Second Language

Learning
UNIT 2: AN OVERVIEW OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING
METHODOLOGIES
 Unit 2: an overview of english language teaching methodologies

ÍNDICE

1. The Evolution of English Language Teaching 3

2. Methods in ELT 4

3. Approaches in ELT 8

4. Bibliography 18

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 Unit 2: an overview of english language teaching methodologies

1. The Evolution of English Language Teaching

Before commencing with the different theories that constitute the core of L2 learning and
acquisition, the terminological difference between learning and acquisition must be
mentioned.

Krashen (1982), in his seminal works, stated that there was a terminological difference
between acquisition and learning, which was part of the so-called Acquisition-Learning
Hypothesis. Krashen (1982) understood acquisition as an implicitly-led process whereby
learners interact in natural communication. In the case of learning, Krashen (1982) regarded
it as a process in which learners are part of an instruction-based setting, engaging in the
continuum of comprehending the L2 rules (that is, grammar) as a result of this instruction
and activities. Although not directly related, acquisition was more natural, but it could be
associated with implicit learning. Such a learning process entailed acquiring a language in a
more natural manner using the subconscious system. In sum, acquisition is the process of
internalizing a language in a context where the language is used as a means of
communication. On the other hand, learning involves the internalization of the language as
part of formal study, being part of a more explicitly-led process.

These concepts are essential in order to understand the differences between first
language (L1) and second language (L2). The L1 is chronologically the first language acquired
by a learner. It can also be referred to as the mother tongue. A child may gradually acquire
two languages, and one L1 may shift to another L1 depending on the influence of the
external variables (Piske & Young-Scholten, 2009). In the case of the L2, it is an additional
language, although it may also refer to a third language or fourth. The L2 refers to any
language that is the aim or goal of learning, but it might have also been acquired
symultaneously with the L1.

Throughout the history of Language Teaching, attempts have been directed toward
making L2 learning more similar to L1 learning. The very first approaches to L2 learning
highlighted the importance of meaning, and more importantly, the manner in which children
learned languages. This was the pre-reform movement in the 19th century.

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2. Methods in ELT

Grammar-translation method

One of the main methods within the classical methods of foreign language teaching was
the GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION APPROACH. Characterized by its individualism, foreign
language learning was understood as an academic subject since the main objective was to
enable students to read literature in the foreign language and to translate from that
language to the L1. Similarly, another goal was to indirectly use the foreign language, and
also, to benefit from intellectual development (Cook, 2008; Larsen-Freeman & Anderson,
2011).

The Grammar-Translation Method (GTM) and its origins date back to language teaching in
the Middle Ages. As mentioned previously, Latin was taught concentrating mostly on
grammar rules, translation and passive reading.

The GTM is characterized by the following aspects:

● The main goal is to learn the foundations of the language in order to be able to read
its literature, or to gain knowledge from it through mental discipline. Reading and
writing are the most important skills, and little or no attention is paid to more
productive oral skills such as speaking or listening.
● Lessons are focused on the study of grammar rules by concentrating of their
application through translation into and out of the foreign language.
● Vocabulary learning is exclusively based upon the lexical encounters in the texts
analyzed, and the approach is solely focused on memorization and dictionary study
through the use of bilingual word lists.
● The sentence constitutes the basic unit of teaching and language practice.
● The emphasis is placed on accuracy since students are expected to attain a high level
of tranlation skills.
● Deductive teaching is preferred when dealing with grammar through the
presentation and study of grammar rules.
● The language of instruction is not the target language but the L1.

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● Language teaching is purely teacher-centered, acknowledging the teacher's figure as

a source of knowledge.
● GTM is non-communicative and non-motivational.

As for the activities used in the GTM, these are mostly centered on learning rules and
vocabulary by heart. Sentence formation exercises constitute the center of language practice
since their aim is to test the previously acquired rules. The role of the student, as mentioned
previously, is mostly passive during the process. The role of instructional materials is sacred
since it contains the syllabus material, and thus the teaching process cannot deviate from
them.

The GTM has been traditionally disregarded given its overemphasis on the language as a
mass of rules and in the limitations of practice techniques (Stern, 1983).

In the 19th century, a new trend started to emerge. Not all learners were able to learn a
foreign language through the academic 'grammar school' education or the GTM. Hence, a
new class of learner emerged due to: (1) changes in the pattern of transport; (2) emigration
to the USA, and (3) industrialization of the 2nd half of the 19th century. This required these
new learners to be able to communicate efficiently in a foreign language orally.

The natural approach to learning (and teaching) languages was characterized by the
following aspects: (1) learning must follow the principles of Nature, (2) a natural
environment is required to learn the language in the same way as it happens with L1
acquisition, and (3) learning naturally involves listening and subsequent repetition, hands-on
practice, focusing on useful language, inductive learning, and very importantly, creating an
association between words and concepts in the real world.

According to Sánchez (1997), the pedagogical procedure to implement a natural

methodology in the English as a Foreign Language (henceforth, EFL) classroom involves the
following: firstly, the teacher points out objects around him/her, and students must repeat
the names of such objects. Words are subsequently written on the board, and further
sentence practice is done. Second, writing is introduced as a productive skill directly
connected with speaking. Third, input to language is intense as much of the language
learning is derived from it (e.g. describing objects, stories, listening activities). Fourth,

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grammar is introduced in an inductive manner as rules have to be deduced from practice.

Finally, reading is gradually included in the syllabus, and texts are chosen according to the
students' interests and motivation.

The Direct Method

The method on which the natural approach was founded is the Direct Method (DM). Its
emergence was the result of a reaction against the GTM, and it was implemented by
Bostonian L. Sauveur in the late 1860s. The principal premise behind the use of the direct
method was that language could be learned without translation when meaning was
conveyed through demonstration and action. Inductive learning is the basis of the DM.
Likewise, the DM takes for granted that language is a means of communication, prioritizing
language at an oral level and then at a written level. The DM approaches language from the
perspective of daily-life culture of the L2, including history and geography of the L2
countries. In the DM, translation is forbidden, but it is still a debated issue, and advocators of
the DM have diverging views. Another characteristic of the DM is that occasional
grammatical explanations are provided once minimum command of the oral language is
attained. Unlike the GTM, DM focuses on daily oral communication instead of literature or
cultivated language. In essence, the primary objective is to promote communication.
Vocabulary used in the DM includes everyday language and useful sentences. The role of
students in the DM is purely passive as interaction takes place via communicative stimuli, but
there is constant participation in the classroom triggered by these pedagogical tools.
Additionally, the role of instructional materials takes a secondary position as their purpose is
fundamentally referential.

The Audio-Lingual Method

The Audio-Lingual Method (ALM) emerged in the USA in the late 1950s, in which the L1
processes were the pattern for learning an L2, thus inducing imitation in the language
learner. ALM is framed within a behavioral perspective of learning through a stimulus-answer
sequence. In this regard, a contrastive analysis between the L1 and L2 is present.

According to Rivers (1964), the ALM highlights the importance of L2 learning as a

mechanical process of habit formation. A prevalence of the oral language is presented before

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the written form. Another important assumption of ALM is that analogy - that is, contrast
between the L1 and L2 - provides a better foundation for L2 learning. Finally, a cross-cultural
perspective of word-meaning is underscored since lexical items are not to be learnt in
isolation.

With regards to the underlying principles and beliefs of ALM, it is based on structural and
descriptive linguistics. L1 learning is assimilated with L2 learning, that is, inductive learning,
but it is stated that L1 habits may be interfered with L2 learning. The procedure in ALM is as
follows: (1) stimulus --> (2) response --> (3) reinforcement. Behaviorism is observed in this
sequence since repetition and reinforcement are highlighted until the habit is appropriately
automatized. ALM favors an inductive approach to grammar learning and teaching in which
formal accuracy is highlighted. Pedagogical materials rely on contrastive analysis, and the
avoidance of the L1 is present in the development of the classroom lesson. The teacher, as in
the DM, is the authority in the classroom.

The objectives of teaching in the ALM are fundamentally based on everyday speech, the
emphasized language areas are the grammatical patterns (from simplicity to complexity),
and the sound system. Listening and speaking are the emphasized skills, whose order of
presentation is: listening, speaking, reading and writing. Finally, the main activities whereby
the selected content is transmitted to students is dialogues and drills (mimicry, mim-mem,
and pattern practice or drill practice). These drills may be: substitution drills, repetition drills
or transformation drills (Richards & Schmidt, 2010).

Finally, according to Nunan (1991), a typical ALM lesson would include:

1. A new linguistic aspect is introduced, demonstrating its meaning through non-verbal

means.
2. A listening to a dialogue based on a situation with these linguistic aspects.
3. Identification of the structures to be learnt.
4. The class participates in the mimics/memorization following the model of the
teacher.
5. Grammatical explanations are absent, and summary statements with sample
sentences are just provided.
6. Technical materials are used for follow-up work.

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7. The transfer is checked by means of non-practiced items. Individual and group

answers are done.

The main drawback of ALM is the learners' passive role despite providing them with
linguistic accuracy. ALM does not solve the issue of transcending the formal study of
language into life-like communicative situations.

3. Approaches in ELT

Humanistic Approaches

Suggestopedia

The main objective of suggestopedia is the development of rapid conversational

proficiency at an advanced level. The most distinctive characteristics of suggestopedia are:
the decoration in the EFL classroom, the disposition of the furniture, the arrangement of the
classroom, the authoritative behavior of the EFL teacher and the use of music as therapy.
The main underlying principles of suggestopedia are, in terms of theory of language, very
similar to those explained in the case of the TRP or the Silent Way. In Suggestopedia, the
lexis is emphasized along with the communicative nature of the L2. In essence,
suggestopedia is composed of six principal components that allows to defeat suggestions,
paving the way for learning to occur: (1) authority, (2) infantilization, (3) double-planedness,
(4) intonation, (5) rhythm, and (6) concert pseudo-passiveness. Suggestopedia takes an
inductive approach to grammar learning and teaching through practice and inference. L2
students learn the language through exposure and interaction. The text is considered the
basic unit of teaching. There is an avoidance of grammatical explanations, in which formal
accuracy prevails, the use of the L1 is permitted only for translation purposes, and the
teacher is the authority in the classroom. The syllabus of a suggestopedia course includes
formal texts, and emphasized language areas such as vocabulary and grammar. These texts
are usually graded by lexis and grammar. There is, however, little emphasis on writing in
contrast to the special focus on listening and speaking. The main activities used in this
approach are: listening and reading activities, relaxation techniques, and imitation question
and answer, role play, games and songs.

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The Silent Way

The Silent Way is a L2 teaching methodology which is driven by several ideas: (1) learning
is facilitated only when the learner discovers or creats rather than rote learning or repetition
- the Silent Way is exclusively an inductive method; (2) learning is accompanied by physical
objects (e.g. Fidel charts); and (3) problem-solving is part of the learning process, which
includes the material or content to be learnt.

The Silent Way adopts a grammar and lexical-based view of language, and it focuses
mainly on the phonological and suprasegmental elements shaping the melody of each
language. Learning is purely inductive, and it does not consider that L1 learning equates with
L2 learning. The Silent Way is considered as an artificial approach given the role of silence,
purely innovative. In this teaching methodology, the sentence is the basic unit of teaching,
and no grammatical explanations are provided. The use of the L1 is exclusively avoided, and
the teacher is a mere facilitator of learning by being a silent organizer.

Figure 1. Example of Fidel chart.

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The model of language presented in the Silent Way is more propositional than
communicative - that is, communication is not the purpose of this method - and the
emphasized areas of language are: (1) grammar, (2) vocabulary, and (3) pronunciation. The
Silent Way follows a purely structural syllabus in which functional language plays a pivotal
roles. No explicit guidelines are provided as regards the selection of specific language
although linguistic items are gradually introduced depending on their complexity. Activities
used in the Silent Way include: guided elicitation exercises directed by the teacher - that is,
response to commands; freer communicative exercises in which learners create their own
utteranced combining old and new information. Additionally, charts, rods, realia and
gestures are part of the Silent Way. Very importantly, in the Silent Way, there is an absence
of correction and repeated teacher modelling.

Among the many negative aspects of the Silent Way, there are some worth highlighting: it
is very demanding for the teacher, it does not encourage a communicative atmosphere,
difficulty in understanding may impair the whole learning process, and finally, the materials
used (rods and charts) are insufficient for a whole course.

Total Physical Response

The Total Physical Response (TPR) was a didactic approach developed by James Asher in
1977, and its theoretical rationale is behind the process of L1 acquisition. TPR is associated
with the trace theory, which involves that when a memory connection is strengthened, the
memory association will be stronger, and thus will lead to recalling more linguistic items.

Asher (1977) understood the process of learning an L2 as an adult in a similar way as a

child acquires his L1. Thus, the first instances of language that a child responds to are
commands or orders. Following this line of thought, the TPR intends to provide learners with
a beginner's level of oral skills. Physical action is the core of TPR, and productive action is
only attained after a sufficient level is achieved.

In terms of the syllabus structure, TPR's materials are essentially structuralist with regards
to the presentation of grammar. Contrary to other teaching currents and methodologies, TPR
shares features of behavior and humanist concerns such as the role of affective factors. In
fact, TPR has been reported to reduce stress and anxiety on L2 learners, thus facilitating

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learning (Nunan, 1991). In TPR, the learner's role is primarily that of a listener and performer.
Conversely, the teacher's role is essentially active and direct since it is their responsibility to
decide what to teach. No specific materials are used in the TPR, but realia is essential in the
very first stages. However, selection of grammar and lexis is made depending on the
usefulness for classroom situations. The emphasized skills are listening and speaking, and
understanding should always precede production in both oral and written skills. A typical TRP
class consists of: 70% listening, 20% speaking, and 10% reading and writing (Lado, 1988).
Common activities in the TPR include: imperative drills, conversational dialogues, roleplay
and slideshow presentations.

Content-based Approaches

Communicative-Language Teaching

The main objective of the CLT is to attain communicative competence in an L2. To start
with, the CLT has been regared as a generalized umbrella term to describe learning
sequences primarily aimed at fostering communicative ability in L2 learners. The main issue
regarding CLT has been whether it is an approach or a method. Some voices believe that the
CLT is an approach rather than a method since it contains a set of principles reflecting a
communicative view of language and learning. Conversely, others consider CLT as a method
since it has several spin-offs (e.g. TBLT or CLIL) which are considered as independent
products. The origins of CLT date back to the 1960s, when there were changes in the British
language teaching tradition (Howatt, 2004). The initial views on CLT regarding communicative
competence in terms of linguistic factors, and based upon Canale and Swain (1980)
definition, understood that it entailed: organisational knowledge (grammar and textual
knowledge), pragmatic knowledge (functional and sociolinguistic knowledge), and strategic
knowledge (metacognitive strategies enabling productive and receptive use of the L2).

In this course, we will understand CLT as a teaching approach following Richards and
Rodgers (year missing). The main principles behind CLT are: (a) the goal of language teaching
is a communicative competence, and (b) the four language skills must be included as part of
the teaching process. There were two phases of CLT: classic (1970s to 1990s) and the current
trend (late 1990s to the present). In the case of the classic CLT, there were some specific
principles:

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1. Communication is the focus of language learning.

2. Learners must be provided with opportunities to experiment and interact using the
L2.
3. The teacher must be tolerant of learners' errors since this is indicative of knowledge
building.
4. Learners must be provided opportunities in which accuracy and fluency are
developed.
5. All the skills (speaking, reading, and listening) must be linked as it occurs in the real
world.
6. Students must be encouraged to induce or discover grammar rules.

In the case of the current CLT, the principles that guide it are:

1. L2 learning is facilitated with engaged learners, focusing on participation and

meaningful communicative.
2. L2 classroom learning tasks and exercises must encourage learners to negotiate
meaning, highlighting the expansion of their L2 resources whilst noticing how
language is used.
3. When L2 students process engagin, purposeful and relevant content, meaningful
communication is more likely to emerge.
4. Communication is a holistic process in which other language skills (listening,
reading...) are embedded.
5. Inductive or discovery learning of underlying rules of language use and organization
must be facilitated by the use of the appropriate activities.
6. Errors are regarded as a normal product of learning, but the main goal of learning is
to use the L2 accurately and fluently.
7. Learners' readiness to develop the L2 is individual, and each learner has their own
routes and progress to language learning.
8. The use of effective learning and communication strategies is essential to attain
successful L2 learning.
9. The teacher holds the responsibility of being a learning facilitator, creating an
appropriate classroom climate which conduces learners to L2 learning. Additionally,
the necessary L2 learning opportunities must be created.

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10. The L2 classroom is a fully collaborative environment and community.

Howatt (1984) distinguished between two versions of the CLT which are widely accepted
in the scientific and teaching community: the strong and weak version of the CLT. Let us start
by commenting on the weak version of the CLT: the main objective is learning to use English,
and it is related to the analytic dimension of learning in CLT (Littlewood, 2011): instruction,
conscious learning and pratice, and increasing automaticity of correct language. The weak
CLT includes the classical typology of communicative activities, and a teaching sequencing
from pre-communicative to communicative activities was put forward by Littlewood (1981).
The weak version also states that learning progresses from controlled processes to automatic
processes. Activities in the weak CLT focus on accuracy and fluency through practice.

The strong version of the CLT underscores the notion of using English to learn it, and it is
associated with the experiential dimension of learning in CLT: communication, subconscious
learning and integration, and increasing correctness of spontaneous language. L2 learning
naturally occurs in the classroom as a result of the meaningful use of the language. Students
are expected to learn without interference from the teacher.

Finally let us focus on the components of the CLT: it underscores communicative

competence, which includes the four skills. Language communication is centred on
transmitting meanings, and forms are thus subordinated to them. CLT is linked to
interlanguage studies, and the strong version of the CLT is compatible with Krashen's
acquisition hypothesis (1982) while the weak version of CLT is compatible with skill-learning
theory.

The following figure summarizes the main pedagogical principles of CLT:

Table 1. Pedagogical principles of CLT.

Teaching directed at promoEmphasis on fluency over accu Rejection of mechanical,

communication (interaction and combination of four skills. practice. Emphasis
negotiation of meaning). communicative practice. Act
sequencing is essential.

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Emphasis on collaborative learn Authentic materials are part o The use of the L1 is limited,
syllabus. must be avoided.

Errors of form are tolerate The teacher is an organizer Students are communicators
communicative practice given provider (not a director fully responsible for their lear
natural origin. controller). Learner autonomy is essential.

The objectives of CLT are focused on functional language over forms, and skills are taught
in a balanced manner from the beginning. Activities in the CLT are communicatively focused
with pair or group-work oriented activities being the most common ones. In the CLT,
activities are multifaceted and varied: information gap activities, roleplays, simulations, and
problem-solving tasks. The role of the teacher in the CLT is very active, as he needs to
organize and facilitate communication between the different agents. The role of the teacher
is that of a feedback provided, both formal and content-related. Conversely, the students are
communicators and are expected to be fully immersed in their learning experience.
Instructional materials in the CLT are usually text-based materials (which may be stimulus for
tasks), text-based materials (such as information-gap activities), and realia (authentic
materials).

Task-Based Approach

Similar to the CLT, TBLT is focused on developing communicative competence. The TBLT is
an approach to language teaching which emerged i. the early 1980s. The unit of syllabus and
lesson planning is the task.

As mentioned previously, TBLT is well considered as a spin-off of CLT, whose origins can be
traced back to the Communicative Teaching Project (CTP) developed by Prabhu (1984). The
TBLT belongs to the strand of progressive view of education since the learner is placed at the
centre of the learning process.

Before delving into the intricacies of TBLT, the definition of task must be narrowed down.
Traditionally, tasks have been divided into:

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➢ Real world tasks, which are designed to practice tasks found to be important in a
needs analysis and important in the real world.
➢ Pedagogical tasks whose basis is fundamentally psycholinguistic and based upon SLA
theories. Pedagogical tasks may not reflect real-world tasks.

The term task itself has been defined in numerous ways. According to Skehan (1998),
tasks are activities in which meaning is primary, and there exists a relationship to comparable
real-world activities. The priority is in the completion of the task. On the other hand, Ellis
(2003) developed a more integrative view of tasks. In his view, tasks are workplan involving a
primary focus on meaning and including real-world processes of the target language. These
tasks may deal with one or all the skills, and they must foster cognitively demanding
processes with a clearly defined communicative outcome.

The typologies of tasks for pedagogical purposes in TBLT include: derived information-gap
tasks, unfocused and focused tasks, input-providing and output-providing prompting tasks,
and others (Ellis, 2009).

Regarding the underlying principles and beliefs of TBLT, it emphasizes on the

communicative nature of the language, and on natural language use. There is an
interactional view of the language, and meaning holds a central role in utterances. The key
processes found in theories of learning that appear in TBLT are: input reception, output
productino, and negotiation of meaning. Tasks are the units of syllabus design and lesson
planning, and an inductive approach to L2 learning takes place. Attention to form is also
placed, and error correction occurs incidentally and with the absence of explicit procedures.
Vocabulary and lexical phrases are the emphasized language of TBLT while grammar is not
fully discarded, especially in consciousness-raising tasks in post-task phases. Oral skills are
prioritized but written skills may still be present.

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The teaching procedure or sequencing may be observed in Figure 2 below:

Figure 2. TBTL teaching procedure (Willis, 1996).

CLIL Approach

CLIL has become increasingly relevant in all areas of education worldwide, but especially
in Primary and Secondary Education. The primary goal of CLIL is to develop both language
and content knowledge. CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning) is a term coined by
Marsh (1994) and is preferably used in Europe while CBI (Content-based Instruction) is an
analogous term used in the USA. Much as it occurred with TBLT, CLIL is also a derived version
of CLT which has become fully independent. CLIL involves teaching a curricular subject –

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which is not language – through the medium of an L2. For instance, this includes history
lessons taught in English in a Spanish school.

From the perspective of the underlying principles and beliefs, CLIL emphasizes on the
meaningful nature of language as the L2 is used to convey meaning. This implies an
interactive view of language. Likewise, the L2 is used as a medium whereby content is learng.
Skills are integrated given the holistic view of the L2. In essence, CLIL favors the use of the L2
as a means of acquiring information. This particular characteristic of CLIL addresses students'
needs since motivation is triggered by these aspects. CLIL integrates the view of
comprehensible input since materials have to be adapted to the learners' level. Equally
interesting, CLIL adopts a more social-constructivits perspective of learning, including
scaffolded learning – learners tend to work collaboratively – and the zone of proximal
development (ZPD). Similarly, when learning about new content in an L2 encompasses
cognitive engagement and higher-order thinking (Coyle et al., 2010). In this sense, there is an
emphasis on group-work activities that motivate learners and make them learn the content.
Error correction is explicitly and implicitly marked but L2 learners are allowed to self-correct
themselves. Finally, the L1 does not have an explicit role in CLIL.

Very importantly, CLIL focuses on emphasized language through the content, which highly
conditions the language areas to be worked on. All skills are prioritized and the syllabus (at
least, the language syllabus) is derived from the content.

CLIL is an approach rather than a method, and thus no specific activities are associated
with it. Nevertheless, there are some type of activities which are preferred in CLIL:
vocabulary building, discussion and debate, webquests, jigsaw activities, jumble activities
and language development exercises.

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4. Bibliography

Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to

second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics,1(1), 1-47.

Cook, V. (2008). Second Language Learning and Teaching. (4th ed.). London: Hodder
Education.

Coyle, D., Hood, P. & Marsh, D. (2010). CLIL: Content and Language Integrated
Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Criado, R. (2005). Activity Sequencing Patterns in the Teaching of English as a Foreign

Language. An Analysis Based on Three 20th Century Samples. Master’s thesis available
on http://hdl.handle.net/10201/2187. University of Murcia, Spain.

Ellis, R. (2003). Task-Based Language Learning and Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.

Ellis, R. (2009). Task-based language teaching: sorting out the

misunderstandings. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 19(3), 221-246.

Howatt, A.P.R. (1984). A History of English Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.

Howatt, A.P.R. with Widdowson, H. (2004). A History of English Language Teaching.

(2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. London:

Pergamon.

Lado, R. (1988). Teaching English Across Cultures. An Introduction for Teachers of English
to Speakers of Other Languages. New York: McGraw Hill.

Larsen-Freeman, D. & Anderson, M. (2011). Techniques and Principles in Language

Teaching. (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Littlewood, W. (1981). Communicative Language Teaching: An Introduction. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.

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Littlewood, W. (2011). Communicative Language Teaching: An expanding concept for a

changing world. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of Research in Second Language Learning and
Teaching (Vol. II) (pp. 541-557). New York: Routledge.

Marsh, D. (Ed.). (2002). CLIL/EMILE European Dimension: Actions, Trends and Foresight
Potential. European Commission, Public Services Contract DG 3406/001-001.

Nunan, D. (1991). Language Teaching Methodology: A Textbook for Teachers. New York:
Prentice-Hall.

Prabhu, N. S. (1984). Procedural syllabuses. In T. E. Read (Ed.), Trends in language syllabus

design (pp. 272-280). Singapore: Singapore University Press/RELC.

Richards, J. C. & Rodgers, T. (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. (2nd
ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Richards, J. C. & Schmidt, R. (2010). Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied

Linguistics. (4th ed.). Harlow : Longman.

Rivers, W. M. (1964). The Psychologist and the Foreign Language Teacher. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.

Sánchez, A. (1997). Los métodos en la enseñanza de idiomas. Evolución histórica y análisis

didáctico. Madrid: SGEL, S.A.

Skehan, P. (1998). A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning. Oxford: Oxford University

Press.

Stern, H. H. (1983). Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.

Willis, J. (1996). A Framework for Task-based Learning. Essex: Addison Wesley Longman.

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