanda Ceramics International xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Table 1 Table 3
The proportions of the blends for the wall tile formulations (wt%). Crystalline phases identified in the raw materials.
Formulation Kaolin Quartz Calcareous Grits waste Raw materials Crystalline phases

MF0 70 15 15 0 Kaolin Kaolinite (Al2O3.2SiO2·2H2O), quartz (SiO2), and muscovite


MF5 70 15 10 5 ((K,Na)(Al,Mg,Fe)2(Si3.1,Al0.9)O10(OH)2)
MF10 70 15 5 10 Quartz Quartz (SiO2)
MF15 70 15 0 15 Calcareous Calcite (CaCO3), dolomite (Ca,Mg(CO3)2), and quartz (SiO2)
Grits waste Calcite (CaCO3), portlandite (Ca(OH)2), and pirssonite
(CaNa2(CO3)2·2H2O)
% [11]. Since the grits waste from the cellulose industry is mainly
composed of calcium carbonate in the form of calcite (CaCO3) [4,14],
then it is very important to investigate its use as a renewable carbonate method. The Hausner ratio was calculated as the ratio of tap density to
material for manufacturing ceramic wall tiles. For our best knowledge, apparent density of the granulated tile powders. The residue of 63 µm
the use of grits waste from cellulose industry in manufacturing ceramic sieve has been also determined.
wall tiles has not been investigated yet. Thus, the grits waste has im- The granulated wall tile powders were moistened with 7 wt% water,
portant benefits that could be reclaimed as a low-cost renewable car- uniaxially pressed at 50 MPa to produce rectangular tiles (11.50 cm ×
bonate material in ceramic wall tile formulations. 2.52 cm), and then dried at 110 °C for 24 h. Finally, the green wall tile
The use of grits waste from cellulose industry as a renewable car- specimens (five test specimens for each composition) were fast-fired
bonate material for manufacturing wall tiles is reported, with special between 1100 °C and 1180 °C with a soaking time of 5 min in a la-
emphasis on the formulation characteristics, their effects on the den- boratory fast-firing kiln. The whole fast-firing-cooling cycle lasted less
sification behavior, technical properties, and microstructural evolution than 60 min to simulate industrial fast-firing process.
of the fired specimens. Linear shrinkage values upon drying and firing have been de-
termined from the length variation of the rectangular specimens ac-
cording to ASTM C 326-09. Water absorption, apparent density, and
2. Experimental procedure
apparent porosity were established by using the Archimedes method
according to ASTM C 373 14a/2014. The breaking strength and flexural
Wall tile compositions were formulated (Table 1) using mixtures of
strength of the rectangular specimens were determined by a three-point
kaolin, quartz, calcareous, and grits waste. The standard wall tile
bending test at a constant loading rate of 0.5 mm/min, according to ISO
composition used as a reference consisted of 70 wt% kaolin, 15 wt%
10545-4, using a universal mechanical testing machine (Instron, model
calcareous, and 15 wt% quartz [15]. In this study, the grits waste ad-
1125).
ditions were up to 15 wt% in gradual replacement of calcareous (tra-
The mineral phase analysis after fast-firing cycle was done by X-ray
ditional carbonate material), while the kaolin and quartz were main-
diffraction (Shimadzu, XRD 7000 diffractometer) using Cu-Kα radia-
tained constant. Commercial kaolin, calcareous, and quartz were used.
tion, 2θ (5–70 °). SEM analysis was carried out on the fractured surface
The grits waste was obtained from a cellulose plant located in south-
of fired wall tile specimens by scanning electron microscopy
eastern of Brazil (Espírito Santo State). Table 2 gives the chemical
(Shimadzu, SEM SSX-550) at 15 kV after gold-coating surfaces.
compositions and loss on ignition of the raw materials. Table 3 displays
the mineral phases of the raw materials.
The raw materials were dried at 110 °C for 24 h, dry grounded se- 3. Results and discussion
parately in a ball mill, and then passed through a 200 mesh (< 75 µm)
sieve. The wall tile powders (Table 1) were prepared by the dry-process, Fig. 1 shows the XRD patterns of the green wall tile formulations. It
in which the dry-ground raw materials are mixed and homogenized can be observed that the formulations presented kaolinite
with finely nebulized water to agglomerate the particles into granules. (Al2O3.2SiO2·2H2O), quartz (SiO2), and calcite (CaCO3) as the main
X-ray diffraction measurements were carried out on the wall tile mineral phases, and muscovite (KAl2Si3AlO13(OH)2) as a minor phase.
crystalline phases using a Shimadzu XRD7000 diffractometer with Cu- However, the mineral composition of the wall tile formulations presents
Kα radiation, working at 40 kV, 40 mA, and scanning speed of 1.5° small but important differences. In the reference wall tile formulation
(2θ)/min. The dilatometric analysis was performed on green wall tile (MF0 formulation), characteristic peaks of dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2)
pellets with a Netzsch DIL 402 C dilatometer in the range of 25 – were also detected (Fig. 1a) while in the wall tile formulation bearing
1050 °C using a heating rate of 10 °C/min under air atmosphere. The grits waste (MF15 formulation), peaks of pirssonite (CaCO3.
granule size distribution was determined via sieving procedure. The Na2CO3·2H2O) and portlandite (Ca(OH)2) were observed (Fig. 1b). This
plasticity of the wall tile powders was obtained using the Atterberg finding agrees with the chemical and mineralogical compositions of the
method. The real density was measured employing the pycnometer raw materials as shown in Table 2 and Table 3. Thus, the replacement
of calcareous with grits waste is expected to influence the technological
Table 2 properties and microstructure of wall tile materials.
Chemical compositions of the raw materials (wt%). Fig. 2 presents the granule size distribution of the wall tile powders
prepared by the dry process. There was only a small difference in the
Oxides Kaolin Quartz Calcareous Grits waste
granule size distribution of the wall tile powders. For all wall tile
SiO2 49.70 98.98 4.03 – powders, the majority of the granules were concentrated in the size
Al2O3 33.74 0.41 – – range of 150–250 µm in agreement with ceramic tile powders produced
CaO 0.30 0.01 65.27 68.67 by the dry process [16].
MgO 0.06 0.01 4.68 –
K2O 1.97 0.18 1.01 1.04
Table 4 presents important technological parameters of the wall tile
Na2O 0.52 0.13 – – powders. It was clear that the variation of real density of the wall tile
Fe2O3 0.22 0.02 0.53 – formulations was small (2.51–2.52 g/cm3) when the calcareous was
SO3 – – 0.44 1.06 replaced by grits waste. In fact, the real density reflects their mineral
TiO2 0.01 – – –
compositions (Fig. 1). The residue retained on a sieve of 63 µm was in
SrO – – – 0.15
LoI+ 13.48 0.26 24.04 29.08 the range of 1–3 wt%, which is adequate for producing ceramic tile
materials [13]. Thus, the primary particles of the wall tile powders had
LoI+ – loss on ignition. high degree of grinding, being compatible with industrial wall tile

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F.B. Siqueira, J.N.F. Holanda Ceramics International xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Fig. 1. X-ray diffraction patterns of the green wall tile formulations: a) MF0;
and b) MF15. 1 - kaolinite; 2 - quartz; 3 - mica; 4 - calcite; 5 - dolomite; 6 -
pirssonite; and 7 - portlandite.

Fig. 3. X-ray diffraction of the wall tile formulations fired at different tem-
peratures: a) MF0; and b) MF15. 1 - anorthite; 2 – gehlenite; 3 - mullite; 4 –
quartz; and 5 - diopside.

Fig. 2. Grain size distribution of the wall tile powders.

Table 4
Physical parameters of the wall tile formulations.
Formulation ρ (g/cm3) Rs (%) LL (%) PL (%) PI (%) HR
Fig. 4. Wall tile formulations plotted in the ternary phase diagram of CaO-
MF0 2.51 2 39.1 21.3 17.8 1.20 Al2O3-SiO2 system.
MF5 2.51 1 37.6 20.1 17.5 1.25
MF10 2.52 3 37.5 20.2 17.3 1.27
MF15 2.52 2 37.0 19.8 17.2 1.29 the Atterberg method (IP = UPL – LPL, in which the UPL is the upper
plastic limit and LPL is the lower plastic limit.). There is no significant
difference in the plastic index (IP = 17.2–17.8%) of the wall tile
powders. In addition, a good interaction between the primary particles powders. These values of plasticity are adequate for ceramic tile pro-
that enhances the physical and chemical reactions during the fast-firing duction. The rheological behavior of the granulated tile powders was
cycle should be expected. The plastic index (IP) was determined using evaluated in terms of Hausner ratio [17–19]. As observed in Table 4,

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F.B. Siqueira, J.N.F. Holanda Ceramics International xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Table 5
Technical properties of the wall tile specimens in the dried state at 110 °C.
Properties Formulation

MF0 MF5 MF10 MF15

Linear shrinkage, % 0.149 0.148 0.151 0.156


Bulk density, g/cm3 1.91 1.90 1.91 1.93
Flexural strength, MPa 2.74 2.89 3.09 3.52

formulations showed small but important differences. Diopside was


detected in the MF0 formulation (Fig. 3a). This is due to the presence of
MgO in the calcareous sample (Table 2), in which the phase transfor-
mation is given by CaO.SiO2 + MgO + SiO2 → CaO.MgO.2SiO2
(diopside). Nonetheless, in the MF15 formulation, the diffraction peaks
of pirssonite and portlandite have disappeared, as shown in Fig. 3(b). In
Fig. 5. Dilatometric curves of the wall tile formulations.
fact, decompositions of portlandite (Ca(OH)2 → CaO + ↑H2O) and
pirssonite (CaNa2(CO3)2·2H2O → Na2CO3 + CaO + ↑CO2 + ↑2H2O)
during the fast-firing cycle occurred. In addition, the sodium carbonate
the Hausner ratio presented small changes in relation to the grits waste melts (Na2CO3 (solid) → Na2CO3 (liquid)) around 866 °C [20]. Quartz
addition (HR = 1.20–1.29). This indicates that similar flow properties detected in the fired specimens is residual from the green tile for-
might be expected, independently of the added grits waste amount. In mulations. Mullite is formed from the metakaolinite structural re-
fact, all wall tile powders filled the mould cavity uniformly during the organization, whose reaction path is given by kaolinite → metakaolinite
compaction step. → mullite [21,22]. However, the preferential reaction path in ceramic
XRD patterns of the wall tile formulations (MF0 and MF15 for- wall tile formulations is given by metakaolinite → gehlenite → an-
mulations) after firing between 1100 and 1180 °C are shown in Fig. 3. orthite [23,24]. This reaction path could be explained due to the
Both formulations presented a series of phase transformations during structural similarities of layered structures of metakaolinite, gehlenite,
fast-firing cycle. Note that the diffraction peaks of kaolinite, muscovite, and anorthite, whereas mullite structure is very different [24]. This
calcite, dolomite, pirssonite, and portlandite have disappeared (Fig. 1). means that the formation of anorthite tends to inhibit the formation of
From Fig. 3, it can be seen that the anorthite and quartz phases are the mullite. In particular, gehlenite is not a thermodynamically stable
main crystalline phases after the fast-firing cycle. Small amount of phase formed at ~ 850 °C and gradually decreases up to ~1100 °C from
mullite was also detected. However, the phase evolution of the wall tile the reaction between metakaolinite and calcium oxide (Al2O3.2SiO2 +

Fig. 6. SEM micrographs of wall tile specimens fired at 1140 °C: a) MF0; b) MF5; c) MF10; and d) MF15.

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F.B. Siqueira, J.N.F. Holanda Ceramics International xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Fig. 7. Physical properties of the fired wall tile specimens: a) linear shrinkage; b) apparent density; c) water absorption; and d) apparent porosity.

(2 + n) → 2CaO.Al2O3. SiO2 + nCaO.SiO2). Then, anorthite is quickly metakaolinite, resulting in shrinkage. Between ~ 700 °C and 850 °C, a
formed due to the reaction between gehlenite and silica and alumina new expansion has been identified in the dilatometric curves. It cor-
phases from the metakaolinite breakdown (2CaO.Al2O3. SiO2 + 3SiO2 responds to the carbonate decomposition to form mainly CaO and CO2
+ Al2O3 → 2(CaO.Al2O3.2SiO2)). However, the proportion of the an- degassing. Then, a new reaction between amorphous metakaolinite
orthite phase in the grits waste bearing wall tile formulations tends to (Al2O3.2SiO2) and calcium oxide (CaO) quickly occurred. This reaction
be increased due to the higher amount of calcite in the used grits waste. resulted in the formation of anorthite as shown in Fig. 3. Such reaction
In fact, the grits waste is mostly composed of calcite (92 wt%) followed also tends to inhibit the formation of liquid phase during the firing
by pirssonite (7 wt%) and portlandite (1 wt%) [25]. process. Above 850 °C, a new shrinkage mainly caused by solid state
The mineral phases formed during the fast-firing process of ceramic sintering mechanisms can be observed. Finally, on firing, the wall tile
wall tile formulations could be predicted by the ternary phase diagram formulations presented low shrinkage (~ 1.95–2.10%). However, the
SiO2-Al2O3-CaO [24]. The studied wall tile formulations, when plotted MF0 formulation (free-waste formulation) had higher firing shrinkage.
in this phase diagram (Fig. 4), are all delimited to the anorthite area on SEM micrographs of fracture surfaces of wall tiles fired at 1140 °C
the triangle of compatibility anorthite-quartz-mullite. This means that were compared to each other in Fig. 6(a)–(d). They show the typical
the grits waste could totally replace traditional calcareous raw material sequence of densification behavior of wall tiles, with an increased grits
in ceramic wall tile formulations. waste amount. As can be observed from the SEM micrograph of the MF0
The sintering behavior of the wall tile formulations is presented in formulation (free-waste formulation) in Fig. 6(a), a large amount of
Fig. 5. It can be seen that only slight differences in the sintering be- open pores of different sizes was developed. Such open pore network
havior of the wall tile formulations occurred. The sintering behavior that appears to form communication channels results primarily from
could be described as follows. All curves exhibited a small shrinkage the decomposition of calcite particles and the release of CO2. This
from the room temperature up to 170 °C. This event is mainly related to porous microstructure is typical of ceramic wall tile materials. As in-
the release of free moisture of the clay minerals particles. However, in dicated by the XRD analysis (Fig. 3), it consists essentially of anorthite
grits waste bearing wall tile formulations the dehydration of pirssonite phase with quartz and mullite in minor amounts. MF5 formulation
also occurred. Between ~ 170 °C and 575 °C, a small expansion (Fig. 6(b)) had a porous microstructure very similar to that of waste-
(< 0.5%) has been identified in the dilatometric curves. It was caused free wall tile specimens. However, the microstructures of MF10 and
by the thermal expansion of solid particles of the green wall tile for- MF15 formulations differ from that of the reference specimens, as
mulations. In addition, at ~ 573 °C, allotropic transformation of α-β shown in Fig. 6(c) and (d). A denser fractured surface can be seen. This
quartz happened. This transformation is accompanied by the volu- effect suggests the formation of liquid phase during the fast-firing cycle.
metric expansion of quartz particles. Between ~ 575 °C and 700 °C, all In fact, the pirssonite decomposition in the grits waste with con-
curves showed an inflexion event with strong slope. This effect is comitant melting of sodium carbonate (NaCO3) contributes to closing
mainly linked to the dehydroxylation of the kaolinite (removal of the pores in the fired wall tile structure. This indicates that additions of
OH- groups of the crystal lattice) that transforms to amorphous high concentrations of grits waste into wall tile body cause changes in

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F.B. Siqueira, J.N.F. Holanda Ceramics International xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

ceramic wall tile materials. It can be seen in Fig. 7(a) that the wall tile
specimens presented firing shrinkage values between 0.99% and 1.45%.
This means that all wall tile specimens produced had good dimensional
control, independently of the added grits waste amount. Also note that
the linear shrinkage presented only slight variations within a wide
firing temperature range. This is very important because possible
thermal gradients within the fast-firing roller kiln do not cause di-
mensional instability of fired wall tiles. In addition, the linear shrinkage
of the wall tile pieces was positively influenced by the grits waste ad-
dition. The effect of the grits waste was to decrease the linear shrinkage,
as shown in Fig. 7(a). This behavior may be attributed to higher loss on
ignition of the grits waste (Table 2). Therefore, it appears that the re-
placement of calcareous for grits waste is suitable for a better dimen-
sional stability of the fired wall tile specimens.
The apparent density of the fired wall tile specimens was in the
range of 1.89 – 1.94 g/cm3, as shown in Fig. 7(b). For all wall tile
formulations, the apparent density was essentially unaltered with the
increasing firing temperature. This finding is mainly associated with the
following main effects: i) mass loss due to the decomposition of calcite
with concomitant formation of open porosity; ii) sintering dominated
by the growth of particle-to-particle necks via solid state sintering
mechanisms; and iii) anorthite phase formed practically without liquid
present. On the other hand, the effect of the grits waste was to decrease
the apparent density. This finding is important because the ceramic
wall tile material is characterized by low weight per square meter. The
decrease of apparent density is mainly related to the presence of higher
amount of calcite in the grits waste, which causes increased mass loss
and formation of higher amount of anorthite phase. The formation of
anorthite is also accompanied with an expansion in the fired tile volume
[27].
Fig. 7(c) shows the water absorption of the fired wall tile specimens.
This physical property is the main standard requirement of ceramic tile
materials. It is related to the open porosity level of ceramic tile mate-
rials that reflects their fired microstructure and degree of densification.
Fig. 8. Mechanical strength of the fired wall tile specimens: a) flexural strength; The ISO 13006 standard [28] prescribes a value of water absorption
and b) breaking strength. (open porosity) for ceramic wall tile materials above > 10% (class
BIII). However, ceramic wall tiles of high technical quality have water
the texture and porosity of the fired specimens. absorption between 13% and 18%. Water absorption values between
The drying process of ceramic tile materials consists of the water 15.82% and 17.61% were found for the wall tile specimens prepared in
removal of pressed green tiles via superficial evaporation. The control this study, indicating their conformity to ISO 13006 standard. The high
of the drying process is of high importance in the ceramic tile proces- values of water absorption can be mainly attributed to the carbonate
sing and in the final product quality. In this work, the drying process decomposition, which generates open pores in the fired microstructure,
was monitored through technological properties in the dried state at as shown in Fig. 6. It may also be seen that the water absorption of the
110 °C such as linear shrinkage, bulk density, and green strength wall tile specimens containing grits waste was lower than that of the
(Table 5). The grits waste addition had a very insignificant effect on the waste-free specimens (MF0 formulation). This trend can be explained
drying shrinkage. All green wall tile specimens presented low drying by the incorporation of pirssonite particles of the grits waste, which
shrinkage. This is very important in order to avoid cracks, fissures, and influence the densification behavior of the wall tile specimens. In fact,
warpage in the specimens. The drying density of the tile specimens, as as shown in Fig. 6, the wall tile specimens incorporated with higher
shown in Table 5, presented small variations with the added grits waste grits waste amount revealed a denser microstructure. This is in agree-
amount. In addition, the values of drying bulk density obtained ment with apparent porosity, as shown in Fig. 7(d).
(1.90–1.93 g/cm3) are within the dry green density feature for wall tile The mechanical properties of the fired wall tile specimens are shown
materials [26]. The dried tile specimens exhibited flexural strength in Fig. 8(a)-(b). The correlation between flexural strength (Fig. 8a) and
values in the range of 2.74–3.52 MPa, which is in agreement with the breaking strength (Fig. 8b) of the fired wall tiles is well established. As
safe limits for production of wall tile materials (> 2.50 MPa). This is can be seen, both mechanical properties increased with the rise in the
very important because the dry green strength influences the amount of grits waste amount and firing temperature. Such increase is essentially
rejected dry wall tile materials due to losses on handling. associated with two main factors: i) anorthite phase formed of higher
The final quality of ceramic wall tile specimens after fast-firing cycle mechanical strength [29]; and ii) lower water absorption of the wall tile
was determined on the basis of physical properties (linear shrinkage, specimens, as shown in Fig. 7(c). According to the ISO 13006 standard
apparent density, water absorption, and apparent porosity) and me- [28], the fired wall tiles of thickness < 7.5 mm and water absorp-
chanical properties (breaking strength and flexural strength). tion > 10% should have values of flexural strength > 15 MPa and
Fig. 7 shows the physical properties of the fired wall tile specimens. breaking strength > 200 N. As shown in Fig. 8, wall tiles bearing grits
The linear shrinkage is an important physical property of ceramic tile waste could be produced with the MF5 formulation fired between
materials. It affects the dimensional stability during fast-firing cycle. 1120 °C and 1180 °C and MF10 and MF15 formulations fired between
Although it is not a standardized requirement in technical standards, 1100 °C and 1180 °C. This result suggests that the grits waste is parti-
values of linear shrinkage < 1.5% are recommended for production of cularly well suitable for ceramic single fast-firing wall tile production
(group BIII – ISO 13006 standard) of high quality, including total

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F.B. Siqueira, J.N.F. Holanda Ceramics International xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

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