CHAPTER 2:

THE SYSTEM UNIT:

PROCESSING AND
MEMORY
Handouts (Notes)

Introduction to Information and Communication Technologies

Introduction to ICT
ADP-Computing
1st Semester

Muhammad Zia Shaukat

m.ziashaukat@yahoo.com
 Table of Contents
Overview .............................................................................................................................. 3
Data and Program Representation .................................................................................... 3
Binary Number System ...................................................................................................... 3
Data Representation Schemes .......................................................................................... 3
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) ....................................... 3
Unicode ......................................................................................................................... 3
Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)......................................................................................... 4
Floating-Point Representation ........................................................................................ 4
Program Representation ................................................................................................... 4
Importance of Data and Program Representation .............................................................. 4
Inside the System Unit ........................................................................................................ 4
System Unit Overview .................................................................................................... 4
Components Inside the System Unit .............................................................................. 4
Key Features ................................................................................................................. 4
The Motherboard ............................................................................................................... 5
Computer Chip ............................................................................................................... 5
Circuit Board .................................................................................................................. 5
System Board (Motherboard) ......................................................................................... 5
The Power Supply ............................................................................................................. 5
Drive Bays ......................................................................................................................... 5
Processors ........................................................................................................................ 5
Common Types of CPUs ............................................................................................... 6
Processing Speed / System Clock ..................................................................................... 6
Cache ................................................................................................................................ 6
Bus .................................................................................................................................... 6
Bus Speed ..................................................................................................................... 6
Bus Width ...................................................................................................................... 6
Memory ............................................................................................................................. 7
Characteristics of ROM (Read-Only Memory) and RAM (Random Access Memory) ...... 7
Cooling Components ......................................................................................................... 7
Fans............................................................................................................................... 8
Heat Sinks ..................................................................................................................... 8
Liquid cooling systems ................................................................................................... 8
Thermal Paste ............................................................................................................... 8
Expansions and Expansion Slots....................................................................................... 8
Expansion Slot ............................................................................................................... 8
 Expansion Card ............................................................................................................. 8
Express-Card Modules................................................................................................... 9
Ports and Connectors ........................................................................................................ 9
How the CPU Works............................................................................................................ 9
Typical CPU Components ................................................................................................. 9
Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU) ............................................................................................ 9
Floating Point Unit (FPU) ............................................................................................... 9
Control Unit .................................................................................................................... 9
Prefetch Unit .................................................................................................................. 9
Decode Unit ................................................................................................................. 10
Registers and Internal Cache Memory ......................................................................... 10
Bus Interface Unit ........................................................................................................ 10
The System Clock and the Machine Cycle ...................................................................... 10
 Chapter # 2 : The System Unit:
Processing and Memory
Overview
• Introduction to System Unit: The system unit of a computer is often perceived as a
mysterious "black box," and users may lack understanding of its internal workings.

• Objective of the Chapter: The chapter aims to provide insight into the functions of
various parts inside the system unit, shedding light on how the CPU, memory, and
other devices collaborate to execute user tasks.

• Data Representation: Discussion on how computers represent data and program

instructions, exploring the codes used to translate data between computer-
manipulable symbols and human-readable symbols.

• System Unit Components: Examination of how the CPU and memory are organized
alongside other components within the system unit, highlighting the characteristics of
these components.

• CPU Processing Tasks: Exploration of the processing tasks performed by the Central
Processing Unit (CPU) within the system unit.

Data and Program Representation

Data representation in computers is the process of converting information into a format that
can be stored and processed by electronic circuitry. This conversion is essential because
computers can only understand and manipulate data in its digital form, using combinations of
0s and 1s.

Binary Number System

At the heart of data representation lies the binary number system, which uses only two digits,
0 and 1, to represent all numbers, characters, and instructions. Each digit, or bit, can represent
a state, such as off or on, presence or absence. By combining bits in specific sequences,
computers can encode a wide range of information.

Data Representation Schemes

Various data representation schemes have been developed to efficiently encode different
types of data. Some common schemes include:

ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)

• A widely used standard for representing text data, assigning a unique binary code to
each character, such as letters, numbers, and punctuation marks.

Unicode
• A more comprehensive standard that supports a broader range of characters, including
alphabets from various languages, symbols, and emojis.
 Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
• A method of representing decimal numbers using binary digits, where each digit
corresponds to a specific decimal value.

Floating-Point Representation
• A way to represent real numbers, including fractions and very large or small numbers,
using a combination of sign, magnitude, and exponent.

Program Representation
In addition to data, computer programs also need to be represented in a digital format that the
CPU can understand. Machine language, the lowest-level programming language, directly
controls the CPU's operations using binary code.

However, machine language is difficult to write and understand, so higher-level

programming languages, such as Python, Java, and C++, have been developed.

These languages provide more user-friendly syntax and are translated into machine code by
compilers or interpreters.

Importance of Data and Program Representation

Data and program representation play a fundamental role in computer science, enabling
computers to store, process, and transmit information. Understanding these concepts is
crucial for developing software, designing computer systems, and understanding the
underlying mechanisms of modern computing.

Inside the System Unit

System Unit Overview
• Main case of a computer or mobile device
• Houses processing hardware, storage devices, power supply, and cooling fans
• Desktop computer system unit is a rectangular box; smaller for all-in-one computers,
notebooks, tablets, and mobile devices
• Often combined with the device’s display screen for compact design

Components Inside the System Unit

• One or more processors
• Various types of memory
• Interfaces for connecting external peripheral devices (e.g., printers)
• All components interconnected through sets of wires called buses on the motherboard

Key Features
• Processing hardware for computing tasks
• Storage devices for data retention
• Power supply for providing electrical power
• Cooling fans to regulate temperature and prevent overheating
 The Motherboard
Computer Chip
Very small pieces of silicon or other semi-conducting material onto which integrated circuits
are embedded

Circuit Board
A thin board containing computer chips and other electronic components

System Board (Motherboard)

The main circuit board inside the system unit to which all devices must connect

The Power Supply

The power supply connects to the motherboard to deliver electricity (personal computer)

Portable computers use rechargeable battery pack

• Nonremovable batteries more difficult and expensive to replace

Drive Bays
Rectangular metal racks inside the system unit that house storage devices
Hard drive, CD/DVD drive, flash memory card reader

• Connected to the motherboard with a cable

Processors
The CPU (microprocessor) is often referred to as the brain of the computer.

It is responsible for executing instructions that make up computer programs.

Modern CPUs are composed of multiple cores, allowing them to perform multiple tasks
simultaneously through parallel processing.
 Common Types of CPUs
Dual-core CPU
Contains the processing components (cores) of two separate processors on a single CPU

Quad-core CPU
Contains four cores

Multi-core CPU
Multi-core processors allow computers to work on more than one task at a time. Typically,
different CPUs for desktop computers, portable computers, servers, mobile devices, consumer
devices, etc. Personal computer CPU often made by Intel or AMD. Media tablets and
mobile phones use processors made by other companies such as ARM.

The GPU (Graphics Processing Unit)

Takes care of the processing needed to display images (including still images, animations) on
the screen. Can be located on the motherboard, on a video graphics board, on in the CPU
package.

Processing Speed / System Clock

The system clock synchronizes the operations of the CPU. It acts like a heartbeat, regulating
the pace at which the CPU processes instructions. Clock speed is measured in Hertz (Hz),
which is equal to cycles per second. A higher clock speed generally means faster
processing.

For example, a computer with a clock speed of 2 GHz can execute 2 billion instructions per
second.

Type of Computer Clock Speed Range

Desktop computers 2 GHz to 5 GHz
Laptops 1 GHz to 3 GHz
Smartphones 1 GHz to 2 GHz
Tablets 1 GHz to 2 GHz

Cache
Cache is a small, high-speed type of volatile computer memory that provides high-speed data
access to the CPU and stores frequently used computer programs, applications, and data.
This means that the computer doesn't have to go all the way to the main storage to get the
data it needs. Instead, it can just grab it from the cache, which is much faster.

Bus
A bus is an electronic path over which data can travel. Can be found inside the CPU and on
the motherboard. It consists of address buses, data buses, and control buses.

Bus Speed
Bus speed refers to the speed at which data travels on the bus. It influences how quickly data
can be transferred between components.

Bus Width
Bus width is the number of wires in the bus over which data can travel. A wider bus allows
more data to be transferred in a single cycle.
 Memory
Memory refers to chip-based storage located inside the system unit.

The random-access memory (RAM) is the computer’s main memory.

Consists of chips arranged on a circuit board called a memory module which are plugged into
the motherboard.

Stores essential parts of operating system, programs, and data the computer is currently
using.

Characteristics of ROM (Read-Only Memory) and RAM (Random Access

Memory)
ROM
Non-volatile memory.
Contains firmware and essential system instructions.
Contents are fixed during manufacturing.
Used for system boot-up and critical functions.

RAM
Volatile memory.
Used for temporary storage of data and actively running programs.
Faster than most storage, but loses data when power is turned off.
Read and write operations during normal computer operation.
Most personal computers use SD-RAM

Cooling Components
Heat is an ongoing problem for CPU and computer manufacturers
• Can damage components
• Cooler chips run faster
 Fans
Fans used on most personal computers to help cool the CPU and system unit.
Heat Sinks
Small components typically made out of aluminum with fins that help to dissipate heat.

Liquid cooling systems

Cool the computer with liquid-filled tubes. Hardware is actually submerged into units filled with a liquid
cooling solution.

Thermal Paste
Thermal paste (or thermal compound) is a material applied between the CPU/GPU and the
heat sink to improve thermal conductivity.
It fills microscopic gaps and irregularities on the surfaces, ensuring better heat transfer
between the components and the cooling solution.

Expansions and Expansion Slots

Consists of expansion Slots, Expansion cards, and express-card modules.

Expansion Slot
A location on the motherboard into which expansion cards are inserted

Expansion Card
A circuit board inserted into an expansion slot. Used to add additional functionality or to attach
a peripheral device.
 Express-Card Modules
Designed to add additional functionality to notebooks.

Ports and Connectors

Ports are external interfaces for connecting peripherals, such as USB ports for keyboards and
mice, HDMI ports for displays, etc.

Typical desktop computer ports include:

• Power connector, Firewire, VGA monitor, Network, USB, Audio, and HDMI.

Others include IrDA and Bluetooth ports, eSATA ports, Thunderbolt ports (Apple devices).

Most computers support the Plug and Play standard.

How the CPU Works

The CPU consists of a variety of circuitry and components packaged together. The key
element of the processor is the transistor—a device made of semiconductor material that
controls the flow of electrons inside a chip.

Typical CPU Components

Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU)
Performs arithmetic involving integers and logical operations.

Floating Point Unit (FPU)

Performs decimal arithmetic.

Control Unit
Coordinates and controls activities within a CPU core.

Prefetch Unit
Attempts to retrieve data and instructions before they are needed for processing in order to
avoid delays
 Decode Unit
Translates instructions from the prefetch unit so they are understood by the control unit, ALU,
and FPU.

Registers and Internal Cache Memory

Store data and instructions needed by the CPU.

Bus Interface Unit

Allows the core to communicate with other CPU components.

The System Clock and the Machine Cycle

Whenever the CPU processes a single piece of microcode, it is referred to as a machine cycle.
Each machine cycle consists of the four general operations:

1) Fetch—the program instruction is fetched.

2) Decode—the instructions are decoded so the control unit, ALU, and FPU can
understand them.
3) Execute—the instructions are carried out.
4) Store—the original data or the result from the ALU or FPU execution is stored in the
CPU’s registers.