MARMARA UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ME 4001 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

EXPERIMENT NO 1: TENSILE TESTING of ENGINEERING MATERIALS

1. Objective

The objective of this experiments is to load a tensile test sample at a constant crosshead speed until
failure, while recording the value of the load and the change in length of the test sample at each
stage. Then based on the collected data,
• The material’s stress-strain relationship is obtained.
• The following structural properties are determined: Modulus of elasticity, yield strength, ultimate
tensile strength, yield strain, failure strength and strain to failure.
• The strain is measured with a video extensometer.
• The reduction of cross-sectional area of the tested sample is determined, if applicable.

2. Introduction
There are basically three types of strain measurements methods: mechanical, video and laser type
extensometers. In this video type extensometers will be used to measure strain under a known load.
Once the strain is measured, the flexural rigidity and modulus of elasticity of the beam can be
calculated by using the well-known Hooke’s law and bending stress formulas.
3. Theoretical background
The mechanical properties of materials are determined by performing carefully designed laboratory
experiments that replicate as nearly as possible the service conditions. In real life, there are many
factors involved in the nature in which loads are applied on a material. The following are some
common examples of modes in which loads might be applied: tensile, compressive, and shear.
These properties are important in materials selections for mechanical design. Other factors that
often complicate the design process include temperature and time factors.

The topic of this lab is confined to the tensile property of polymers. Figure 1 shows a tensile testing
machine similar to the one used in this lab. This test is a destructive method, in which a specimen of
a standard shape and dimensions (prepared according to TS EN ISO 527: standard test method for
tensile properties of plastics) is subjected to an axial load. During a typical tensile experiment, a
dog-bone shaped specimen is gripped at its two ends and is pulled to elongate at a determined speed
to its breakpoint; a highly ductile polymer may not reach its breakpoint. The tensile tester used in
this lab is manufactured by SHIMADZU (model AGS-X 50 kN). It has a maximum load of 50 kN

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and a variable crosshead speeds between 0.001 mm/min. and 800 mm/mm. The setup of the
experiment could be changed to accommodate different types of mechanical testing, according to
the ISO, EN or ASTM standards (e.g. tension, compression, bending test, etc).

Figure 1. A photograph of a tensile machine

SHIMADZU AGS-X 50 kN

For analytical purposes, a plot of stress (σ) versus strain (ε) is constructed during a tensile test
experiment, which can be done automatically on the software provided by the instrument
manufacturer. Stress, in the metric system, is usually measured in N/m 2 or Pa, such that 1 N/m2 = 1
Pa. From the experiment, the value of stress is calculated by dividing the amount of force (F)
applied by the machine in the axial direction by its cross-sectional area (A), which is measured prior
to running the experiment. Mathematically, it is expressed in Equation 1. The strain values, which
have no units, can be calculated using Equation 2, where L is the instantaneous length of the
specimen and L0 is the initial length.
F
σ=
A (1)

(2)

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Figure 2. Various regions and points on the stress-strain curve.

A typical stress-strain curve would look like as in . The stress-strain curve shown in is a textbook
example of a stress-strain curve. In reality, not all stress-strain curves perfectly resemble the one
shown in . This stress-strain curve is typical for ductile metallic elements. Another thing to take
note is that shows an “engineering stress-strain” curve. When a material reaches its ultimate stress
strength of the stress-strain curve, its cross-sectional area reduces dramatically, a term known as
necking. When the computer software plots the stress-strain curve, it assumes that the cross
sectional area stays constant throughout the experiment, even during necking, therefore causing the
curve to slope down. The “true” stress-strain curve could be constructed directly by installing a
“gauge,” which measures the change in the cross sectional area of the specimen throughout the
experiment.

Theoretically, even without measuring the cross-sectional area of the specimen during the tensile
experiment, the “true” stress-strain curve could still be constructed by assuming that the volume of
the material stays the same. Using this concept, both the true stress (σT) and the true strain (εT) could
be calculated using Equations 3 and 4, respectively. The derivation of these equations is beyond the
scope of this lab report. Consult any standard mechanics textbook to learn more about these
equations. In these equations, L0 refers to the initial length of the specimen, L refers to the
instantaneous length and σ refers to the instantaneous stress.

L
σ T =σ
L0 (3)

(4)

also shows that a stress-strain curve is divided into four regions: elastic, yielding, strain hardening
(commonly occurs in metallic materials), and necking. The area under the curve represents the
amount of energy needed to accomplish each of these “events.” The total area under the curve (up
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to the point of fracture) is also known as the modulus of toughness. This represents the amount of
energy needed to break the sample, which could be compared to the impact energy of the sample,
determined from impact tests. The area under the linear region of the curve is known as the
modulus of resilience. This represents the minimum amount of energy needed to deform the sample.

The linear region of the curve of , which is called the elastic region (past this region, is called the
plastic region), is the region where a material behaves elastically. The material will return to its
original shape when a force is released while the material is in its elastic region. The slope of the
curve, which can be calculated using Equation 5, is a constant and is an intrinsic property of a
material known as the elasticσmodulus, E. In metric units, it is usually expressed in Pascals (Pa).
E=
ε (5)

Figure 3(a) shows typical stress-strain curves of polymers. The figure shows that materials that are
hard and brittle do not deform very much before breaking and have very steep elastic moduli.

The mechanical property of polymers generally depends on their degree of crystallinity, molecular
weights and glass transition temperature, Tg. Highly crystalline polymeric materials with a Tg above
the room temperature are usually brittle, and vice versa. When a semi-crystalline polymer
undergoes a tensile test, the amorphous chains, will become aligned. This is usually evident for
transparent and translucent materials, which become opaque upon turning crystalline. Figure 3(b)
shows a diagram showing the mechanical property of some common polymers.

(b)
(a)

Figure 3. (a) A plot of stress-strain curves of typical polymeric materials. (b) A summary diagram
of the properties of common polymers.

4. Apparatus:
The following apparatus will be used through the experiment.
 Universal Testing Machine (SHIMADZU AGS-X 50 kN)
 Computer with TRAPEZIUM Software
 Video Extensometer
 Vernier Caliper
 Permanent marker
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5. Materials:
Flat (or Circular) plastic or steel with various dimensions could be used. In the experiment High
Density Polyethylene (HDPE) polymer samples will be tested for tensile test properties.

6. Experimental procedure
Important! Make sure you stay away from the test equipment and if possible use safety glasses
before starting any operation. Your eyes could be hurt by a broken piece of polymer. Also wear
gloves to protect against any residue on the machine and samples.

6.1 Specimen Preparation

The polymer specimens were cut into dog-bone shapes. Their dimensions were determined
according to the TS ISO EN 527 standard mentioned earlier in the introduction.

(1) Measure the thickness, width and gage length of polymer samples in mm. These dimensions
should be approximately the same for each sample.

(2) Also make note of any sample defects (e.g. impurities, air bubbles, etc.).

High density polyethylene (HDPE) polymer samples will be tested for tensile test properties.

6.2 TRAPEZIUM X Materials Testing Software Setup

1) Turn on the tensile test machine. The switch is located on the right side of the machine. Also
turn on the video extensometer.

(2) Go to the desktop and double-click on the “TRAPEZIUM” icon.

(3) On the main page, select Test to start a new sample. Name your test and click Browse to select
the folder you would like to save it in. Click next.

(4) Choose which method you would like to use. Create and save a new method if needed.

(5) Method set up: Save after any changes are made.

 Specimen: specifies sample dimensions and parameters. A dog-bone sample is used for
tensile testing. Select rectangular, and specify the width, thickness and gauge length of the
sample. The gauge length is the distance between the clamps before starting the test.

 Control: describes the actual test. Select extension for mode of displacement, then specify
the rate of extension. Most use 5 mm/min or 50 min/mm, depending on if you want a slow
or fast test.

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  End of Test: identifies the criteria for the end of the test. A large load drop is experienced
when sample failure occurs. For this test, when the sample load drops by a certain
percentage of the peak load, the machine will stop.

 Data: specifies if the data is acquired manually or automatically, while the strain tab
recognizes whether the strain is measured from the video extensimeter or the extension.

 Results and Graphs: select what data is shown and how it is displayed.

 Measure and record the distance d, beam thickness h and beam width b.
 Apply the given known load to the beam.
 Measure and record the voltage output of the bridge.

(1) Make sure the proper load cell is installed, either 2 kN or 50 kN depending on the load range
and sensitivity of the sample. To switch load cells, make sure the machine is off. Unscrew the
bolts and remove using the handle. Make sure to plug the new load cell into the port behind the
machine.

(2) Calibrate the load cell by clicking on the button in the upper right hand corner. Make sure all
loads are removed from the load cell and click calibrate.

(3) Install the correct type of clamps for the testing. For tensile testing, 5kN or 50kN samples can
be used. Install the clamps using the pins. Also install height brackets if needed. Zero the load
once the clamps are installed.

(4) Press the up and down arrows on the controller until the clamps are just touching. Press the
reset gauge length button at the top of the screen to zero the position of the clamps.

(5) Use the up and down arrows until the clamps are about 100 mm apart. This is a typical gauge
length for the dog bone samples.

(6) Place the polymer sample between the grips of both the tensile test machine. While holding the
sample vertically with one hand, use another hand to turn the handle of the top grip in the
closing direction as tightly as possible.

(7) The specimen should be gripped such that the two ends of the specimen are covered by the grip,
approximately 3 mm away from its gage-length. It is important that the specimens are tightly
gripped onto the specimen grips to prevent slipping, which will otherwise result in
experimental errors. )

(8) Make sure that the specimen is vertically aligned, if not a torsional force, rather than axial force,
will result.

(9) Turn the bottom handle in the “close” direction as tightly as possible. Visually verify that the
sample is gripped symmetrically at its two ends.

(10)Zero the extension by pushing zero extension button at the top of the screen. Also zero the load
if needed. Wait for a few seconds to let the computer return its value to zero.

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6.4 Tensile Test

(1) Enter geometry of the sample before starting.

(2) Click on the Start button. Both the upper and bottom grips will start moving in opposite
directions according to the specified pulling rate. Observe the experiment at a safe distance
(about 1.5 meters away) at an angle and take note of the failure mode when the specimen fails.

(NOTE: Be sure to wear safety glasses. Do not come close to equipment when the tensile test is
running).

(3) A plot of tensile stress (MPa) versus tensile strain (mm/mm) will be generated in real-time
during the experiment.

6.5 End of Test

(1) The machine will stop automatically when the sample is broken.

(2) Press the “Return” button on the digital controller. Both the upper and lower grips will be
returned to their original positions automatically.

(3) Turn the two handles in the open directions to remove the sample

(4) Repeat the previous steps for any additional tests.

(5) When finished, save your file and click Finish. This will export your data into a PDF and
individual data files.

(6) Clean up any broken fragments from the specimens.

(7) Turn off the machine and exit the program when finished.

7. Required calculations
Measure and calculate the parameters in Table 1.

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Table 1: Test parameters and test results of instrumented Charpy impact tests

Samples
Parameters Average
1 2 3
Sample Cross Section (Bxt) (mm 2 )

Ultimate (Tensile) Stress (MPa)

Ultimate Strain (%)

Yiled Stress (MPa)

Yield Strain (%)

Stress at Break (MPa)

Strain at Break (%)

Tensile Modulus (MPa)

Tengential Modulus (MPa)

Poisson's Ratio (-)

8. Required report format

 The report should be organized as follows: Title Page, Introduction, Theoretical Background
and Calculations, Discussions, Conclusion, Appendix (if any).
 Measured and calculated quantities should be presented in tabular form.
 Show all details of your calculations.
 Discuss the possible sources of errors.
 Make recommendations for improving the experimental procedure.
References
1. Callister, W. D., & Rethwisch, D. G. (2011). Materials science and engineering: An
Introduction, 8th Edition, John Wiley & Sons.
2. Collins, J. A. (1993). Failure of materials in mechanical design: analysis, prediction, prevention.
John Wiley & Sons.
3. ASM Metals Handbook, Vol. 10, 8th Ed., p. 102

5. Dieter, G.E., (1988) Mechanical Metallurgy, SI Metric edition, New York (Chap. 12)
5. TS EN ISO 179-2. Plastics-Determination of tensile properties-Part 2: Test conditions for
moulding and extrusion plastics

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 PREPARING LABORATORY REPORTS

The following guideline is to be used to prepare laboratory reports.

i. Title: This section contains the title of the test, the nature of the test and the
specification number used.

ii. Scope of the test: A brief statement of the purpose and significance of the test should
be indicated.

iii. Apparatus: Equipment used should be briefly described.

iv. Materials: The materials used or tested should be described.

v. Theory: This section summarizes the test/experiment or it gives us an

overview of what the test is all about.

vi. Definitions and Process Terminology: This section contains terminology and
definition of specific words and test related terms.

vii. Procedure: Clearly and concisely list the procedure in the order the test is
carried out.

viii. Raw Data: This section contains the raw data gotten from the test. All
laboratory data shall be submitted in tabular form.

ix. Calculations and Results: Observations relating to the behaviour of the materials
should be included. All equations or formulas used should be clearly indicated.
Calculations should be properly checked. The results of the test should be
summarized in tabular or graphical form.

x. Figures and Diagrams: This section contains clear and concise diagrams
and/or figures in accordance with the laboratory requirement. Figures
including the equipment front and side views, parts and panels can be
displayed in this section.

xi. Discussion: There should be included a brief discussion in which attention is drawn
to the silent facts shown by the tables and diagrams. The test results should be
compared with the standard values.

xii. Conclusion: Include modification procedures, calibration procedures and any

additional information that will be helpful.

xiii. References (if applicable): Include references to any manuals, documents or

textbooks used in compiling the reports.

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