Lecture Notes #4

Non Uniform Flows in Channels

prepared by M. Hamid Elmy

 Water Surface Profile
There are quite a few examples of non-uniform flow in rivers or
open channels, that may be encountered by a water resources
engineer

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 Non Uniform Gradually Varied Flow

Applying the equivalence of

energy between locations 1
and 2, and assuming the loss
term as hL given by Sf x Δx
one obtains

If S0 replaced with Sf

2
 Energy Relation in Channel flow

2
V
velocity head 1 1 2
h L = S f Dx
V energy
2g 2 2 ______
grade line
2g
hydraulic
_______
y1 grade line
y2

S o Dx
Dx

Energy Equation for Open Channel Flow

V12 V22
y1 + + S o Dx = y 2 + + S f Dx
2g 2g
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 Total & Specific Energy
The total energy of a channel flow referred to datum is given by

If the datum coincides with the channel bed at the cross-section, the resulting
expression is know as specific energy and is denoted by E.

Specific Energy: the energy per unit weight of water measured from the channel
bottom as a datum .

The concept of specific energy, is very useful in defining critical water

depth and in the analysis of open channel flow.

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 Mean Velocity
► Specific energy varies abruptly as does the channel geometry

► Velocity coefficient (α) is used to account nonuniformity of the

velocity distribution when using average velocity.

► It varies from 1.05 (for uniform cross-sections) to 1.2 (nonuniform

sections).

► For natural channels, a common method to estimate α:

Weighted mean velocity:

A channel section divided into three sections

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 Specific Energy
Assuming α equal to 1, it is convenient to express E in terms of Q
for steady flow conditions

V2
E  y 
2g
→ f(E, Q, y) = 0

E1  S o  x  E 2  S f  x
If channel bottom is horizontal and no head loss
E1  E 2
Specific Energy Diagram (SED)
SED is a graphical representation for the variation of E with y.

Let`s write E equation in terms of Potential & kinetic energy:

V2
where and
2g
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 Specific Energy
In a channel with constant discharge, Q
Q  A1V 1  A 2V 2

V2 Q2
E  y  E  y  where A=f(y)
2g 2gA 2

Consider rectangular channel (A = By) and Q = q B

q2
E  y  y A
2
2gy
B
How many possible depths given a specific energy?
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 Specific Energy(Example)
10
sluice gate
9 q = 5.5 m2/s
y1 8 EGL y2 = 0.45 m
7 q2
6
E  y  V2 = 12.2 m/s
2gy 2 1
y

5
4
E2 = 8 m
3
2
1 2
y2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
E1  E 2
E

Given downstream depth and discharge, find upstream depth.

alternate depths (same specific energy)
y1 and y2 are ___________
Why not use momentum conservation to find y1?
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 Specific Energy Diagram
- Es varies linearly with y

- Ek varies nonlinearly with y

- Horizontal sum of the line OD

& the curve kk` produces SED

- For given E: alternate depths

(y1 & y2)

- They are two depths with the

same specific energy and
conveying the same discharge
The specific energy diagram
-Emin vs critical depth

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 Specific Energy Diagram

- An increase in the required

Emin yields bigger discharges.

- Fn : Froude number

equals to V square / gD

The specific energy diagram

for various discharges

10
 Critical Flow Conditions
General mathematical formulation for critical flow conditions:

- Assume dA/dy = B
y

At the critical flow conditions, specific energy is minimum:

which can also be

Then, expressed as -->

It is the basic equation governing the critical flow conditions in a channel.

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 Critical Flow Conditions

V
Then, Fn 
gD

In wide or rectangular section, D =y

at critical
depth

For a certain section & given discharge:

Critical depth is defined as the depth of flow requiring minimum specific E

For the rectangular

cross section:
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 Critical Velocity
The general expressions for

q 2
1/3
  Vc2 y c2 
yc    y c3    because q  Vc yc
g   g 
   

Vc inertial force Kinetic energy

 1 Froude number = =
yc g Gravity force Potential energy

Critical velocity for the general cross section:

Velocity head at critical conditions: velocity head = 0.5 (depth)

In wide or rectangular section, D = y

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 Critical Energy
Critical Energy is the energy when the flow is under critical conditions.

Recall for any cross section:

Then,

For wide or rectangular section, D = y

14
 Critical Depth

 Minimum energy for a given q

dE
 Occurswhen =___
0
dy
 When kinetic = potential! Vc2 yc
=
2g 2
 Fr=1

Vc q BT
Fr = = =Q
yc g 3
gyc gA3

 Fr>1 Super
= ______critical
Sub
 Fr<1 = ______critical
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 Critical Flow
 Characteristics dE
 0
 Unstable surface dy

 Series of standing waves

Difficult to measure depth
 Occurrence
 Broad crested weir (and other weirs)

 Channel Controls (rapid changes in cross-section)

 Over falls

 Changes in channel slope from mild to steep

 Used for flow measurements

 Unique relationship between depth and discharge
___________________________________________ 12
Critical Flow

Profile behind a dam;

Calculation proceeds
U/S from control section

Profile in a steep channel;

Calculation proceeds D/S
from control section

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 Critical Slope
Critical slope is the bed slope of the channel producing critical conditions.

► depends discharge; channel geometry; resistance or roughness

For Chezy equation:

Then,

For Manning equation: v2n2

Sc  2 / 3
R

Q 2n2
For direct computation: Sc  2 2 / 3
AR
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 Flow Regime
This may be done by observing the water flow depth (h) with
respect to normal depth (hn) and critical depth (hc) for a given
discharge, the following figs show the relative changes of hn and
hc as channel bed slope is increased gradually from horizontal.

In water resources projects, one generally encounters

slopes of channels that are either of the following:
• Mild, where hn > hc (Figure 22)
• Steep, where hn < hc (Figure 24)
• Critical, where hn = hc (Figure 23)
• Flat, where hn = ∞ (Figure 21)
• Adverse, where the slope is reversed (Figure 25)

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 Flow Regime

slope increase slightly (mild)

Horizontal sloped bed

slope increase further slope increased substantially (steep)

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 Flow Regime

Critical slope is very important in open-channel hydraulics. WHY?

Q 2n2
Sc  2 2 / 3
AR

The summary given above encompasses much of the important concepts

of the energy & resistance principles as applied to open channels.

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