EUROPEAN UNION

FAMILY POLICY
OUTLOOK
2024
EUROPEAN UNION
FAMILY POLICY
OUTLOOK
2024

2024
CONTENTS

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
Demographic Trends in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Demographic Winter in Europe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Demographic and Family Policy Aspects of the Hungarian EU Presidency . . . . . . . . . . 42
A comparison of family policy systems in the EU Member States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Country profiles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Methodological notes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Austria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Belgium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Bulgaria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Croatia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Cyprus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Czech Republic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Denmark. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Estonia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Finland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Germany. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Greece. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Hungary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Ireland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Italy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Latvia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Lithuania. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Luxembourg. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Malta. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Netherlands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Poland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Romania. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Slovakia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Slovenia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Spain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Sweden. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Comparative table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Authors and editors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Foreword
In 2024, Europe, and especially the European Union, has reached another turning point
in a rapidly changing and complex world. In order to maintain its political and economic
importance and to strengthen its role in the world, it needs self-examination, one of the
most important cornerstones of which is how it faces the serious demographic crisis that
fundamentally affects its population and human resources.

The “old continent” continues to age, and the seemingly unstoppable loss of its population
in the long term is becoming more and more evident. Europe is a continent of empty
cradles despite migration. Although we see similar processes in more and more regions
of the world, the number of births in none of the European Union countries reaches
the level required for self-preservation. The “demographic winter” in the EU is now
a matter of fact, the decline in the birth rate since the 1960s and the increase in life
expectancy have led to the coexistence of a shrinking young generation facing difficult
future prospects and an expanding ageing generation, often financially better off than the
young. Furthermore, there is both the shrinkage of the workforce and the unavailability
of an adequate workforce in certain regions. The decline in the competitiveness of the
European Union is directly related to the transformation of the structure of human
resources required for the functioning of the economy from generation to generation,
more and more inactive people must be supported by fewer and fewer active people, and
this is not a temporary but a constant and increasing challenge in view of fertility trends,
which we are now predicted to have to live with in the future. This is the basic situation
that the EU and its Member States must tackle with a positive outlook and effectively if
they want to remain at the forefront of the world’s economies.

Population processes therefore have a significant impact on the transformation of

Europe’s position, weight and importance in the world. Although these changes are
less on the agenda of policymakers today, as in the short term, population decline and
the aging of population are almost unnoticeable, but their impact is expected to appear
more defined in the future, not only on the political scene but also in the everyday
lives of European families. In the second half of 2024, the Hungarian presidency of the
Council of the European Union aimed to channel this challenge into the decision-making
processes of the highest level of the European Union and the work of its institutions on
a permanent basis: one of the key factors of Europe’s competitiveness needs to be given the
right weight.

Meanwhile, Europe is one of the most important destinations for mass immigration.
Although immigration may increase the active working-age population in a society,
even in the case of successful integration, there is a risk that the cultural and ethnic
composition of the host society will radically transform. For this reason, the Hungarian
government has been relying on the internal resources of society for the past 14 years and

5
wants to stop the population decline with an effective family policy, continuing to focus
on families having and raising children.

The aim of our volume is to provide following a 5-year period a comprehensive picture of
the family policies of the European Union Member States, the support of Europe’s families
in each country, the local family policy measures and their effects on having and raising
children, thus placing Hungarian family policy in a European context.

Country portraits, like the KINCS publication of 2019, provide a systematic insight into
the demographic situation of a country, the system of family support and measures
aimed at work-life balance that are being implemented. Taking into account the second
half-yearly EU Presidency of Hungary in 2024, the volume examines the Member States
of the European Union. In this way, our handbook of practical, descriptive information
provides a broad comparison of EU Member States’ policies in support of families, based
on data available at the beginning of 2024.

During the preparation of the volume, we were assisted by the Századvég Center for
Public Knowledge Foundation and the Hungarian Demographic Research Institute of the
HCSO. I would like to thank them and all my colleagues in KINCS for their joint work in
creating the “European Union Family Policy Outlook 2024”.
I hope that the manual will be turned into a useful reading by all our esteemed readers.

October 2024

Tünde Fűrész
President
KINCS

6
Demographic Trends in Europe
Zsuzsanna Makay, Fruzsina Ökrös

INTRODUCTION
In just over a decade since the turn of the millennium, the Earth’s population has grown
by one billion and the upward trend has continued ever since. As a result, in November
2022, the world’s population exceeded eight billion and is projected to reach 10.4 billion
by the mid-2080s (UN, 2024). A total of 59.2% of the world’s population lives in Asia,
18.1% in Africa, 9.3% in Europe, 8.1% in Latin America and the Caribbean, 4.7% in
North America, and 0.6% in Oceania (Dyvik, 2024). The two most populous countries
in the world are China and India, each with populations of over 1 billion people; while
India’s population continues to grow, China’s population seems to have peaked in 2022
and has been declining since (UN, 2024). Despite global growth, there are quite large
differences in trends around the world, which have different impacts on the social,
political and economic structure of countries.

This study focuses on a slice of the world, Europe, and explores the demographic trends
in the European region, taking stock of the most important changes since 2010. The key
element of our analysis is fertility, thus we address this component in the greatest depth
before analysing the other two factors of population trends: mortality and migration.
In 2023, Europe was in a year of “recovery” from the COVID-19 pandemic as life expectancy
at birth and population began to rise again after two years (Eurostat, 2024). However,
the pandemic has widened disparities in many respects. Even taking all demographic
factors into account, the situation varies widely between countries due to differences in
childbearing, mortality and the rate and nature of migration.
In our paper, we present these factors and try to explain the reasons behind the differing
changes in population.

Mortality, migration and population change

On 1 January 2023, the population of the European Union was 448.4 million, an increase
of 2.8 million year-on-year. Compared to 2022, 20 Member States recorded an increase
in population, while seven Member States experienced a decrease. Differences between
countries are explained by differences in natural change and net migration, and while
natural change has long been more important, the importance of net migration in
population growth has increased over the last decade. This can be attributed to the decline
in the number of live births observed in essentially all countries (Sobotka and Fürnkranz-
Prskawetz, 2020).
In this respect, 2012 can be seen as a turning point, as it was the first year in the EU
countries when, on average, the number of children born fell short of the number of
persons who died. This trend seems to be stabilising, as the gap between the two rates has
been widening ever since, according to Eurostat data (Figure 1).

7
The number of births (for the current Member States) was 6.7 million in 1960, dropping
below 5 million in 1990 and then below 4 million in 2022. Conversely, the number of
deaths rose over this period and is expected to increase further with the ageing of societies.
Consequently, the future change in the population, whether increasing or decreasing, will
be determined primarily by the balance between immigration and emigration.
We will come back to this point later, but first let us look at the main trends in mortality.

Figure 1: Live births and deaths in the European Union, 1961-2022 (million)

3
Deaths
Live births

2
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

Source: Eurostat (demo_find) and https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Population_and_

population_change_statistics#EU_population_shows_a_strong_increase_in_2022 (Accessed: 18.06.2024.)

In recent decades, life expectancy at birth has increased significantly in the European
Union, but growth slowed in the 2010s. In 2016, average life expectancy in the 28 countries
reached 81 years, and in some countries exceeded 83 years. It was highest in Spain and
Sweden (over 83 years), while in two-thirds of the countries it was over 80 years. In many
countries in Central and Eastern Europe, however, it was only around 75 years. At the end
of the decade, life expectancy increased further, averaging 81.3 years in 2019.
In 2020 and 2021, the COVID-19 pandemic caused a decline in life expectancy at birth in
European countries. As a result of the decline, life expectancy at birth in the EU barely
reached 80 years in 2021, a full year less than in 2019. In 2022, after the pandemic, life
expectancy at birth was still only 80.6 years, that is, not yet back to the previous level.

8
In 2023, however, the indicator reached its highest ever value of 81.5 years (according to
preliminary data)1, but the differences between countries increased.
Life expectancy is shortest in Bulgaria for both women and men, averaging 74.2 years,
and below 75 years in Latvia. In 2023, life expectancy at birth in Hungary was 76 years,
ranking fifth from the bottom of the 27 Member States. Life expectancy is the longest in
Spain, at 83.2 years, but it also exceeds 83 years in Sweden and Luxembourg (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Life expectancy at birth in the European Union, 2023

Source: https://doi.org/10.2908/DEMO_MLEXPEC (Accessed: 18.06.2024.)

The pandemic led to a sharp widening of the life expectancy gap across EU countries, as
Central and Eastern European countries suffered significantly higher excess mortality
than most Western and Northern countries did. In Bulgaria, life expectancy fell by
3.7 years between 2019 and 2021, and in all eastern Member States except Slovenia, there
was at least a two-year decrease. No comparable decline was observed in any of the old
Member States, where the average decline was 1.2 years (Figure 3).

1
See: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-eurostat-news/w/ddn-20240503-2 (Accessed: 18.06.2024.)

9
 Figure 3: Gains and declines in life expectancy by country, 2019-2021
and 2010-2019 (number of years)
2019-2021 2010-2019
Bulgaria -3.7 1.3
Slovakia -3 2.2
Romania -2.7 1.9
Poland -2.4 1.6
Latvia -2.3 2.6
Estonia -2.1 3
Hungary -2 1.8
Lithuania -2 3.2
Czech Republic -1.9 1.6
Croatia -1.8 1.9
Greece -1.4 1.1
EU27 -1.2 1.5
Portugal -0.7 1.8
Austria -0.7 1.3
Netherlands -0.7 1.2
Spain -0.7 1.6
Slovenia -0.7 1.8
Italy -0.7 1.4
Cyprus -0.5 0.8
France -0.5 1.2
Germany -0.4 0.8
Ireland -0.2 2
Belgium -0.2 1.8
Finland -0.1 1.9
Denmark -0.1 2.2
Malta 0 1.4
Sweden 0 1.6
Luxembourg 0.1 1.9

Switzerland 0 1.3
Iceland 0 1.3
Norway 0.2 1.8

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Source: https://doi.org/10.1787/507433b0-en (Accessed: 18.06.2024.) Health at a Glance: Europe 2022, OECD.

Women live longer than men in all EU countries – 5.4 years on average across the EU in 2022.
While the gender gap was narrowing before the pandemic, it has widened slightly since the
beginning of the pandemic as COVID-19 mortality has been higher among men than women.
In 2022, women lived on average 83.3 years (up by 0.4 years from 2021 but 0.7 years less
than in 2019), while for men the figure was 77.9 years. There are large differences between
countries: in Latvia women live approximately ten years longer than men, while in the
Netherlands the gender gap is only 2.9 years, in Ireland 3.3 years and in Sweden 3.4 years.2
Increasing life expectancy and declining fertility are leading to an ageing population
in Europe. The proportion of the population aged 65 and over rose from 16% to 21%
between 2001 and 2020 and is expected to reach 28.5% of the population by 20503.

2
See: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-eurostat-news/w/ddn-20240314-1 (Accessed: 18.06.2024.)
3
See: https://www.age-platform.eu/ageing-europe-looking-at-the-lives-of-older-people-in-the-eu-eurostat-2019-report/
(Accessed: 18.06.2024.)

10
 Figure 4: Population change of the European Union by the three demographic components
(annual crude rates), 1960-2022, per 1,000 persons

11

-1

-3
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

Net migration Total change Natural population change

Source: Eurostat (demo_find) and https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Population_and_

population_change_statistics#EU_population_shows_a_strong_increase_in_2022 (Accessed: 18.06.2024.)

Moreover, the proportion of very old people (85 and over) is increasing at an accelerating rate,
with twice as many women as men. The quality of life of the elderly is a socially important
issue. It is measured by the healthy life expectancy indicator, which shows the number of
years of life that are lived in good health or without some health issues, activity limitations or
disabilities. In 2021, the number of healthy life years at birth was approximately 64.2 years
for women and 63.1 years for men showing a smaller gender gap. This represented 77.4% and
81.7% of the total life expectancy for women and men, respectively. In Hungary, the same
figures are 63.5 years for women and 61.6 years for men4.

4
See: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Healthy_life_years_statistics
(Accessed: 18.06.2024.)

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Fertility trends will be discussed later, but in general it can be said that the decline in
the number of births characterises the entire region. As a result, migration is playing an
increasingly important role in population growth. Migration has been on the rise in the EU
since the 1980s and has been a main determinant in population growth since 1990. In 2022,
it was solely due to a positive net migration that the population of the area did not decrease:
while the natural decline was 1.3 million, net migration was 2.9 million. Thus, overall, the
population increased by 1.7 million, or 2.8 thousandths, in one year (Figure 4).
International migration is the least stable and least predictable element of demography
for the future. However, it is one of the factors that currently accounts for the differences
in population changes between countries.
Table 1. Contribution of natural population change and net migration to population change in the
countries, 2022

Growth due:

only to natural change -

more to natural change -

Belgium, Ireland, France, Cyprus,

more to positive net migration
Luxembourg, Malta, Sweden

Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania,

Slovenia, Romania, Austria, Denmark,
only to positive net migration
Finland, Netherlands, Germany, Portugal,
Spain

Decline due:

Bulgaria, Croatia, Poland, Hungary, Slovakia,

only to natural change
Italy

more to natural change Greece

more to negative net migration -
only to negative net migration -
Source: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Population_and_population_change_statis-
tics#EU_population_shows_a_strong_increase_in_2022 (Downloaded: 18.06.2024.)

In 2023, 27.3 million citizens of non-member countries were residing in an EU Member

State5, representing 6.3% of the EU population. In absolute terms, the largest numbers of
third-country nationals were found in Germany (7.7 million), Spain (4.4 million), France
(4.1 million) and Italy (3.8 million). At the same time, the highest proportions of third-
country nationals compared to the resident population were observed in Malta (17%),
Estonia (16%) and Latvia (14%), while their rate was 9.1% in Germany and 1.5% in
Hungary. There is also considerable internal migration within the European Union. The
highest share of non-EU national population is that of Luxembourg, where their share
exceeds one-third of the total population. Luxembourg is followed by Cyprus with 10%

5
See: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Migration_and_migrant_population_statistics#Mig-
rant_population:_27.3_million_non-EU_citizens_living_in_the_EU_on_1_January_2023 (Accessed: 18.06.2024.)

12
and Belgium with 8%. The largest number of non-EU citizens live in Germany: 4.6 million
persons or 5.5% of the population.
The contribution of natural growth (or decline) and net migration to population change
varies considerably between countries (Table 1). Among the 20 Member States where
population growth was recorded in 2022, seven had both positive natural population
change and net migration (e.g. Belgium and Ireland). In the 14 Member States where net
migration was positive, natural population change was negative, i.e. population growth
was due solely to migration (e.g. Germany and the Czech Republic). In six Member States,
the population declined, and in most of them this was due to natural decrease, while
net migration was positive. Italy recorded the largest overall population decline between
2022 and 2023, with a decrease of around 180,000, while Germany recorded the largest
increase of around 1.1 million.

FERTILITY
Some theories explaining fertility decline
Although all developed countries have now gone through the stages of the first demographic
transition – i.e. societies with high birth rates and high death rates have been transformed
into societies with low birth rates and declining death rates (Kapitány, 2015) – the theory
is incomplete in that it does not paint an accurate picture of the fertility patterns that can
be expected after the transition. Today, mortality is improving only to a negligible extent,
and in most developed countries fertility has fallen below the level required for simple
reproduction since the 1960s and 1970s (Andorka, 2006). To make up for this shortcoming,
new theories and new approaches have been developed to explain the decline in fertility
(Andorka, 1987). The explanation of fertility through economic theory is the work of Gerry
Becker and Harvey Leibenstein of the Chicago school, while another set of explanations
rooted in sociological theory, which, similarly to the “Value of Children” concept known
in psychological theory, is still rather rudimentary. Richard Easterlin (1978), an American
economic demographer, observing the baby boom period, while accepting the theses of
economic theory based on cost-benefit calculations, has elaborated on Becker’s approach,
extending it to include the labour market aspect of fertility cyclicality (Easterlin, 1980).
This means that when it comes to having children, it is not only the economic situation
(and the calculation derived from it) that matters, but also the preferences of the couple.
A third group of theories explaining fertility decline is the second demographic transition
theory, which is attributed to Ron Lesthaeghe and Dirk van de Kaa. Their observations
suggest that changes in fertility behaviour and relationship patterns since the 1960s and
1970s (starting in Western Europe) were driven, on the one hand, by changes in values,
and on the other hand, by increasing individualisation coupled with more modern gender
role conceptions and non-conformism, as well as strengthening consumer aspirations
(Kapitány, 2015; Spéder, 2006). The former child-centredness was increasingly replaced
by self-centredness and relationship-centredness in a process of value changes in which de
Kaa (1996) highlighted the increasing emphasis on self-actualisation and self-fulfilment,
personal freedom of choice, personal development and lifestyle, and the expansion
of the emancipation of women. Most of the once traditional societies have thus been

13
transformed into modern societies, and the spread of effective contraception has led to
the prevailing idea that by default, no children are born unless couples choose to have
them (Lesthaeghe, 2010). The transformation of the post-industrial economy has thus
brought about a number of changes in the population of each region (Somlai, 2013). In
many European countries, including Hungary, the age at first marriage has significantly
grown, and the number of marriages has been dropping in recent decades due to the
increase in cohabitation and other alternative forms of relationships. However, after the
regime change, the number of those who believe that if a couple wants to have children
they should marry has increased (1988: 26.5%; 2022: 40.5%).

A similar discrepancy can be observed between the intention to have children and the
fulfilment of this intention. According to Fishbein and Ajzen (1975), it is the strength of
intentions that determines the specific behavioural outcomes, given that intentions are
interpreted as planned (rational) actions. Ajzen (1991) argues that planned behaviours are
influenced by attitudes on the one hand, and by subjective norms and perceived behavioural
control on the other. Extrapolating their theories to the fulfilment of childbearing
intentions, it can be concluded that individual attitudes to childbearing, socially accepted
norms of childbearing (e.g. the two-child family model) and people’s perceptions of how
easy or difficult childbearing will be, and how capable they feel of carrying out the task,
play a crucial role.

This interesting aspect of fertility decline is also highlighted in an article by Livi Bacci
in 2002, in which he addresses the question of how it is possible that neither the ideal
number of children nor the planned number of children is reached by the total fertility
rate. To explain the difference between projected and actual fertility, the author identifies
two factors for countries with low fertility. First, he mentions involuntary infertility,
which results in involuntary childlessness. People in this group have not chosen not to
have children, but are prevented by some external, usually biological, factor (infertility).
The second group includes those who, although they have not yet reached the desired
number of children, decide not to have more children for certain reasons (e.g. career,
negative experiences with previous pregnancies). However, it should also be taken into
account that when asked about the ideal number of children, respondents tend to be
influenced by stereotypes that exist at different levels of society, in particular by the idea
of the two-child family model. For this reason, Livi Bacci considers the projected number
of children to be a more accurate indicator. However, when comparing this indicator with
the total fertility rate, it is important to take into consideration the distorting effect of
timing, which places into the category of the involuntary childless some of those who had
planned to have children but postponed for too long and, in the end, did not have any.
The reasons for postponement can be numerous, including a deteriorating standard of
living, rising unemployment, the growing costs of having children or an increased feeling
of insecurity. Another group of explanations is the interpretation of postponement as
a rational decision, which in this context appears as a kind of response to the expansion
of education and widening labour market opportunities (Őri and Spéder, 2020); and there

14
is also a close link with the psychological and mental reasons for having children, as
shown in Hungarostudy 2021 (Pári and Balog, 2022).

In a 2014 study, Spéder and Kapitány further nuance the complex picture of childbearing
plans by examining the specificities of each region and country, taking into account the
differences between Western Europe and post-socialist states. While in the West, changes
in relationship patterns and value orientations brought about by the second demographic
transition can be identified as early as the 1970s and 1960s, in the former communist
countries these changes are more likely to be observed only after the political changeover. In
their results, Spéder and Kapitány stress that the chances of realising childbearing intentions
are significantly less in former communist bloc countries than in Western Europe. This is
due to the fact that although the former communist countries also witnessed a departure
from established social norms (e.g. the spread of cohabitation and childlessness), shifts in
values were less dramatic, while structural changes (e.g. transition to a market economy,
rising unemployment, deteriorating economic situation, and transformation of the welfare
system) were relatively rapid (Spéder and Kapitány, 2014).

Total fertility rate in Europe

On the whole, it is true for all European regions that between 2010 and 2021 the total
fertility rate did not reach the reproduction rate of 2.1, and that in the last decade, all
regions have seen a decline in the rate, albeit with different patterns (Figure 5).

While in 2010 Northern Europe had the highest fertility rate, by 2019 Western Europe
had caught up (1.63) and taken the lead by 20216. Among the regions, the most volatile
trend is observed in Eastern Europe, where, unlike the other regions, TFR typically
increased between 2010 and 2016, and even seemed to catch up with Western Europe by
2016, but started to decline after 2016 and fell below the 2010 level (1.68) in 2021 (1.62).
Southern Europe shows a relatively “balanced” decline. In this region, TFR was already
at its lowest in 2010 (1.46), but continued to drop by 2021 (1.33), albeit at a slower rate.

However, looking at the total fertility rate in the Central European region, it is conspicuous
that most countries in the region saw an upturn between 2010 and 2021. The only
exception is Croatia, where the rate dropped from 1.49 in 2010 to 1.45 in 2021. All the
other countries in the region, however, experienced an increase, although at varying
rates. Hungary saw the largest increase in TFR over the period, which is not surprising
given that in the 2010s it had the lowest TFR. After hitting a low in 2011 (1.24), TFR
jumped to 1.58 in 2021. The rate of increase is even higher in the Czech Republic (+0.2)
and Slovakia (+0.14). In 2021, TFR was highest in the Czech Republic (1.71), followed by
Slovenia (1.63) and Hungary (1.58) (Figure 6).

6
See: United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2022). World Population Prospects
2022, Online Edition. (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/igo/, accessed: 18.06.2024.)

15
 Figure 5: Total fertility rate in Europe by regions7, 2010-2021
2

1.8

1.6

1.4

1.2

1
2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2021

Northern Europe Western Europe Eastern Europe Southern Europe

Source: UN - Population Division, 2024. Authors’ editing.

Figure 6: Total fertility rate in Central and Eastern Europe, 2010-2021

7 1.80

1.70

1.60

1.50

1.40

1.30

1.20

1.10

1.00
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021

Czech Republic Hungary Poland Slovakia Croatia Slovenia

Source: UN - Population Division, 2024.

7
6 Eastern Europe: Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Ukraine. Northern Europe:
Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Iceland, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Sweden, United Kingdom Southern Europe: Croatia,
Greece, Italy, Malta, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain Western Europe: Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg,
Netherlands, Switzerland

16
Looking at the period 2010-2021, it is to be noted that for the Visegrád countries, there
was a trough in each region after which TFR started to rise. Even if there was stagnation
or a decline in the meantime, TFR did not revert to the previous bottom value in any of
the countries. Bottoming out occurred at different times in each country, with Hungary
(1.24) and the Czech Republic (1.43) reaching a low in 2011 and Slovakia (1.34) and
Poland (1.29) reaching a historic bottom in 2013 (CSO, 2021). It is nevertheless an
important question whether the upward TFR trend will be maintained in the future.
In Hungary, the total fertility rate was 1.52 in 2022, and according to preliminary data
from Hungary’s Central Statistical Office (CSO), it fell further to 1.51 in 2023 (CSO,
2024). The change is even more dramatic for Poland, where TRF was 1.26 in 2022,
according to the national statistical office, meaning that it fell below its previous low
(Statistics Poland, 2024). A similar trend can be observed for the Czech Republic, which
leads the field with a TFR of 1.62 in 2022 (ČSÚ, 2023). In Slovakia, the fertility rate
seems to stagnate for the time being, with a TFR of 1.57 in 2022 (Štatistická Ročenka
Slovenskej Republiky, 2023).

Cohort-specific fertility indicators can also be observed for specific birth cohorts. By
looking at completed cohort fertility, we can track the average number of children born
to women in a cohort (i.e. women who were born in a given year) by the end of their
reproductive life (typically up to age 49).

Figure 7: Average number of children of women born in 1980, Europe, 2020

[2.0-2.2]
[1.8-2.0]
[1.7-1.8]
[1.6-1.7]
[1.4-1.6]

Source: European Demographic Datasheet, 2022

17
In Europe, the completed fertility rate for women born in 19808 was highest in the
Western countries, almost reaching 2 in 2020. This was followed by Northern Europe
(1.91) and then Eastern Europe (1.64). The cohort’s completed fertility rate was the lowest
in the Southern European region at 1.44. The bloc of Germany, Austria and Switzerland
(1.62) was close to, but below, the EU average (1.66), and the same applied to the Central-
Eastern European region (1.56), including Hungary (1.47)9 (Figure 7).

Figure 8: Rates of childless women in some cohorts in 11 European countries

30

25

20

15

10

0
ES HU IR LT SW DK Cz NO PT BG

1960 1970 1976

Source: Human Fertility Database, authors’ editing.

In addition to the decline in the average number of children, rising childlessness is

a major factor in fertility in European countries. However, childlessness is not a new
phenomenon: around 20-25% of women born at the beginning of the 20th century
remained childless. Their proportion declined in the following cohorts and was the lowest
among women born in the 1940s, with only around 10% of women remaining childless
(Beaujouan et al., 2017). The phenomenon then became more common again, and the

8
Although women born in 1980 were only 42 years old in 2022 (that is, below the age of 49, which marks the end of the general
reproductive age), it can be stated that childbearing is no longer common in this age group. Observing the female cohort born in
1980 therefore gives a roughly accurate picture of completed cohort fertility.
9
See: https://www.humanfertility.org/File/GetDocument/Files/HUN/20220314/HUNtfrVH.txt (Accessed: 18.06.2024.)

18
proportion of childlessness among the women born in 1960 was around 15% to 18% in
Western countries, compared to around 10% in Eastern countries. Since then, the rate
has continued to rise, and in some countries between a quarter and a fifth of the youngest
generations are expected to end their productive lives without children. For the cohorts
of women born in 1976, the childless rate is 25% in Spain and 18% in Hungary, and both
countries have seen a spectacular increase compared to women born in 1960 (Figure 8).
On the other hand, the rate remains low in some countries. In Portugal and Bulgaria, for
example, less than 10% of women currently aged 48 are childless.

Figure 9: Changes in the number of women of childbearing age in Europe, 2010-2023

20 000 000 6 000 000

18 000 000
5 000 000
16 000 000
14 000 000 4 000 000
12 000 000
10 000 000 3 000 000
8 000 000
2 000 000
6 000 000
4 000 000 1 000 000
2 000 000
0 0
2010 2023 2010 2023

Germany France Italy

Romania Netherlands
Poland Spain
3 000 000

2 500 000

2 000 000

1 500 000

1 000 000

500 000

0
2010 2023

GR PT Cz BE HU SE AT GB SK DK

IE FI HR LT LV SI EE CY LU MT
Source: Eurostat, [demo_pjan]. Authors’ editing.

19
Changes in the number of women of childbearing age in Europe
Along with the changes in fertility, it is crucial to examine the changes in the number of
women of childbearing age (15-49 years), as this sub-population has a direct impact on
the fertility rate itself. A decrease in the number of women of childbearing age usually
implies a decrease in the number of births.

Since 2010, there has been an average downward trend in the female population of
childbearing age in the European Union. While in 2010 there were 103,795,317 women
in this age group, by 2023 their number had dropped to 94,682,183. The largest shrinkage
among the Member States appeared in Italy, where there were 2,046,051 fewer women
in this age group in 2023 than in 2010. Italy is followed by Germany (-1,703,953), Poland
(-1,091,760) and Spain (-1,021,339). But some Member States see an increase in the number
of women of childbearing age. In Sweden, 133,983, in Ireland 78,925 and in Belgium
44,954 more women have entered this age group (Figure 9). There is also an increase in
the number of women of childbearing age in Norway, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Malta,
Denmark, Iceland and Cyprus.

A closer look at the EU average reveals that it is not only the number of the female
population aged 15-49 that is going down – their rate within the total population is
likewise shrinking. Between 2010 and 2023, the rate of women of childbearing age in the
total population of EU Member States dropped from 23.6% to 21.1% (Figure 10).

Figure 10: Rate of women of childbearing age in the total population,

2010-2023, European Union average

2010 23.6%

2015 22.5%

2020 21.5%

2023 21.1%

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%

Source: Eurostat, [demo_pjan]. Authors’ editing.

20
Mean age of women at birth of the first child
Not only has the number of live births per woman been decreasing, the time for women
to give birth to their first child has also been shifting to an older age since the second half
of the 20th century. While in the 1960s and 1970s women became mothers in their early
to mid-20s, in the following two decades this time shifted to the late 20s (Engler-Pári,
2022, Bali-Péterfi, 2023). All these postponements can be attributed to the patterns of the
second demographic transition described above, including prolonged years in education,
shifting values related to social roles, changing forms of relationships, changes in the
institution of the family, the devaluation of marriage, and postponement of leaving the
parental home (Zeman et al., 2018, Patakiné Bende, 2022, Doblhammer-Spéder, 2024).

Figure 11: Mean age of women at birth of first child in Europe, 2010-2022

35

30

25

20

15

10

0
Italy
Spain
Ireland
Luxembourg
Greece
Portugal
Netherlands
Denmark
Sweden
Gemany
Austria
Finland
Cyprus
Malta
EU27
Belgium
Croatia
France
Slovenia
Czech Republic
Hungary
Estonia
Lithuania
Poland
Latvia
Slovakia
Romania
Bulgaria
2010 2022
Source: Eurostat. [demo_find]

Note: EU mean: data from 2013 instead of 2010, Denmark: data from 2012 instead of 2010, France: data from 2013
instead of 2010, Italy: data from 2013 instead of 2010.

In the European Union, the average age at which mothers have children increased
between 2010 (28.8 years) and 2022 (29.7 years). In 2022, the age of women at the birth
of the first child was highest in Italy (31.7 years), followed closely by Spain (31.6 years)
and Ireland (31.5 years). Hungary is roughly midfield among the Member States, below
the EU mean, with women typically having their first child at 28.7 years (Figure 11).

The largest increase between 2010 and 2022 can be seen in Malta, where the age of
women at the first childbirth rose by almost two and a half years on average. In the
same period, the age at the first childbearing also increased by more than two years in

21
Estonia, Ireland, Portugal and Norway. The smallest increase, only 0.3 years over the 12-
year period, was recorded in Slovakia.

In terms of European regions10, Western Europe has the highest average age at the birth
of a first child. The largest increase (1.7 years) over the period was registered in the
Northern European region. In contrast, the increase in the age of women was somewhat
more moderate in Eastern Europe (1.2 years) and Western Europe (1.3 years). Across the
EU Member States, the average delay in becoming a mother has increased by 0.9 years
over the last 10 years (Figure 12).

Figure 11: Mean age of women at birth of first child in Europe, 2010 and 2022

31
30.3
30.0
30 29.7
29.4
28.8
29 28.7 28.7

28.1
28 27.7

26.9
27

26

25
Eastern Europe Norther Europe Southern Europe Western Europe EU27

2010 2022
Source: Eurostat. [demo_find]. Authors’ editing.

Nevertheless, there is no conclusive correlation between childbearing age and fertility.

While women in Central Europe tend to become mothers at a somewhat younger age
than women in Western Europe, this is not the region where fertility is the highest.
Following the trend in Western Europe, despite the increase in the age of women at first
childbirth, in 2022 the total fertility rate was highest in this region. Although fertility is
also high in Northern Europe, the average age of women at the birth of their first child
is slightly lower in these countries than in Western Europe. In the case of Southern
Europe, however, it still seems that low fertility has become typical in some regions,
besides a high childbearing age.

10
Eastern Europe: Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania. Northern Europe: Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Ireland,
Latvia, Lithuania, Sweden. Southern Europe: Croatia, Greece, Italy, Malta, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain, Cyprus. Western Europe:
Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg, Netherlands.

22
Summary
Demographic trends in Europe show both differences and similarities between countries.
Overall, there are similarities in the main trends, albeit to varying degrees: fertility is
falling, life expectancy at birth is rising, and the population is ageing. Although the
population of the European Union is growing, many countries are losing population and
the population of the region as a whole is expected to decline in the near future. These
phenomena are the result of decades of demographic changes, and it is therefore not
surprising that there are significant differences between the countries of Western and
Central and Eastern Europe, which have followed different historical and economic paths.
Globally, out of the 15 countries with the largest population losses between 1989 and
2021, 14 are in Central and Eastern Europe and the Caucasus region. In the course of this
period, the population of Eastern Europe decreased by 6%, while that of Western Europe
increased by 11% (Sobotka and Fürnkranz-Prskawetz, 2020). Moreover, while several
former socialist countries experienced a natural decrease, only two Western countries
(Germany and Italy) had a slightly negative net natural population change over the same
period (VID, 2018). So, as can be expected in the future, the change in the past was not
completely one-way across regions. Moreover, a West-East divide is discerned.
One of the biggest challenges for the future will be ageing and the decline in the working-
age population, i.e. people aged between 20 and 64. Their share is projected to peak in
the current years and to decline significantly in the coming decades. In 2026, around
64% of the European population is expected to be in this age group, but according to
Eurostat forecasts, their proportion may fall to around 57% by 206011. In Hungary,
their proportion may shrink by as much as 25%, according to OECD calculations12.
This transformation seems to be inevitable, but the rate of the decline (and with it the
evolution of the population in each country) will depend on both future fertility rates and
the trend in net migration.
In addition to policies that support childbearing, policies that promote increased labour
market participation of the inactive population can also moderate labour market effects.
Moreover, measures to reduce outward migration and encourage the return of the
Hungarian expatriate population can also help to alleviate imbalances. The number of
immigrants in Hungary has increased significantly over the past decade but especially in
the last two years, and in 2024 it will be at an all-time high of 71,000. At the same time,
CSO data suggest that emigration from Hungary has also been increasing since 2021,
while the number of people returning has been decreasing (KSH data,13,14). The overall
net migration balance is positive, but in most countries, immigration will not be able to
meet the challenges that an ageing population will bring in the future.
There are also potentials in a declining population. For example, it may be possible to
further raise educational attainment levels, which may be beneficial to the society since
research has shown that higher educated groups are the most active and productive

11
https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-eurostat-news/-/ddn-20230330-1 (Accessed: 18.06.2024.)
12
United Nations World Population Prospects: The 2019 Revision. https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/d9aef235-en/index.html?i-
temId=/content/component/d9aef235-en (Accessed: 18.06.2024.)
13
https://www.ksh.hu/stadat_files/nep/hu/nep0032.html (Accessed: 18.06.2024.)
14
https://www.ksh.hu/stadat_files/nep/hu/nep0031.html (Accessed: 18.06.2024.)

23
in the labour market. In other words, investing in human capital can mitigate labour
shortages and economic losses from declining productivity (Lutz et al., 2019, Sobotka
and Fürnkranz-Prskawetz, 2020). However, the future impact of demographic change
can only be softened,there is no realistic demographic scenario that can provide a clear
answer or solution to the challenges of ageing.

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26
Demographic Winter in Europe
Factors Related to Starting a Family in Europe and Hungary
Krisztina Kolozsvári, Dömötör Gere, Péter Pillók

INTRODUCTION
The social and economic landscape of Europe has undergone a major transformation in recent
decades. Demographic trends on the continent, including postponement of childbearing,
longer life expectancy at birth, pluralisation of family forms, ageing populations, have led
to different population and social policy strategies in the Member States, forming a fault
line between Member States, European citizens and the general policy directions of the
European Union (Gere, 2024; Pári et al., 2023a). The upward shift of childbearing age and
the increase in life expectancy at birth, coupled with improving living conditions and health
care, have led to a paradoxical situation: there are fewer and fewer persons of active age for
an increasing number of elderly persons (Bauer and Nagy, 2021).
Demographic changes will have an impact on Europe’s competitive advantage in the
medium to long term: an ageing population and declining fertility rates has a negative
impact on the economy and society: the old-age dependency ratio increases as the
working-age population is shrinking, labour shortages are aggravating and public
finances are being hit. The declining number of children could subsequently affect the
education system, the real estate market, and consumption patterns; it could result in
higher migration and hinder the green and digital transition. All these impacts reinforce
regional disparities and threaten social cohesion (European Commission, 2021, 2023).
Migration as a demographic solution has become a highly divisive issue for the population
and is generating an increasingly heated debate in the political discourse. To reverse the
negative demographic trend two instruments of intervention and social narratives are
confronted: the presence and sustainability of different (social) policy instruments, and
the different degrees of permissiveness of immigration. Whichever solution a country
chooses, it undoubtedly has a significant impact on its population and the well-being of
its citizens (Gyorgyovich and Regős, 2021).
Strengthening family support has been a cornerstone of recent EU economic policy.
Although we are witnessing a pluralisation of family forms (Gyorgyovich and Pári, 2023),
the family remains one of the most important pillars of society. In the last decade, Hungarian
family policy has developed a substantial family support system to encourage childbearing.
Preparing for starting a family, creating a stable financial background, and providing state
support for childbearing decisions are of paramount importance for Hungarians, and in
recent years home creation scheme and the situation of single-parent families have been
given special attention (Gyorgyovich and Regős, 2021; Fűrész and Görög, 2018).

27
Understanding the causes and effects of demographic change is important in addressing
the problems and challenges. In this paper, relying on data captured in 2020 and 2022 in
the context of the Europe Project Survey 2020-2022 of Századvég, we analyse European
citizens’ views on the importance of the family, starting a family, as well as attitudes
towards population policies and public interventions. Our aim is to explore the attitudes
of EU citizens to key demographic trends amidst the current demographic changes.

Demographic trends in Europe

The world’s population reached 8 billion in 2022, of which nearly 60% is in Asia, 18% in
Africa and 9% in Europe (United Nations, 2022). Although the population of the European
Union is growing on the whole, its share of the global population is steadily declining1. The
demographic picture of the continent is complex, with slow but significant demographic
changes in the Member States, including Hungary, resulting largely from the second
demographic transition, also known as the demographic winter. The transition is leading
to significant changes such as a fall in fertility rates, a fall in mortality, and an increase in
population due to immigration.
Table 1: Components of the population of the European Union and Hungary

Population Population
Births, Deaths, Net migration,
Year size, million change,
thousand thousand thousand
(31 December) thousand

EU27
2010 439.9 4 604 4 345 503 762
2015 444.8 4 331 4 620 1 426 1 136
2020 447.0 4 071 5 184 835 -278
2022 448.4 3 886 5 149 3 973 2 710
Hungary
2010 10.0 90.3 130.5 11.5 -28.6
2015 9.8 92.1 131.6 14.4 -25.1
2020 9.7 93.8 141.3 8.8 -38.8
2022 9.6 89.7 136.8 36.6 -10.5
Source: Eurostat.

Similar trends can be observed in Hungary (Table 1), with a population decline in all
regions between 2001 and 2022, except for the Pest region (Figure 1). Since 1981, there
has been a strong natural decrease, which peaked in 2021, when the country’s population
fell by 62 thousand. However, this effective decrease was significantly alleviated
by a positive immigration balance between 1981 and 2022 (20.6 thousand in 2021).
(CSO, 2021)

1
By 2070 the contribution of Europe to the global population is expected to drop from the current 6% to approximately 4%.

28
 Figure 1: Population by regions (thousand)

1 377 652
Southern Great Plain 1 297 735
1 201 724
1 551 171
Northern Great Plain 1 492 587
1 404 331
1 290 392
Northern Hungary 1 197 575
1 091 375
993 522
Southern Transdanubia 934 109
855 423
1 004 300
Western Transdanubia 986 793
976 258
1 119 480
Central Transdanubia 1 082 313
1 055 648
1 083 877
Pest 1 217 476
1 333 533
1 777 921
Budapest 1 729 040
1 685 342

0 500 000 1 000 000 1 500 000 2 000 000

2001 2011 2022

Source: CSO, 2022

Demographic change in the European Union, including Hungary, is driven by a number

of factors. One of these factors is the evolution of the total fertility rate, which fell slightly
between 2010 and 2021 (from 1.57 to 1.53) in the EU2. In 2022, fertility rate in Hungary
was higher (1.61) but still short of the reproduction rate3. Another factor, but one that
is strongly correlated with fertility trends, is the postponement of childbearing and
thus the extension of the childbearing age. In Eastern European countries, women are
still younger, aged 26-29, when they have their first child (CSO, 2021). In Hungary, the
average age at first childbirth increased steadily over the past decades, then slowed down
and barely changed: between 1990 and 2010 the average age of women having their first
child increased by more than 5.2 years, while between 2011 and 2018 it increased by
only 0.4 years. In recent years, in Hungary on the average mothers had their first child at
the age of 29.8 years4, which is 6 years higher than in 1990 and around 7-8 years higher
than the average age of 21-22 in the 1970s. So the trend is clearly shifting towards later
childbearing in Hungary (Veroszta et al., 2021).
2
Currently, fertility in most European countries is 25-40% below what is needed for simple population reproduction.
3
The target for 2020 to maintain the population is 2.1. Hungary last reached this target in 1978.
4
It is important to note here that although the age when women give birth to their first child is delayed, according to the women in the
Kohorsz ‘8 (Cohorts ‘18) study, the ideal age for having the first child is less, 25.7 years.

29
The low birth rate in Europe, coupled with rising life expectancy at birth and falling
mortality, is leading to an ageing European population and a decline in the working-
age population. Partly due to the state of the health care system and lifestyle factors,
life expectancy at birth (excluding the decline during the COVID-19 pandemic) is on
an upward trend, and reached an EU average of 80.1 years in 2021.5 Life expectancy in
Hungary is somewhat lower, averaging 74.5 years. The share of the senior population has
been on the increase since 2006, while the share of the working-age population has been
steadily shrinking since 2007 (64.9% on 1 January 2022 compared to 68.9% in 2007) (CSO,
2022). Currently, the proportion of people aged 65 and over in the population is around
20%, and is expected to rise to 30% by 2050. The highest proportions of people aged 65
and over are found in Italy (23.8%), Portugal (23.7%) and Finland (23.1%). According to
the 2022 census data, there are 141 elderly persons per 100 children in Hungary, slightly
higher than in the previous year (CSO, 2022; Flór, 2022).
Demographic forecasts predict that the European Union will face complex challenges: the
population will decline in the long term, the age structure will continue to shift towards
ageing, the active-age population will decline, the average age at which women have
their first child will continue to rise, consequently reducing the number of women of
childbearing age, and the gap between the number of desired and actually born children
will continue to widen. This poses a major challenge for population trends, but also for
the sustainability of welfare systems and the health sector. The question arises whether
having all the desired children to be born would be a solution, and from this perspective,
whether efficient family support can contribute to stabilising population growth.

Pluralisation of family forms and the statistics on young people

Since the second half of the 20th century, Europe has witnessed an increase in the diversity
of family forms and a change in the patterns of starting a family – a process that fits
in well with the demographic transition discussed above. The changes in relationships,
childbearing and forms of cohabitation can be traced back to the rise of individualisation
(Harcsa and Monostori, 2014; Gyorgyovich and Regős, 2021). The traditional nuclear
family model based on marriage is being replaced by an increasing variety of family
forms, such as cohabiting partnerships, single-parent families and mosaic families. The
family role has also changed significantly with the widespread employment of women
and the transformation of the education system, the most significant consequence being
that starting a family is being delayed. At present, couples in Hungary have children on
average at the age of 30, an age shift that illustrates how the evolution of family roles and
family forms can affect the life, future plans and life events of the family (Gyorgyovich
és Pári, 2023).
In recent years, marriage rate in the European Union has fallen while the number
of partnerships has increased, so that 42.2% of births in 2022 were out of wedlock. While
the propensity to marry remains unbroken in Hungary, the rise in cohabitation has
led to an increasing number of unmarried couples living together and having children
(Markos and Zenovitz, 2023). The diversity of family forms and the diversification of

5
At a European level, life expectancy of women remains higher: in 2021, it was 82.9 years compared to 77.2 years for men (Eurostat).

30
individual life paths challenge family and population policies, as the impact of policies
varies from country to country. This is why the relationship between demographic trends
and changes in family structure is so complex and varies across countries (Harcsa and
Monostori, 2014; Gyorgyovich and Regős, 2021).
Recognising the ageing population structure and its effects, most family support policies
focus on young people, so in this paper we consider it important to briefly discuss the
situation of young people in terms of parenthood and starting a family. Research shows
that young Hungarians on average want to have two children. The main factors influencing
their desire to have children are the financial situation (68%), a secure environment (36–
39%), maturity for parenthood, and a stable relationship (Domokos et al., 2020). The
later independence and childbearing of young people are also associated with a delay in
separation from their parents. According to an international survey covering 12 countries
(Youth Research Institute, 2023) respondents, including Hungarians, believe that young
people should be supported until the age of 24 on average. Parental involvement is
primarily financial support (76%)6 but respondents also consider parental involvement
in housing necessary (71% of young Europeans on average, 65% in Hungary). Romanians
need parental support until the age of 26 on average, while the South Slavs consider that
parental support is important for the shortest period of time (up to 23 years of age).7
Hungary offers a variety of support schemes to young people and families including
the Family Housing Support Programme (CSOK), baby-expecting support, family tax
allowances and tax relief for first-time married couples. The popularity of these forms
of support has been high since the beginning, but when we look at the effectiveness
of the schemes, we find that it is over the longer term that they can contribute to the
financial security of couples and thus to increasing the propensity to have children
(Gyorgyovich and Regős, 2021). The question arises whether the family support schemes
introduced and planned will lead to social stability and economic prosperity in the long
run (Gyorgyovich, 2022). In this paper, we do not offer an answer to this question, but
we present our results to highlight the attitudes of the European population towards the
role of the state.
Overall, we can see that family forms are becoming more diverse, the number of one-
person households is increasing, the childbearing age and the age at which people leave
education and start working is also shifting increasingly later. All these effects lead to
a gradual divergence between the actual and desired number of children (with regional
differences, of course). Recognising the negative demographic trends, family and
population policies offer instruments and forms of support that can lead to a sustainable
and stable future in the long term, but not in the short term.

Methodology
Relying on data from Project Europe survey conducted by Századvég, our analysis
explores the differences between regions and groups of countries, as well as changes
in public attitudes over time. The Europe Project aims to survey public opinion on the
6
Two extremes should be noted here: in Serbia this rate is 90%, while in North Macedonia, it is 58%.
7
The survey was conducted in April 2023 and involved 12 respondents, one thousand from each country. The following countries
were involved: Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Hungary, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Poland, Romania, Serbia,
Slovakia, Slovenia.

31
most important social issues facing the continent. To this end, a total of 30,000 persons
in the 27 Member States of the European Union, plus the United Kingdom, Norway and
Switzerland, were interviewed using questionnaires. The survey was conducted using the
CATI8 method with randomly selected adult participants. The sample is representative
of each country by gender, age group and region. In this analysis, we present the results
of the 2020, 2021 and 2022 surveys. Our study focuses in particular on the differences
between EU and national results and on the differences between groups of countries.
The groups of countries to be compared are as follows: the founding states of the
European Union, the 20th-century accession countries, the former communist countries
and the Visegrád Group (V4). In the analysis, special attention is paid to factors that
reflect the attitudes and value preferences of citizens of the studied countries regarding
family forms, family support and demographic events.

Findings of the Europe Project

Importance of the institution of the family and ideal number of children

The family is a pillar of society, the most ancient and enduring institution of human
culture. The family is an essential source of socialisation, emotional support and economic
security, as well as a critical transmitter of heritage and cultural values (Parsons, 1955;
Bronfenbrenner, 1979).

Figure 2: How important is family in your life? (%) – EU27+UK

100 2 2 3
DK/Refused

80
Very important
65
61 61
60

Rather important

40

27 Rather not important

28
20 26

5 6 6
2 3 3 Not important at all
0
2020 2021 2022
Source: Chart by Századvég

According to the results of Project Europe, attitudes towards the family are extremely
positive in the European Union countries and the UK. Surveys in recent years show
more or less the same trend (Figure 2). The Balkan countries have the most positive

8
Computer Assisted Telephone Interview

32
attitudes towards the family, but the Visegrád Group and the Former Socialist countries
also expressed positive views on the importance of the family above the European
average. Hungary also has an outstanding position among Member States in terms of
the importance attributed to the family: in 2022, 89% of respondents considered the
institution of family very important, while 9% considered it rather important. There
are significant differences between countries, despite the fact that the vast majority of
the countries surveyed have a rather positive attitude towards the institution of family.
Only three of the countries surveyed have a positive opinion rate below 50%: 46% of
respondents in Belgium and Finland and 48% in Switzerland consider the family to be
very important.
When it comes to the ideal number of children, in line with the results of recent surveys,
the majority of European citizens questioned consider two children to be ideal9. The
proportion of respondents planning to have two children is almost the same in all country
groups: 57% of respondents in the V4 and Former socialist countries and 55% in the
Founders would ideally like to have two children. The results of the survey show that
among the Former socialist countries Estonia (43%), Latvia (42%) and Hungary (38%)
have the highest proportions of people who consider three children in a family to be
ideal, while only 2-4% of respondents imagine life without children. The trend in the
number of children considered ideal typically suggests that the life course before having
children is becoming more standardised, with the average childbearing age extended.
This has an impact on childbearing and, although medical science is improving, it is clear
that those who have their first child later in life are more likely to give birth to fewer
siblings than those who have their first child earlier (Pári et al., 2023b).

Figure 3: In your opinion, do young people need to be helped to be able to have children
as early as possible? (%)

EU27+UK 53 36 11

Founders and 20th-century

accession states 49 39 12

Former socialist countries 71 20 9

V4 68 22 10

0 20 40 60 80 100

Yes No DK/Refused

Source: Chart by Századvég

Today’s social and economic events are increasingly influencing the birth of desired children,
so we asked how important European citizens think it is to support young people in having
children. At a European level, opinions on this issue are very mixed: half of Europeans

9
Question: In your opinion, what would be the ideal number of children in a family?

33
surveyed (50% in 2020 and 53% in 2022) consider it important to support young people,
while almost one in four (37% in 2020 and 36% in 2022) do not consider it important at all.
The Former socialist countries rate support of young people as a top priority (71%), followed
by the V4 countries (68%), only 3 percentage points behind, while the Founders are the
most divisive, with 49% in favour and 39% against (Figure 3). As expected, Hungary is the
most supportive on this issue (85%), while the Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian countries –
UK, Denmark, Sweden, the Netherlands – are the least supportive.

Supporting families – state involvement

Research over the past few years (Engler, 2018; Domokos et al., 2020; Engler and Pári,
2021) shows that before having children young people consider starting a family and
building a career equally important, although career building is at times prioritised for
personal economic reasons. Among those planning to start a family, financial situation,
owning a home and having a secure job are among the main economic conditions for
starting a family. Family support measures and a family-friendly mindset are needed to
support personal well-being, to be successful at work and to reconcile these two aspects,
thus reducing the “career-or-family” dilemmas.

Figure 4: How important do you think it is for the state to support families and starting
a family? (%) EU27+UK

100 4 4 4 DK/Refused

80
41 41 42 Very important

60

Rather important

40
40 40 39
Rather not important
20

10 10 10
5 5 5 Not important at all
0
2020 2021 2022
Source: Chart by Századvég

We also assessed European citizens’ attitudes towards family support. When asked about
the importance of family support at state level, European citizens gave an overall positive
response: 42% of respondents rated family support by the state as very important,
while another 39% rated it as important (Figure 4). There are regional differences in the
perceived importance of family support: in Eastern Europe (e.g. Bulgaria and Slovakia),
there is generally a higher level of support for public involvement than in Western
Europe (e.g. France and Portugal). Hungary is outstanding in this question compared to

34
the other countries, with the vast majority of respondents (74%) rating the importance of
public support for families as “very important”. Regional differences can be explained by
a number of factors, such as the economic development of each country, its family policy
system, cultural values and the awareness of its citizens.
Owning one’s home is an increasingly important goal in life when it comes to having
children and starting a family. The high rate of renting a home among young people
planning to have children (27% in 2018) reflects the protracted transition between
parenthood and starting a family (Kocsis, 2023). Real estate prices are gradually rising,
housing costs are escalating and the future is increasingly unpredictable (Domokos et al.,
2020). In 2022 our research also assessed whether European citizens think it is important
for a family to own their own home. Two-thirds of the European respondents (63%)
consider it somewhat important or very important to own a home, a very firm view
based on data from recent years. The Former socialist countries and the V4 countries
are the most supportive in this respect. Looking at the data for each country, Hungary
is particularly supportive: 63% of Hungarian citizens consider it very important to own
their own home, while another 25% consider it important.
The survey also examined whether support for large families is seen as a priority. At the
European level, society is highly divided, with 54% of respondents saying that support
for large families should be a priority, while nearly one in three (34%) disagree. In some
countries, a significant majority of respondents – 82% in Greece, 77% in Latvia, 76% in
Estonia and 75% in Hungary (75%) – consider it important to support large families. In
other countries, such as Sweden (39%) and Denmark (26%), the proportion of respondents
who emphasize the importance of support is much lower.
Our findings reveal that at the European level, fostering a family-friendly mindset is as
important as providing financial support: three-quarters (79%) of European citizens consider
it important or very important to strengthen a family-friendly attitude. The majority of
respondents in all countries are strongly in favour of strengthening a family-friendly mindset.
Overall, a significant proportion of European citizens favour state-level family support.
The Hungarian data are extremely positive on a number of issues, which is not surprising
given that the Hungarian family policy has developed substantial family support
schemes in recent years to encourage childbearing. For example, with the introduction
of the first Family Housing Support Programme, the Hungarian government introduced
a very significant, unprecedented, spectacular and generous family support solution, but
similar support is provided by the baby-expecting support, loans with subsidised interest,
and the reduction of VAT on newly-built houses and flats. Housing as a prerequisite for
starting a family is of paramount importance, and family support instruments targeting
employment and housing have the greatest impact on Hungarian fertility rates (Bördős
et al., 2021).

Supporting families versus migration

As explained in the introductory chapter, social policy responses to demographic
challenges represent a significant fault line between the Member States of the European
Union, European citizens and the general policy orientations of the European Union.
To reverse the negative demographic trend, two instruments of intervention and social

35
narratives are confronted: the presence and sustainability of different (social) policy
instruments, and the different degrees of permissiveness of immigration (Fűrész et al.,
2021).

Figure 5: Do you rather agree or rather disagree with the following statement? Your country
should use its internal resources and support local families instead of migration. (%)

EU27+UK 68 25 7

Founders and 20th-century

64 27 9
accession states

Former socialist countries 78 16 6

V4 75 17 8

0 20 40 60 80 100

Rather agrees Rather disagrees DK/Refused

Source: Chart by Századvég

In our research, we explored European citizens’ views on the intervention instruments

mentioned in the introduction. First, we asked respondents whether their country should
rely on internal resources and support local families instead of encouraging immigration
(Figure 5). The European opinion climate markedly shows that, given the choice between
relying on internal resources and supporting local families or prioritising immigration,
European citizens strongly prefer internal resources and thus supporting local families
(68%). The Former socialist countries agree with the view the most (78%), while the
Founders agree the least (64%) to agree. The highest levels of agreement are found in
Hungary (88%) and the Czech Republic (88%). The populations of the three countries
at the bottom of the list (Spain, Luxembourg and the Republic of Ireland) are greatly
divided on this issue. While they are mostly in favour of supporting local families, they
are not shying away from encouraging immigration either.

Figure 6: Do you rather agree or rather disagree with the following statement? The problem
of population decline should be solved by increasing the number of children to be born
rather than by immigration. (%)

EU27+UK 59 27 14

Founders and 20th-century 56 30 14

accession states

Former socialist countries 71 18 11

V4 68 20 12

0 20 40 60 80 100

Rather agrees Rather disagrees DK/Refused

Source: Chart by Századvég

36
We also asked European citizens whether interventions to encourage childbearing and
support families are a sufficient solution to the demographic problem, or whether some
level of immigration should be allowed. The results are significantly diverging across the
European population: the Former socialist countries and the V4 countries would increase
the number of children born, while only 56% of the Founders agree with increasing the
number of children, and are therefore not opposed to allowing some immigration (Figure
6). Hungary has an exceptionally high proportion (84%) of all countries in favour of
increasing the number of children born to address demographic problems, reflecting the
importance of supporting and protecting families.

SUMMARY
Our study aimed to survey the opinion climate in Europe in relation to the current
demographic challenges by examining the factors associated with starting a family.
Demographic forecasts suggest that the European Union – and the world – faces complex
challenges: a long-term population decline (although a positive balance from immigration
will mitigate the population decline from natural attrition), an ageing population
structure, a shrinking working-age population, a further pluralisation of family forms,
and a continued shift in childbearing age, with a further decline in the number of women
of childbearing age. These demographic changes are leading to regional disparities and
pose a long-term threat to Europe’s economic stability and social cohesion. The question
arises whether supporting families and encouraging childbearing is the solution by itself
to demographic challenges and population trends. In our study, we aimed to get closer to
the answers by analysing the European opinion climate.
The results of Project Europe clearly confirm that the family is a key institution in Europe,
with a particularly high proportion of respondent sharing this opinion in Hungary.
In spite of the diversification of family structures, it is of paramount importance for
European citizens to strengthen family-friendly attitudes, to protect families and to
increase measures to support parenthood and starting a family. As to the ideal number
of children, it is clear that at a European level the ideal number of children is two, and
only few people imagine their lives without children. However, a significant problem and
challenge remains that the number of children actually born is significantly lower than
the number of children desired. Those who have their first child later in life are also likely
to have fewer siblings than those who have their first child earlier.
Migration as a solution to the demographic challenge remains a highly divisive issue.
The European public believes that the main response to population decline and current
demographic challenges should rely on internal resources and supporting local families,
while at the same time some countries are not averse to the simultaneous application
of family and migration policies. Hungary has an exceptionally high proportion (84%)
among all countries in favour of increasing the number of children born to address
demographic challenges, which clearly reflects the importance Hungarians attach to
the institution of the family. Our results show that it would be very difficult to solve
demographic problems at a European level by encouraging childbearing in itself.

37
European citizens, especially Hungarians, are broadly supportive of state-level interventions
supporting families, although there are regional differences in the perception of family
support measures. For young people who do not yet have children, starting a family and
building a career are equally important, although at times career building is prioritised
for financial reasons. Among those planning to start a family, financial situation, owning
a home and having a secure job are among the main economic conditions for starting
a family. Family support measures and a family-friendly mindset are needed to support
personal well-being, to be successful at work and to reconcile these two aspects, thus
mitigating “career-or-family” dilemmas.
Dealing with the demographic crisis in Europe is therefore a complex issue that requires
an integrated approach. Member States need to take proactive steps to tackle ageing,
support young generations and balance migration policies. Family policies and social
policies remain crucial to ensuring future stability and prosperity, although it is important
to recognise that a real demographic turnaround in a society can take generations, so
even the most effective interventions will take decades to achieve spectacular results.

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hu/docs/Demografia_es_versenykepesseg_az_Europai_Unioban.pdf (Accessed: 09.07.2024)
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Gyorgyovich, M. (2022). A családpolitikák társadalmi megítélése [A societal assessment
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Társadalmi Riport, Vol. 13, 1, pp. 83–109.
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Őri, P. – Spéder, Zs. (eds.) Demográfiai Portré 2021. Jelentés a magyar népesség helyzetéről.
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index.html#anvekvtermszetesfogystcsakmrskelnitudtaazemelkedbevndorlsitbblet
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Institute

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Demographic and Family Policy Aspects
of the Hungarian EU Presidency
Árpád Mészáros, Éva Gellérné Lukács, Tünde Fűrész

INTRODUCTION
In the EU, demographic winter is now a fact of life. Since the 1960s, falling birth rates,
coupled with rising life expectancy, have led to a situation where a shrinking younger
generation with bad prospects live together with a growing older generation, whose
members are often better off financially than those of the young generation. At the same
time, there is a loss of labour force which, in some regions, is coupled with a lack of
(suitable) jobs. This is the basic situation that the EU and its Member States need to
address with a positive approach, and they are attempting to do so. On the one hand,
services intended to meet the needs of the elderly make reference to the job-creating
potential of the silver economy and to the Europe of long life, and, on the other hand, they
seek to improve, through various means, opportunities for people living in economically
less developed regions. The stakes are high: consequences of a negative scenario include
a breakdown in social solidarity as well as a slowdown in economic innovation and a loss
of the EU’s competitiveness. One must think over the fact that currently brain drain,
a “dark side” of the free movement of persons (one of the fundamental freedoms of the
EU’s internal market) seems to be more apparent than ever before. This paper discusses
the EU’s response to demographic challenges in the light of the overall demographic
priorities of the Hungarian Presidency of the Council of the European Union in the second
half of 2024, with a special focus on the EU’s flagship initiative for 2023, the Demography
Toolbox and its implications. The paper seeks to highlight how the EU’s institutional
framework can make a significant contribution to addressing these challenges and the
fact that these processes entail a great potential for Hungary (the Member State which
will hold the Presidency of the Council of the European Union in the second half of 2024),
offering it an opportunity to channel its values (above all, its family policy values) into
the mainstream of demography policy.

I. THE CREATION AND SIGNIFICANCE

OF THE DEMOGRAPHY TOOLBOX

I.1 Background

The EU’s demographic situation has been a subject to discourse for a long time now. The
debate is based on the fact that was stated as early as in the European Commission’s 1989
communication on family policy and has been valid ever since: in the EU, the number of
children is declining, less people decide to get married, more and more opt for divorce,

42
while Europe is exposed to the impacts of an ageing population (European Commission,
1989). Consequently, the working-age population is shrinking, an increasing number
of relatively small and fragile households are created, and, ultimately, some regions
face depopulation, while the gap between urban and rural regions is widening. If not
addressed, the consequences of the demographic change may exacerbate other existing
economic and social challenges (e.g. climate change, geopolitical disruptions, repeated
shocks to supply chains, increasing labour shortage) (Pári et al., 2023).

While it is easy to see that demographic winter exists, its causes are more complex to pin
down. According to the authors of this paper, the most likely reasons are the devaluation
of the role of the family and the relativisation of the family’s functions (Fűrész – Molnár,
2023). Back in 1989, the above-mentioned communication put it very clearly: “Given that
the number of children is declining, Europe’s demographic future depends on families”
(European Commission, 1989). Yet this approach, which was still so clear 30 years ago, has
faded since then, and has been replaced by an increasingly migration-centred approach
to the demographic challenge (Fűrész – Mészáros, 2024). This held particularly true for
the period from 2014 to 2019, when considerations and approaches based on internal
human resources completely receded to the background, and policy-making came to be
determined by the increasing pressure exerted by migration and the migration processes
which, by then, had become a fact of life for European countries. At the level of policies
and policy-making, demographic issues were determined by various aspects of the
challenges posed by migration (Fűrész – Mészáros, 2024).

Although in 2019 a commissioner responsible for demography was appointed for the
first time, namely Dubravka Šuica, and this development indicated that demographic
issues were to be addressed in the context of a comprehensive approach across policy
areas (that is, not by a single body), the first major document that reverted to the former
approach to possible EU responses to demographic challenges was not issued until 2023.
That document was the Demography Toolbox (European Commission, 2023). This means
that it took more than 30 years for the field of demography to gain new momentum in
the search for balanced, complex and realistic EU-level responses, including childbearing.
This seems to be confirmed by the Council’s involvement in putting the issue on the
political agenda. Still, mention must be made of the fact that by mid-2024 no body
responsible for demographic issues has been set up in the Council. Similarly, there is no
dedicated commission in the European Parliament or an institutional structure attached
to the Commissioner’s post – a situation allows for but limited intervention.

To have an insight into the new opportunities offered by the Demography Toolbox, let
us discuss what has happened at the EU level since 2019 in terms of the demographic
challenge. The immediate precursors of the Demography Toolbox include the European
Commission’s Communication of 14 January 2020 entitled A strong social Europe for
just transitions (European Commission, 2020), which takes a neutral approach to the
phenomenon of ageing. The communication points out that due to the advances in
medicine and public health people live longer and enjoy better health, which can

43
strengthen the silver economy and the economic sectors providing care services. Yet, at the
same time, ageing population and urbanisation result in a shrinking of the population in
rural areas and in a widening gap between urban and rural areas. Back then the European
Commission placed more emphasis on the potential of the silver economy (European
Commission, 2018)1. In 2021, The European Pillar of Social Rights Action Plan also called
for fa better reconciliation of family life and work as a way to share care responsibilities
(European Commission, 2021a). It must be noted that the Communication of 2022 does
not dwell on the issue of the concept of family – it merely mentions it in connection with
the risk of poverty (pointing out the need to combat family poverty and child poverty)
and significance can be attributed to it merely as to a precursor to the EU Strategy of 2021
on the Rights of the Child (European Commission, 2021c). The Communication of 2022
fails to focus on those solutions to the demographic challenge that would contribute to
the renewal the EU’s human capital (i.e. its population) in general by relying on internal
resources. The European Pillar of Social Rights Action Plan does not make a direct
reference to the concept of family, but in the context of equal opportunities it does discuss
the sharing of care responsibilities, the prevention of child poverty and the strengthening
of social protection systems.

At this point, let us have a look at the 2021 Strategy on the Rights of the Child. On the one
hand, it links the concept of the family to child poverty. “Strengthening the socio-economic
inclusion of children is essential to address the passing of poverty and disadvantage through
generations. Social protection and support to families is essential in this respect.” (European
Commission, 2021c, Points 2.1 and 6). It also mentions family when it discusses mental
health and domestic violence, and, in this respect, calls for support for families (European
Commission, 2021c, Point 2.2.). The Annex to the Strategy lists the EU acquis and
policy documents related to the rights of the child. The lengthy list contains references
to numerous directives, Council and Commission recommendations, communications,
etc. Tellingly, Point 2.1.2 (Family Life) lists no more than four documents: the Council
recommendation on child care, the directive on work life balance, the directive on safety
and health at work, and the framework agreement on parental leave. The European Child
Guarantee (Council of the European Union, 2021), intended to implement the Strategy,
puts even more emphasis on poverty and vulnerability.2 In general, the approach focuses
on the individual protection of the child, which falls in line with international trends of
the last decades3.

However, as a sign of a slow change in the approach, a 2020 Communication entitled

A strong social Europe for just transitions makes references to the foundation on which

1
In a “silver economy”, economic activity serves the needs of people aged 50 and over, for instance via products and services
purchased and the further economic activity their spending generates. European Commission (2018), The silver economy – Final
report, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg.
2
Council Recommendations, Points 1–2: “1. The aim of this Recommendation is to prevent and combat social exclusion by
guaranteeing access of children in need to a set of key services, thereby also contributing to upholding the rights of the child by
combating child poverty and fostering equal opportunities. 2. This Recommendation applies to children in need.”
3
See: Statement of the Committee on the Rights of the Child on article 5 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, see:https://
www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/hrbodies/crc/statements/CRC-Article-5-statement.pdf

44
the 2023 changes were built. The Communication takes a solid demographic stance when
it stresses that “ageing is not the only demographic challenge. New household patterns such
as higher number of single-person households, mobility to the cities leading to depopulation
of rural areas, brain-drain or even migration flows all contribute to a changing demographic
landscape in the EU.” (European Commission, 2020). Here the Commission starts making
the first references to those factors which by 2023 would become more accentuated at
the European level.

In January 2023, the European Commission published its report The impact of demographic
change – in a changing environment, (European Commission, 2023c). The report is
a descriptive document whose main body, quite absurdly, fails to mention “family” even
once. By contrast, it offers a detailed description of the negative trend which leads to
depopulation in some European regions where there is a lack of jobs, the infrastructure
is inadequate and young people are leaving in search of a better life. The report makes an
important statement when it points out that “young women are more likely to leave rural areas
than young men” (European Commission 2023c)4, which, expectedly, results in falling birth
rates in the region. It is high on the EU institutions’ (but especially the regions’) agenda to
look in detail at who opt for migrating and why, to identify the possible ways to keep them
in the region or convince them to move back, and how to attract new residents (preferably,
young people planning to have children, or families with children) to the region. The report
also offers accurate data on the declining birth rate and the process of ageing, a factor which
increases the expenses of health care and public finances. The report makes mention of the
family in but one footnote, in connection with the percentage of residence permits issued
to third-country nationals for the purpose of family reunification (European Commission
2023c).5 In this respect, the approach of the report is far from satisfactory, as the situation,
needs and opportunities of families should and must be discussed not only in this context,
given that European parents and families play an undeniable and indispensable role in
solving demographic challenges.

Still, the report has a major impact inasmuch as in June 2023 it was discussed by the
European Council, which, in its June conclusions, invited the Commission to “present
a toolbox for addressing the impact of demographic challenges on Europe’s competitive edge.”
(European Council, 2023, Point 18 g). Thus, the focus is shifted to an economic approach
(i.e. competitiveness), but the document, when setting this objective, leaves room for the
European policy-making to deal with the demographic challenge in a broader context in
the upcoming period. Accordingly, the Granada Declaration of 6 October 2023 stresses that
addressing the demographic challenge is part of efforts to build a stronger, more dynamic,
more competitive and more cohesive Europe in a changing world (Council of the European
Union, 2023a). The Declaration thus recognises the impacts of the demographic challenge
on the future of the European Union and the importance of addressing it.

4
Report, p. 9.
5
Report, fn. 10.

45
The Demography Toolbox, compiled at the request of the European Council, was
published by the European Commission on 11 October 2023 (European Commission,
2023b). It is a more balanced document than those prepared by the Commission in the
past decade. The very first page reflects a change in orientation: “Demographic change
is primarily determined by life choices that individuals and families make. However, EU
and national policies should help ensure that people in Europe can fulfil their aspirations.”
(European Commission, 2023b).6 Obviously, this is a broad way of phrasing, yet the
objective can only be achieved if the interests of the community – and its smallest
unity, the family – are taken into account, not only those of the individuals, given that
individuals cannot achieve their goals in a meaningful way on their own, but only as
members of communities. The sentences cited above make this not only possible, but
significant, making the interests and aspects of the family (and not only those of the
individual) subject to substantive scrutiny.

The Demography Toolbox was presented at the General Affairs Council of 24 October
2023, where ministers called for a follow-up to the initiative.7 In its conclusions adopted
on 12 December 2024, the General Affairs Council stressed the importance of continued
efforts to address the demographic challenge and its impact on competitiveness, human
capital and equality (Council of the European Union, 2023b).

The Council recognised that it was high time to deal with the demographic challenges of
the Member States in a meaningful way at the European level, and realised the importance
of the fact that the Commission, at the invitation of the European Council, analysed the
situation in the Member States and, on that basis, decided to shed light on the need
for a comprehensive approach to addressing these challenges. On this basis, the Council
supported the Commission in its commitment to support Member States in addressing
the demographic challenge through a range of policy instruments available at EU level.

At this point, it is worth recalling the European Commission, in its 1989 communication,
already proposed that when it comes to new and feasible measures, Europe must apply
a family policy framework and, what is more, raised the idea of the harmonisation of
family policies (Fűrész – Mészáros, 2024). It must be emphasised that in the 21st century
in the community of the European Union this goal is not pursued by anyone. Still, it
is evident that the marginalisation of the role of the family (a process characteristic of
recent decades) is not a proper solution either. Given its lack of EU competence (then
Community competence), in 1989 the Council did not endorse the European framework
for family policy as an EU objective. This is why it was of particular importance what
approach the European Commission would take 30 years later in order to tackle the

6
Demography Toolbox, Point 1, p. 1.
7
At the meeting of the General Affairs Council on 24 October 2023, ministers exchanged views on the demographic challenges
Europe is currently facing. They focussed, above all, on EU policy instruments and further steps to address demographic challen-
ges and their impact on competitiveness as efficiently as possible. The ministers welcomed the Commission communication and
stressed the importance of addressing demographic change as soon as possible. https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/meetings/
gac/2023/10/24

46
even more severe demographic problems, and how the main political decision-making
bodies such as the Council and the Parliament would react to the failure of the efforts
and measures of the past decades to achieve any substantial success in the context of the
accelerating process of European demographic decline.

The Commission and the Council also seem to have moved away from their former
approach that had focused on single elements of the bigger picture. Essentially, the
Council identified two main focal points in terms of the demographic challenge: first,
the continuation of EU-level actions to maintain competitiveness by investing in human
capital (Points 6–10) and, second, the prevention of lagging behind of EU regions (Point
5). Importantly, in Point 9 of the conclusions, the Council points out that, although the
main responsibility for tackling demographic challenges lies with the Member States,
the EU must provide Member States with substantial support. Among the instruments
serving this purpose, the Council draws attention to the 9th Cohesion Report, adopted in
early 2024, to cohesion policy instruments, and to the programme “A long-term vision for
rural areas” (European Commission, 2023a), thus highlighting the scope for action and
also identifying certain lines of supportive intervention.

The issue was also addressed by the European Parliament within the framework of
regional policy, stressing the demographic aspect in its resolution as follows: “cohesion
funding should benefit both urban and rural areas in a balanced way; calls for cohesion
policy to include a stronger urban and rural dimension through designated investments in
both urban and rural areas as well as stronger links between urban and rural projects and
sustainable investments in order to address the demographic challenge, the development
trap and the urban-rural divide that affect EU regions” (European Parliament, 2024).

Finally, in the context of regional policy, mention must be made of the fact that in the
last decade the European Committee of the Regions has been almost the only European
political actor to make a clear statement on demographic challenges in its opinions of
2016 and 2020 and to place demography high on the agenda (European Committee of the
Regions, 2017 and 2020). The Opinion of 2020 pointed out that “the contribution made
by migration is only a short-term solution and will not be enough to resolve the problem of
the falling birth rate. While migration provides more labour in the immediate term, it also
increases the adult section of the population present in the EU and does not resolve the
problem of the falling birth rate and the general ageing of that population”, while the 2020
Opinion underlines that “as long as there is a fertility gap in the EU Member States, there is
a primary role to reduce the fertility gap, migration can only occur thereafter. Every effort
must be made to encourage and incentivise childbearing.” (European Committee of the
Regions, 2017)8. The Committee of the Regions will prepare a new opinion in 2024, to be
adopted at its 162nd meeting (to be held from 7 to 9 October 2024), during the Hungarian
Presidency (European Committee of the Regions, 2024).

8
European Committee of the Regions (2017), Point 2; European Committee of the Regions (2020), Point 16.

47
I.2 Areas of intervention

With the Demography Toolbox, the Commission aims to make a positive shift in the
narrative, emphasising that Europe is not an ageing continent but a Europe of longevity.
The EU and national governments must cooperate to find solutions to the problems posed
by demographic changes and by their implications. Relevant policies should be based on
the principle of intergenerational fairness, and should embrace other mega-trends, such as
the green and digital transitions (European Commission, 2023c). It is no coincidence that
at the Belgian Presidency conference, Nicolas Schmit, Commissioner for Employment and
Elisa Ferriera, Commissioner for Cohesion and Reforms stressed the utmost importance of
demographic issues with regard to cohesion, the urban-rural divide, skills or labour market
sustainability, and pointed out the need for a demographic transition alongside the green
and digital transitions.9 Elisa Ferreira, Commissioner for Cohesion and Reforms underlined
that, first of all, the challenges posed by demographic change must be made a political
priority. In her opinion, real cohesion development means tackling the inequalities or
asymmetries between urban and rural regions, making sure nobody feels left behind.

From Hungary’s perspective, the most important point is that the Demography Toolbox
no longer regards encouraging migration to be the only solution to demographic
challenges. In essence, the Commission presents migration as a complementary factor
for the future, and mentions it in terms of the labour market: “Policy makers at all levels
need to create an environment that enables people across the Union to realise their life
choices and to reconcile family and professional lives. Complementing these efforts, legal
migration and the effective integration of third country nationals legally residing in the EU
can help alleviate labour market pressures and provide an additional boost to innovation
and entrepreneurship.” (European Commission, 2023b).10

This shift in approach is reinforced by the identification of areas for action and pillars of
intervention that render migration ancillary. Efforts must be made to achieve: 1) better
reconciling family aspirations and paid work, notably by ensuring access to quality
childcare and work-life balance; 2) supporting and empowering younger generations to
thrive, develop their skills, facilitate their access to the labour market and to affordable
housing; 3) empowering older generations and sustaining their welfare, through reforms
combined with appropriate labour market and workplace policies; 4) where necessary,

9
On 25 March 2024, under the aegis of the Egmont Institute, the Belgian Presidency and the European Commission organised a
joint conference on demography, hosted by Dubravka Šuica, the Commission’s Vice-President for Demography and Democracy,
and Hadja Lahbib, Minister for European Affairs and Foreign Affairs. (Conference “The Demographic Transformation: Paving
the Way for the EU’s Future”, Brussels Charlemagne Building) The conference was the follow-up to a series of three workshops on
demography organised by the Belgian Egmont Institute in autumn 2023, where participants analysed the impact exerted by the de-
mographic transition on human capital and on regional and global conditions. The event formed a part of the Vice-President’s vision
and ambition to ensure that priority attention is paid to demography during the Spanish-Belgian-Hungarian Trio Presidency in order
to bring the issue to the forefront in the strategic agenda for the next institutional cycle. (https://www.egmontinstitute.be/events/htt-
ps-www-egmontinstitute-be-subscribe-2-the-demographic-transformation-paving-the-way-for-the-eus-future_/)
10
Demography Toolbox, pp. 6–7. If not addressed, the consequences of demographic change may exacerbate other existing
economic and social challenges (e.g. climate change, geopolitical disruptions, repeated shocks to supply chains, increasing labour
shortage).

48
helping to fill labour shortages through managed legal migration in full complementarity
to harnessing talents from within the Union. It must be pointed out that the use of
migration to address labour shortages is included in the public policy guidelines as an
option to be applied only “where necessary”, that is, the Commission’s Demography
Toolbox sends a clear message which opposes the idea of addressing demographic
challenges through migration alone.

As part of a general assessment, mention must be made, last but not least, of the
significance of the territorial dimension. The Commission emphasises that policies
intended to address demographic challenges must have a strong territorial dimension
to them, that is, local circumstances must be taken into consideration and regional and
local stakeholders must be involved (European Commission, 2023b)11. Otherwise, there
is a risk of increasing territorial disparities within and between Member States, which,
in turn, undermines social cohesion and trust in democratic institutions and processes
in Europe (European Commission, 2021b). However, in its assessment of the Toolbox,
the Commission lays less emphasis on the territorial dimension than on competitiveness
aspects in general (it focuses on the talent development trap, intended to be tackled by
a programme the Commission launched in 202312) (European Commission, 2023a). This
approach is understandable given that the European Council’s mandate focussed on
competitiveness rather than on regional disparities or marginalisation. Nevertheless, the
political decision-maker has the obligation to place this aspect more prominently on the
agenda in the future, and, to create a basis for that, the Commission must develop and
present new instruments that cover a much broader scope than today.

In particular, Europe needs to address the development trap to ensure that territorial
disparities do not grow into gaps which are impossible to bridge and which make life
extremely difficult for people living in the affected areas – an inevitable consequence
of exposure to risks to life and health and a reduction in access to services, which has
a decisive impact on quality of life in deprived areas. At the same time, in some regions
daily subsistence and the excessive burden on service provider institutions can pose
seemingly equally unmanageable challenges to individuals who opt for moving to large
cities.13 In the meantime, efforts must be made to fine tune the development of medium-
sized urban centres in a manner that supports a more diversified development in the

11
Demography Toolbox, last paragraph of Point 2.
12
Almost parallel with the Demography Report, on 17 January 2023, the European Commission its communication Harnessing
talent in Europe’s region, as the first key initiative of the European Year of Skills. The main message of the communication is that as
the EU population is ageing and the available workforce is shrinking, many regions in the EU are facing a massive brain drain of
young and skilled workers. The communication recognises that migration has a negative impact on those regions which are already
disadvantaged, and, therefore, is expected to cause new and ever-growing territorial disparities. This, in turn, threatens the economic
dynamism of the region concerned, curbs innovation and, thus, has a negative impact on the competitiveness and cohesion of the
EU as a whole. The communication identifies 46 regions in the talent development trap (with 16% of the total EU population) and a
further 36 regions at serious risk of falling into the talent development trap (with almost a third of the total population). Harnessing
talent in Europe’s region.
13
Several relevant maps and data sets are available in the report published by the Commission in the framework of its Ninth
Report on Economic, Social and Territorial Cohesion: Ninth Report on Economic, Social and Territorial Cohesion | European
Social Fund Plus (europa.eu)

49
expected increase in natural urbanisation processes and which creates a healthier, “fit for
life” environment for the European population. It is evident that by now the demographic
challenge has three factors to it, not the least in terms of the territorial dimension.

In the light of the above it should not come as a surprise that at the 9th Cohesion Forum on 11
and 12 April 2024, Commission President Von Der Leyen herself and Cohesion Commissioner
Ferreira spoke of a “triple transition”. Beside the green and digital transitions, which have
clearly dominated the public debate so far, the social aspects must come to the foreground.
Specific mention was made of the demographic challenge as the third horizontal challenge
that Europe must address through a change of approach.

I.3 Main elements of the Demography Toolbox

The main part of the Demography Toolbox is its Part 3, which gives an insight into the
tools for examining and managing demographic change. This part is centred around four
concepts, namely: parents (families), young people, the elderly and migration. As for
parents (families), it calls for facilitating work-life balance and support in implementing
plans to start a family (European Commission, 2023b).14 Point 3.1 of the Toolbox sets
forth an idea that can serve as a basis for common thinking in the EU: that the gap
between the number of children desired and children actually born can be closed by
identifying and addressing the reasons for postponing childbearing. Causes include the
difficulty to reconcile work and care responsibilities, persistent gender inequalities, as
well as economic and social insecurity linked to employment prospects, the cost of living
and housing. To tackle these challenges, the Toolbox offers a number of good practices,
with a focus on, among other factors, enhancing and improving the labour market
participation of women, especially those with young children. In terms of efficiency,
important factors include the implementation of the principle of equal pay for equal
work, the use of flexible work patterns and modifications of taxation systems that help
those with children. It is up for the Member States to decide which elements they choose
to best complement their own national strategies and measures.

The Demography Toolbox (albeit not in the section on parents, but in the section on young
people) makes a reference to Hungarian good practice: it mentions the Family Housing
Subsidy (a non-refundable state subsidy for families raising at least one child) and the Rural
Family Housing Subsidy (European Commission, 2023b)15. This is yet another factor that
underlines the necessity to link and prioritise the first two pillars. Mention must be made of
a study which examined whether the Family Housing Subsidy had an impact on population
change (e.g. birth rate increase) in those municipalities where it was available (Uhljár et
al., 2023). The study came to the conclusion that in municipalities where the Rural Family
Housing Subsidy was available there has been a trend of improvement in birth rate and net
migration balance as explanatory variables since 2019.
14
Demography Toolbox, p. 5.
15
Demography Toolbox, p. 9.

50
The Demography Toolbox discusses the situation of children as well, in harmony with
the Strategy on the Rights of the Child: “Together with supporting parents’ income, key
policy solutions include guaranteeing access to inclusive, quality services for children, in
particular early childhood education and care, basic education (including school-based
activities), healthcare and nutrition” (European Commission, 2023b).16 However, here the
context is broader: support given to parents is regarded as an element of assistance just as
important as services provided by other actors. This marks a departure from the previous
approach focussed on the individual.

Quite evidently, presenting the Toolbox and its instruments was primarily intended to
put Member States in a position where they are able to tackle their own demographic
challenges. Yet this alone will not suffice to ensure successful action by Member States.
The adoption of the Toolbox is not a solution in itself, but rather a first and major step on
the way leading to a solution, in other words, a starting point rather than a breakthrough
at European level.

I.4 The practical relevance and potential applications

of the Demography Toolbox

As to the Demography Toolbox and its future, it can be concluded that by 2024, based on
the Council’s guidance, demography has become an increasingly important topic for the
horizontal policy agenda and dialogue.
As Enrico Letta, former Italian Prime Minister and author of the 2024 Report on the
Single Market pointed out at the 9th Cohesion Conference in Brussels, on 11 April 202417,
Europe can be proud of the fact that its citizens live longer than citizens anywhere else
in the world. This a major achievement that deserves protection. Yet at the same time
attention should be drawn to the depressing fertility rates in Europe: while in 1957
20% of the world’s population lived in Europe, the rate today is much lower (7%) and
continues to fall. Enrico Letta highlighted that brain drain is a real danger which, by now,
has become an increasingly serious problem for the European Union and is expected to
become even more severe with the future enlargement as migration from the Western
Balkans will intensify. Therefore, generally speaking, there is an urgent need to improve
key public services (hospitals, schools, care for the elderly etc.) to make sure that valuable
workforce is retained throughout the EU. With regard to the long-term sustainability of
the conditions for the development of the internal market, Letta calls attention to the
key idea that demography is naturally closely linked to territorial cohesion, given that
people move within and between countries in order to have better access to services and
to opportunities, and, therefore, proper attention must be paid to this link in the future at
the EU, national and local levels.

16
Demography Toolbox, p. 13.
17
Enrico Letta’s contribution at the 9th Cohesion Conference, Brussels, 11 April 2024.

51
Letta drew attention to the need to continue demographic representation at Commission
level, as did Commission Vice-President Suica.18 It is high time to talk about the need for
the EU to promote not only mobility but also freedom to stay, added Enrico Letta. In the
upcoming budgetary period, resources should be allocated to ensure that individuals who
desire to leave can do so while those who want to stay do not need make sacrifices either.
For that, the Cohesion Policy Toolbox offers a very effective tool.
When considering the issue, one must take into account the fact that while some prefer
to use cohesion funds for the enlargement of the Union, some cite legitimate arguments
about the need to offset the negative effects of the internal market, a factor that undeniably
plays a role in the development of growing territorial disparities, above all, inequalities
between regions. Undeniably, the right to free movement of persons is legitimate in the
context of the internal market, but, at the same time, from an economic perspective, in
certain Member States and regions it is associated with a significant reduction in human
resources (as a productive force). Obviously, any restriction of the right to free movement
of persons is not an appropriate response. Still, the EU’s institutional system must put
in place appropriate compensatory mechanisms to counterbalance the negative effects.
All these challenges do not only pertain to the potential depopulation of some regions, but
also further reinforce the unfavourable demographic effects of unplanned childlessness.
An example for that is the shrinking range of housing or affordable and people-centred
childcare options in the centres of urbanisation, where infrastructure developments are
unable to keep pace with the ever-increasing demands of young couples, parents and
families whose available resources are not growing in line with the costs of urban life.
The reflections of Commissioners Suica and Ferreira, as well as of rapporteur Letta
offer food for thought and convey important messages. Evidently, a number of high-
profile political figures have called attention to the fundamental links between cohesion
policy and the effective management of demographic challenges independently and
from different perspectives. This, in turn, reflects a favourable policy environment that
foresees a horizontal and sufficiently broad approach to demographic challenges and
offers a good opportunity for Hungary to take up and manage successfully the issue of
demography.
The possibilities of the Hungarian presidency now extend beyond just to sending
messages at the highest political level about the need to tackle demographic challenges
and about their potential future directions. The political context also sheds light on the
need to put in a broader context EU policy-making related to addressing demographic
challenges. This draws attention, among other things, to the required retaining power of
regions and to the need to renew demography-oriented tools. Central tasks must include
ensuring that lagging areas affected by depopulation catch up with other areas, and, at
the same time, challenges of the overpopulation of overburdened regions with urban
centres (their inability to cater for their population’s needs) deserve a new focus and
additional EU resources and instruments.

18
Letta’s contribution at the demography conference of the Belgian Presidency (25 March 2024).

52
II. HUNGARY’S OBJECTIVES AND PRIORITIES IN POLICY MAKING

II.1 The role of the and EU instruments Demography Toolbox

in policy-making

It is of particular importance for Hungary that the European Commission has responded to
the problem affecting the European economy and society as a whole by presenting a holistic
approach to the challenges of demographic change. Hungary has long been calling for the
mobilisation and support of the society’s internal resources in the field of demography as
a key element in preserving Europe’s human capital, and has long been stressing that family
policy is a natural instrument in that, thus recognising the importance of the role of families
(Fűrész – Molnár, 2020) (Barzó, 2023) (Pári et al., 2023). The key to tackling challenges with
long-term internal resources is to support families and promote bearing all desired children.
In that regard, the Demography Toolbox is a good starting point, and the political stance of
the Council conclusions adopted on 12 December 2023 – putting families in the spotlight
and thus paving the way for family policy approaches to be put on the agenda at European
level – is forward-looking.
When it comes to joint work, it is of great significance to ensure that all Member States
disseminate good practices of family support. Hungary can share many good practices from
its family policy instruments of the past 14 years, for example, tax benefits and housing
subsidies which contribute to work-family balance, and are part of Hungary’s three-pillar
approach to adequate housing and financial stability. Hungary is convinced that other
Member States have good practices, too, perhaps not at the national level, but, for instance,
in the form of programmes aimed at closing the gap between developed regions and those
lagging behind or at improving equal access for urban and rural settlements. Therefore, the
identification, dissemination and exchange of good practices is of key importance.
In order to counterbalance demographic decline, parents need to be given the opportunity
to plan childbearing and it must be ensured that all desired and planned children are born.
Mention must be made of the importance of the European Social Fund, which also has
a role to play in financing the extension of early childhood care. In addition, demographic
changes impact SMEs, e.g. small family businesses as well, which need to plan takeover by
the new generations. This process can be supported by EU funding.

As for the challenges posed by a declining and ageing population, it is to be noted that as
a result of its ageing population the EU is expected to have more and more smaller households
European Commission (2023b).19 Yet those individuals who can rely on their families (their
children) have access to other resources than solely state support. That is, a family offers
better protection for the elder generation from vulnerability; therefore, childbearing is not
only a contribution to society, but also an investment into one’s future.

19
Demography Toolbox, p. 4., “older people tend to live in smaller households”. This fact is mentioned in reference to carbon
emissions, but is also relevant for the present study.

53
II.2 Hungary’s priorities for the EU Presidency

During its Presidency, Hungary’s main goal is not to represent its own national interests,
but to take EU processes forward, build the right European consensus and have forward-
looking solutions adopted in the Council. This is what the other Member States and the
institutions expect Hungary to do: to ensure the progress of the common cause, even if
it often means that its own interests are pushed to the background. Yet the success of
a Presidency is best reflected by the integration of the national character and interests
into the process and outcome of the EU’s collective progress through appropriate
compromises.

All in all, the events of the Swedish Presidency and of the Spanish-Belgian-Hungarian
Trio Presidency brought about a shift in the opportunities of addressing the demographic
challenge at the European level. This, in turn, serves as a firm basis for the implementation
of the Hungarian Presidency programme, which – in harmony with the documents issued
by the institutions in 2023 – redirects the focus to the instruments and policies that seek
to mobilise the Union’s internal resources.

Point 10 of the Council conclusions of 12 December 2023 (Council of the European

Union, 2023c) provide a practical basis for including the demographic challenge and
transformation, as highlighted by the President of the Commission20, in the political
agenda as an integral and prominent item. This gives an opportunity to open up EU
resources directly to Member States (at a governmental or even a regional/local level)
which seek to develop, renew and implement their demographic policies, strategies
and actions.

Consequently, the Hungarian Presidency will build on the followings in the field of
demography:
• There has been a shift in the overall perception of demography, and, as a result, there
are no barriers to putting the issue of demography on the political agenda as a top
priority;
• Today, people in Europe still want more children than will eventually be born. This
is a potential to be utilised, and it means that there is a strong social support for
a change in the current policy approach;
• Those countries see a steady increase of their citizens’ willingness to have children
that have sought to mitigate population decline not by promoting migration, but by
supporting the birth of children and strengthening families (Fűrész – Molnár, 2023).
This is why other countries are also seeking practical means to implement solutions
based on internal resources. An example is Rotkirch’s list of ten cost-effective methods
which include, beside raising fertility awareness, a family-friendly mindset, equal
opportunities, and the appreciation of men and fathers (Gietel-Basten et al, 2022);

20
See the last paragraph of Point I.2.

54
• There is a general consensus on the need to put strengthening intergenerational
solidarity (especially in relation to caring responsibilities) into the focus of EU policy-
making. Evidently, a holistic approach to care for the elderly and to childcare (along
with offering opportunities and freedom of choice to families) is an aspect that
European institutional decision-makers should and must promote. People concerned
must be given a real choice between taking care of their family members mainly
relying on assistance from an appropriate care system or at home, within the family.

Since the 1970s, women have had their first child increasingly later in life. The general
economic and social causes of postponed childbearing need to be addressed. It is
absolutely fundamental to recognise that there lies a European interest in the support
and promotion of starting a family. In this context, due regard must be given to the fact
that people tend to increasingly postpone having children. Consequently, the tools for
successful action must be complemented with raising awareness among young women
and men of the biological barriers to late childbearing as a way to give them access to
accurate information so that they can make a free choice (Beaujouan – Sobotka, 2022).
The circumstances under which children are born to relatively old parents play a major
role in the decline in the number of children (Beaujouan, 2020). As mentioned above
in connection with the Rotkirch study, it would certainly be worthwhile to employ
a modern 21st-century approach to the practical realisation of the goal of supporting
family formation (for example, through family-friendly higher education or by raising
fertility awareness among young people).

Putting the demographic challenge on the EU agenda does not change the established order
of subsidiarity and of the division of competences. The legal order of the EU delegates
family policies into national competence, yet it can contribute to laying the foundations
for EU resource mobilisation to support them. Maintaining sovereignty in the area of
family policy is a clear priority. However, in the context of the Demography Toolbox
and the Council Conclusions of December 2023, the diversity of national approaches
now has a realistic prospect of being recognised by the decision-makers of the European
institutional system. For instance, in the framework of creating more opportunities,
targeted support may be offered to specific groups such as families with three or more
children or single parents, in other words, the scope for fight against impoverishment
should be extended to include new focal points. The majority of Europeans opine that
support for families is needed rather than the exclusive recognition of and support for
migration (Fűrész – Molnár, 2023) (Gere, 2023). This mindset is further reinforced by the
fact that citizens of both Central and Eastern Europe and Southern Europe regard the
family as the single most important value (Kiss Kozma, 2022).

Therefore, it must be recognised at a European level that all national solutions that
strengthen Europe’s competitiveness have a role to play in Europe. Successful solutions
should be shared and examined, and then national governments should be given not only
the opportunity to implement them but must also be supported in their implementation.
Given that the interpersonal support provided by the family is a key to mental health (and,

55
therefore, in many respects to physical health), healthy, harmonious European societies
are based on strong families. Loneliness, its accompanying illnesses and depopulation
that results from loneliness also have a negative impact on European societies, and, thus,
on European economies and, in a pan-European context, on the competitiveness of the EU
and of the European continent. As already observed, preventing Europe’s competitiveness
from deteriorating and preserving the self-sustaining internal strength and social cohesion
of its Member States is our common European goal. It is our duty to explore, share and
apply all effective potential responses to these challenges.

II. 3 Specific challenges and target areas

In this context, it is a very legitimate aim to ensure that the new EU institutional
structure that is taking shape under our Presidency be complemented with organisational
departments and responsible persons with competence in this field. The issue must be
prioritised adequately, which in practice means that demography must constantly be
kept on the political agenda.

As for content, all the three pillars of the Demography Toolbox (parents, young people,
the elderly) must be given emphasis in the process of demographic transition, and it must
be ensured that the importance attached to the pillars for parents and young people are
not smaller than that attributed to measures to support the third pillar (older generations)
simply because in the near future the elderly will be the largest demographic group in the
European Union. The fourth pillar, that is, nurturing and attracting talent within the EU,
cannot bring positive results without being accompanied by appropriate compensatory
mechanisms.

In terms of EU resources and especially cohesion instruments, demographic change should

and must be addressed as a top priority. Forward-looking responses must be found to tackle
a situation where new challenges that became prominent at the beginning of the decade
(e.g. security, or permanent challenges such as those stemming from the enlargement) are
currently competing and will continue to do so with demographic challenges for finite
resources. Still, this fact should not dissuade us from making efforts to ensure that the
tools of tackling demographic change and challenges are reflected in the access to EU
resources, possibly in the form of specific, earmarked budget elements. A study compiled
by the European Parliamentary Research Service (European Parliament, 2024), under the
heading “Measures and policies aimed at reversing negative regional trends” gives a list of

56
a number of instruments21 and funds22 that render the EU-level mobilisation of resources
possible. The EU cohesion funding instruments that can contribute to the mitigation of
the unfavourable implications of demographic change are manifold.

In the light of the above, it is our interest as Presidency to make sure that the policies
which underline the following considerations are given special emphasis and are included
in the political discourse as organic elements:
• mobilising resources within the EU is a key driver for solutions at a European level;
• our targeted efforts should support parents and families, promote childbearing,
and focus on a European-level support for the widest possible range of instruments
which help the start of independent life for the youth, and the quality of life and
largest possible number of years lived in good health for the elderly, while regulated
legal migration remains a secondary policy option;
• for all regions of the EU, it is essential that a social environment supportive of
childbearing (complemented by job security, quality of life and access to a wide range
of services) is considered as a key factor in starting a family or having more children;
• young people and parents need support to enter (or return) to the labour market.

Still, it must be clarified that the “more children” approach by no means implies an
obligation. Instead, all measures and policies are designed to promote the choice of the
individual, based on an approach that supports the birth and upbringing of desired
children. Similarly, encouraging mothers to return to work as soon as possible on the
basis of their own individual choice, is not just a labour market issue, but relates to
a comprehensive approach to a balance of family life and work.
Demographic change must be clearly reflected at the level of EU policy-making. A good
example for that is the variety of approaches incorporated in the programme of the
Hungarian Presidency23:
• - the organisation of policy debates on the demography in various Council formations,
with special focus on the power of rural areas to retain their population, on the role of
cohesion policy in tackling demographic challenges, on the impact of the demographic
transition on pensions and budgets, on connecting rural areas through transport
development and on work-life balance in digital life;
• - an informal meeting organised specifically for ministers responsible for demographic
issues on the topic of demography as a third transition underpinned by intergenerational

21
E.g. Talent Booster Mechanism and the Harnessing Talent Platform.
22
EU cohesion funding instruments which can contribute to the mitigation of the unfavourable implications are as follows: the
European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), the European Social Fund (ESF+, which in any case includes family support:
ESF+ funding for childcare and family services aims at improving work-life balance and, potentially, at increasing birth rates),
the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD), the European Territorial Cooperation (ETC) – the Interreg,
the Just Transition Fund (JTF), the REACT-EU (recovery assistance for cohesion and the territories) and the Cohesion Fund
(CF), which improves transport and enhances environmental protection through infrastructure development, combating rural
depopulation and urban decline by improving living conditions.
23
Hungarian Presidency of the Council of the European Union, programme:https://hungarian-presidency.consilium.europa.eu/
hu/program/program/

57
 solidarity and justice, giving an outlook to the future, in particular to the support
offered to young people on the threshold of their independent life;
• - the impact of demography/demographic transition on the EU’s competitiveness as
a topic to be discussed at a European Council meeting.

III. CONCLUDING THOUGHTS

Demographic issues are a common challenge to everyone in the EU, reshaping geopolitics
and geoeconomics. Any debate on demography would be impossible without mentioning
families; therefore, it is a welcome development in the field of demography and family
policy that the year 2023 marked a turning point in the European Union, when, after
many decades, families were mentioned again in the context of the issue of population.
The Demography Toolbox, published by the Commission in 2023, also takes into account
parents and families as an important factor, highlighting their role – something that has
not been done explicitly so far. The approach employed by the Toolbox is important
inasmuch as it offers firm policy proposals to support personal decisions concerning
childbearing by presenting good practices in Member States. The practices and
considerations fall in line with Hungary’s family policy mindset: they pertain to, for
example, enhancing the financial security of families with young children or providing
special tax-benefit systems and social support.

In the context of addressing demographic challenges, the Demography Toolbox

deals with the promotion of legal migration from third countries to the EU merely as
a complementary factor, and the use of migration to address labour shortages is included
in the public policy guidelines only “where necessary”. The Hungarian Presidency seeks
to keep demographic challenges (and the need to address them) on the political agenda.
This is a major opportunity for Europe to start trusting once again the value of its own
resources and a family-based approach to demographic challenges, which, by definition,
is complex. Demography can no longer be regarded as solely a national problem. The
Hungarian Presidency has a key contribution to make to ensuring that the EU institutions
pay due attention to the issue as well as to the need to support families, which is a key
factor in shaping Europe’s future in the long run.

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decade, 2010–2020]. Budapest: Kopp Mária Intézet a Népesedésért
Novák, K., Görög, N., Bagi, K., Pári, A., Farkas, P., Horváth, V., Jakubeczné Nagy, K., Kovácsné
Bárány, I. & Székely, A. (eds.) (2017). Családbarát fordulat 2010–2018 [A family-friendly
paradigm shift, 2010–2018]. Budapest: Családbarát Ország Nonprofit Közhasznú Kft.
Pári, A., Varga, A. & Balogh, E. (2019). Magyar családpolitikai folyamatok a Családvédelmi
Akcióterv 2019. szeptember végén rendelkezésre álló eredményeinek tükrében [Family
policy developments in Hungary in the light of the results of the Family Action Plan
available at the end of September 2019]. Kapocs, 2019. 3–4, pp. 12–25.
Pári, A., Rövid, I. & Fűrész, T. (2023). Népesedési folyamatok Európában magyar szemszögből
[Population trends in Europe from a Hungarian perspective]., Kapocs, 2023/3-4, pp. 3–24.
Székely András (ed.). (2019): Nemzetközi családpolitikai kitekintő [An international family
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Uhljár, P., Pári, A. & Papházi, T. (2023). A falusi CSOK hatása a települések népességére [The
impact on Rural Family Housing Subsidy on the population of municipalities]. In: Modern
Geográfia, Vol. 18/3, pp. 41–52.

EU documents

United Nations (UN 2023). Statement of the Committee on the Rights of the Child on
article 5 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, see: https://www.ohchr.org/sites/
default/files/documents/hrbodies/crc/statements/CRC-Article-5-statement.pdf (Accessed:
10.07.2024.)
European Commission (1989). Communication from the Commission on family policies.
(8 August 1989)COM (89) 363 final. Brussels.
European Commission (2018). The silver economy – Final report, Publications Office of the
European Union, Luxembourg.
European Commission (2020). A strong social Europe for just transitions. Communication
from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic
and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions on the European Care Strategy,
COM(2020) 14 final.
European Commission (2021a). The European Pillar of Social Rights Action Plan,
Luxembourg, pp. 25–26.
European Commission (2021b). The Demographic Landscape of EU Territories, Publications
Office of the European Union, Luxembourg.
European Commission (2021c). EU strategy on the rights of the child. https://eur-lex.
europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:52021DC0142&from=en (Accessed:
10.07.2024.)

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European Commission (2023a). A long-term Vision for the EU’s Rural Areas – Towards
stronger, connected, resilient and prosperous rural areas by 2040, COM (2021)345 final
European Commission (2023b). Demographic change in Europe:
a toolbox for action COM(2023)577 final. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/
HTML/?uri=CELEX:52023DC0577 (Accessed: 10.07.2024.)
European Commission (2023c). The impact of demographic change in a changing environment,
https://commission.europa.eu/system/files/2023-01/Demography_report_2022_0.pdf
(Accessed: 10.07.2024.)
European Commission (2023d). Talent Booster Mechanism: https://ec.europa.eu/regional_
policy/policy/communities-and-networks/harnessing-talent-platform/talent-booster-
mechanism_en (Accessed: 10.07.2024.)
European Commission (2023e). Harnessing talent in Europe’s regions – Communication
from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic
and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions on the European Care Strategy,
COM(2023) 32 final. Harnessing Talent Platform: https://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/
whats-new/newsroom/23-11-2023-10-eu-regions-will-receive-technical-assistance-under-
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European Commission (2024). Ninth Report on Economic, Social and Territorial Cohesion |
European Social Fund Plus (europa.eu) (Accessed: 10.07.2024.)
European Council meeting (29 and 30 June 2023) – Conclusions, Point 18 g)https://data.
consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/ST-7-2023-INIT/en/pdf (Accessed: 10.07.2024.)
Council Recommendation (EU) 2021/1004 of 14 June 2021 establishing a European Child
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Council of the EU (2023a). The Granada declaration of 6 October 2023, downloadable:
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Council of the EU (2023c). Managing demographic change in Europe – Council conclusions
(12 December 2023) ST-16754-2023-INIT_en pdf (europa.eu) (Accessed: 10.07.2024.)
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(Accessed: 10.07.2024.)

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European Parliament (2024b). Briefing Demographic change in Europe: A toolbox for
action by EPRS | European Parliamentary Research Service Authors: Marketa Pape and
Balazs Szechy with Mislav Grbesa Members’ Research Service https://www.europarl.
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10.07.2024.)
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Regions — The EU response to the demographic challenge (18.1.2017.)
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Regions – Demographic change: proposals on measuring and tackling its negative effects in
the EU regions (2020/C 440/07)
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OPINION, Commission for Social Policy, Education, Employment, Research and Culture,
Demographic change in Europe: a toolbox for action (SEDEC-VII/047.) 3.6.2024. COR-2024-
01066-04-00-NB-TRA (EN/FR) 7/7
Conference ’The Demographic Transformation: Paving the Way for the EU’s Future’
Brussels Charlemagne Building, 25 March 2024. (https://www.egmontinstitute.be/events/
https-www-egmontinstitute-be-subscribe-2-the-demographic-transformation-paving-the-
way-for-the-eus-future_/ (Accessed: 10.07.2024.)

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A comparison of family policy systems
in the EU Member States
Gergely Agócs, Kata Eplényi, Kinga Joó, Kriszta Kállay-Kisbán, Réka Szász

INTRODUCTION
The concept of “family policy” varies widely across the European Union. In some
Member States, family policy is more part of social policy, while in others, for instance in
Hungary, it also entails tackling demographic challenges (i.e. population policy). In some
Member States, family policy is more focused on promoting work-life balance, prioritising
measures such as flexible working hours or the extension of childcare facilities, while in
others family support is aimed, among others, at creating financial security for families
and encouraging childbearing.

Given the fact that the European Union does not have exclusive competence in the area
of family policy, Member States are free to decide which methods to apply when it comes
to supporting and protecting families. The principle of subsidiarity applies in this area,
which means that EU-level intervention can only be taken if it proves to be more effective
than action at Member State level (European Commission. Areas of EU action).

EU legislation and policies should help employees to reconcile work and family life, and
they should incentivise flexibility for employers and employees alike. If they succeed in
doing so, they boost economic growth and benefit society as a whole, including children
and people who need care in their families (European Council, 2024). Such legislation and
policies may be complemented by national laws and policies aimed at protecting families
– as the basic unit of society and of nation – and at supporting would-be parents.

In recent years, Europe, when trying to launch a partnership of Member States that serve
the interest of families, has been facing the challenges posed by demographic problems,
by the fact that stakeholders attribute various significance to these problems, by the
resulting responses and by the different concepts of “family” in each Member State. Yet
when it comes to tackling these European demographic problems, strengthening Member
State family policies is indispensable, as this is what ensures that Member States are able
to respond to their ever-changing social and economic contexts. During this process, all
parties must respect the Member States’ right to shape their own family policies.

LEGISLATION IN THE EUROPEAN UNION

In recent years, family policy aspects have appeared in EU legislation primarily in
directives on employment.
As per the subsidiarity principle, the European Parliament and the Council can adopt
incentivising measures and directives (i.e. pieces of legislation that set forth minimum

63
requirements, while allowing Member States to adopt more stringent provisions). These
directives pertain to the following areas:
• safety and health at work;
• working conditions;
• the social security and social protection of workers (the definition of the basic
principles of a Member States’ social security systems remains in the competence of
the given Member State);
• protection of workers in the event of termination of their employment contract;
• the equal treatment of men and women in matters of employment and occupation.

At EU level, a number of directives on gender equality and working conditions already

address some of the issues relevant to work-life balance. These directives include Directive
2006/54/EC on the implementation of the principle of equal opportunities and equal
treatment of men and women in matters of employment and occupation, Directive 2010/41/
EU on the application of the principle of equal treatment between men and women engaged
in an activity in a self-employed capacity, and Directive 92/85/EEC on the introduction
of measures to encourage improvements in the safety and health at work of pregnant
workers and workers who have recently given birth or are breastfeeding, Directive 97/81/
EC concerning the Framework Agreement on part-time work concluded by UNICE, CEEP
and the ETUC, and Directive 2010/18/EU on the implementation of the revised Framework
Agreement on parental leave concluded by BUSINESSEUROPE, UEAPME, CEEP and the
ETUC (WLB Directive (8)).
The first volume of the European Family Policy Outlook of the Maria Kopp Institute for
Demography and Families was published in 2019. Since then, in terms of the legislative
process of the European Union, the most important impact on family policies of the Member
States (that is, of Member States which have an explicit family policy) has been exerted by
Directive (EU) 2019/1158 on work-life balance for parents and carers and repealing Council
Directive 2010/18/EU Directive (adopted on 13 July 2019) (Hereinafter: WLB Directive).
The European Commission, relying on the objective of the European Pillar of Social Rights
to create a social Europe for the benefit of all European citizens, in December 2016 tabled
a proposal for a Work-Life Balance (WLB) Directive that maintains existing rights and,
building on them, provide for more solid or new rights. The proposal aims to strike the right
balance between work and private life. It also seeks to guarantee more equal opportunities
for women and men, at work and at home alike. The Directive was adopted by the Council
on 13 June 2019, and entered into force on the 20th day following its publication in the
Official Journal of the European Union. After that, Member States had three years (until
2 August 2022) to transpose it into their respective national law. The Directive will be
reviewed in 2027.
The Directive lays down minimum requirements related to paternity leave, parental leave
and carers’ leave, and to flexible working arrangements for workers who are parents, or
carers. As per Article 16 of the WLB Directive, by facilitating the reconciliation of work and
family life for such parents and carers, the Directive should contribute to the Treaty-based
goals of equality between men and women with regard to labour market opportunities,
equal treatment at work and the promotion of a high level of employment in the Union.

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The WLB Directive specifies that Member States must take the necessary measures to ensure
that fathers or, where and insofar as recognised by national law, equivalent second parents,
have the right to paternity leave of 10 working days that is to be taken on the occasion of the
birth of the worker’s child. Fathers are entitled to paternity leave regardless of their marital
status, which means that there is no distinction between married and unmarried couples.
In terms of parental leave, Member States must take the necessary measures to ensure that
each worker has an individual right to parental leave of four months that is to be taken before
the child reaches a specified age, up to the age of eight. Member States must ensure that two
months of parental leave cannot be transferred. It is up to each Member State to determine
the minimum appropriate level of payment or allowance available during parental leave.
According to the new EU-level concept, workers who provide personal care or support to
a relative who is in need of care or support has the right to carers’ leave of five working days
per year. Member States may allocate carers’ leave in various ways: they may allow it on
a case-by-case basis or may define further requirements (European Council, 2024).
According to Article 9 of the WLB Directive, Member States must take the necessary measures
to ensure that workers with children up to a specified age (at least eight years), and carers,
have the right to request flexible working arrangements for caring purposes.
Although the Directive applies to all workers (men and women alike) who have an employment
contract or employment relationship as defined by the law, collective agreements or practice
in force in each Member State, some issues are left within the Member States’ competence.
Therefore, as per Article 18, Member States have the competence to define marital and family
status, as well as to establish which persons are to be considered to be a parent, a mother and
a father.
Currently, the Netherlands is the only Member State that has adequately transposed the WLB
Directive into its national law. In 23 Member States, the level of transposition is only sufficient,
which means that further provisions must be adopted in certain areas. In the autumn of 2023,
the European Commission initiated proceedings before the Court of Justice of the European
Union against three Member States (BE, ES, IE) for failure to fully transpose the Directive
(European Commission, 2023b).
In the 26 Member States where transposition has not been performed fully, the followings
can be concluded with regard to the main problem areas.
• Paternity leave is the area where the WLB Directive has been transposed into national
law most fully: shortcomings have been identified only in three Member States.
• Gaps in the provision of carers’ leave are identified in one-third of the Member States.
• The biggest room for improvement is in the areas of parental leave and flexible
working conditions: 16 and 18 Member States have not yet fully transposed the
relevant provisions, respectively.

These have been the major EU-level legislative developments in recent years in the area
of family policy. The following sections of this paper are dedicated to a comparison
of the family policy systems of the individual Member States. Based on the structure
of the country profiles in this volume, the general features, the importance of and the
differences between the individual family support measures are examined. Each section
is complemented with the description of a good practice.

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ELEMENTS OF FAMILY SUPPORT SYSTEMS IN INDIVIDUAL
MEMBER STATES

Benefits in the form of birth grant

Birth grant-type benefits are a very common form of support in the Member States. As
a rule, such benefits are provided in the form of a one-off lump sum payment. The vast
majority of the Member States provide support, subject to certain conditions, to expectant
women or women who have recently given birth or who adopt a child, to make sure that
assistance is offered in covering the increased costs incurring at the time of pregnancy
and childbirth. Eight Member States (AU, DE, DK, NL, IT, PT, RO and SE) do not provide
such benefits; the remaining 19 Member States do.
In the Member States where some form of birth grant is provided, the almost uniform
practice is that the amount is paid to the mother after the child is born. In Finland and
Cyprus, pregnant women who lose their child after the 22nd and 28th week of pregnancy,
respectively, are also entitled to the benefit. In France, birth grant is disbursed at the end
of the 7th month of pregnancy. Latvia, Lithuania and Slovenia are exceptions in that
respect inasmuch as the relevant legislation does not explicitly designate the mother but
“one parent” as the beneficiary.
In every case, maternity allowance is a one-off payment and usually is a lump sum. The
exceptions are Greece and Luxembourg, where the one-off payment is made in two or
three instalments (at the end of the pregnancy, at the time of giving birth and when the
child reaches two years of age). Generally, the allowance must be claimed within two,
three, six or a maximum of 12 months after the child is born. Many countries provide
additional, higher amounts of support for children born with a disability. In the majority
of countries where such support is available, adoptive parents are also entitled to the
grant, which, in some countries, is higher than in the case of childbirth.
There are two categories of Member States depending on whether support is given
on universal basis (subject to certain minimum conditions detailed below (for BE, BG,
CY, EE, ES, FI, FR, HR, HU, IE, LT, LV, LU, MT, SK, SI), or is provided depending on
the family’s income (CZ, EL, PL). In a number of cases, the above conditions include
compulsory attendance at medical examinations during pregnancy, and/or employment
and insurance prior to childbirth, and/or nationality, and/or residence in the given country,
and/or residence for a certain period. The Czech Republic, Greece and Poland provide
maternity allowance as per the financial situation of the family. In the Czech Republic,
the family income cannot exceed 2.7 times the minimum subsistence level. In Greece,
the relevant legislation defines an amount that cannot be exceeded by family’s annual
equivalent income. In Poland, eligibility to claiming the allowance is subject to a threshold
set for the family’s net monthly income. Bulgaria is an exception in this respect as only
the additional one-off grant for parents of twins is income-related.
The amount of birth grant varies widely between the Member States, ranging from EUR
10 to EUR 2,000. The three countries with the lowest amounts are Ireland, Bulgaria and
Hungary, while the highest amounts are offered in Belgium, Luxembourg and Greece.

66
There is also a difference in the number of times a person can claim birth grant. In
the Czech Republic, support can be claimed only after the first two live births, with the
amount decreasing: EUR 535 for the first child and EUR 411 for the second. In Slovakia,
the same amount (EUR 830) is payable for the first three children, while a reduced amount
of EUR 151 for children born subsequently.
There are two such Member States that pay special attention to the situation of pregnant
women in higher education. Bulgaria offers mothers who are full-time students at a higher
education institution a one-off payment of an amount that exceeds ten times the amount
of birth grant. The payment is made in two instalments: 50% after the child is born and
50% if the mother enrols for the next semester before the child reaches the age of one. In
Slovakia, pregnant students in higher education are eligible for a pregnancy scholarship
benefit every month from the 27th week of pregnancy until the child is born.

Good practice: Estonia

In Estonia – similarly to the above common practice – birth grant is paid as a one-off
allowance in the amount of EUR 320 when the child is born. For multiple birth, EUR
1,000 per child is paid. The disbursement of childbirth allowance is subject to the
mother’s employment before the childbirth, compulsory insurance and the registration of
the birth in the population register. Estonia also offers an adoption allowance in the form
of a one-off payment of EUR 320 to the adoptive parent.

Maternity leave and infant care allowances

In the European Union, mothers have a fundamental right to maternity leave, so that
they can care for their newborn child and recover after childbirth. Maternity rights are set
forth in Directive 92/85/EEC on the introduction of measures to encourage improvements
in the safety and health at work of pregnant workers and workers who have recently
given birth or are breastfeeding. The Directive entitles pregnant workers, workers who
have recently given birth or adopted a child to a continuous maternity leave of at least 14
weeks. Two weeks of leave are compulsory before and/or after childbirth, coupled with
an allowance whose amount is specified in the relevant national legislation (European
Parliament, 2023). In many countries, mothers can freely decide when they want to take
their leave before the childbirth. In most countries, only those women are entitled to
maternity leave who have worked for a specified number of hours or who have paid
social security contributions. During pregnancy and the period of maternity leave, the
mother is protected against dismissal (European Union, 2024). Mention must be of the
fact that there is a trend in an increasing number of countries (e.g. in the Czech Republic,
Portugal, Sweden) of mothers entitled to transfer at least a part of their maternity leave
to fathers, even without a medical reason.
As for the length of the maternity leave period and the allowance amount available, there
are major differences between the Member States, the length of the leave ranging from
a few weeks to several months: the mandatory minimum duration is 14 weeks in Germany
and Sweden, while a 58-week period is available in Bulgaria. Mention must be made of

67
the fact that in Sweden it is compulsory to take minimum of 2 weeks of maternity leave,
but either parent is entitled to take unpaid childcare leave until the child reaches the age
of 18 months. In the majority of Member States (in 15 Member States) the duration of the
leave ranges between 14 and 20 weeks. In nine countries (BG, CZ, HR, HU, IE, IT, LU, PL,
SK) it exceeds 20 weeks. With maternity leave of a duration ranging from 30 to 58 weeks,
Slovakia, Croatia, Ireland and Bulgaria offer the most generous option. In Hungary, the
length of maternity leave is 24 weeks.

In most European countries, the benefit amount provided during maternity leave must
reach at least 50% of the worker’s previous salary. In most cases, mothers receive two-
thirds of their previous earnings, yet a significant number of Member States provide,
for at least a part of maternity leave, an amount that equals (or almost equals) the
mother’s salary (AT, DE, EE, ES, FR, HR, HU, LU, MT, NL, PL, PT, SI). It is important to
note that in several countries mothers are entitled to longer maternity leave when they
are pregnant with their second, third etc. child. For instance, in France the duration of
maternity leave is 16 weeks, but it increases to 26 weeks after the third child and the
children born subsequently.

Good practice: Bulgaria

In Bulgaria, during pregnancy and maternity leave mothers are entitled to a cash benefit.
The leave must start 45 days before the expected due date. The amount of the benefit is
90% of the average income calculated for the previous 24 months, but cannot be lower than
the statutory minimum wage. Since 2020, upon the birth of another child within 410 days,
the amount of the benefit for the second child must remain at the same level as for the first
child (which means that the mother will not receive less for the second child). If the mother
returns to the labour market after the child reaches six months of age, she receives 50% of
the benefit amount. With the mother’s consent, after the child reaches six months of age the
father can take the leave days that remain from the available 410 days. In that case, the
benefit is disbursed to him. However, the first 135 days are available only to the mother.

Paternity leave

Most Member States have revised their paternity leave system based on the Work-Life
Balance (WLB) Directive, which came into force in August 2022. Accordingly, fathers (or,
in some countries, equivalent second parents) are granted at least 10 days of paternity
leave during the period when the child is born or adopted. The objective is to allow
a stronger bond to develop between fathers and their babies, as well as to encourage
a more equal sharing of childcare responsibilities between women and men.

Paternity leave is available in all 27 Member States; in some Member States (ES, IT, PT)
it is obligatory for fathers to take paternity leave either in full or in part. The length of
paternity leave is minimum 10 days (as specified by the WLB Directive) in all Member
States. In 13 Member States (AT, BE, BG, EE, EL, ES, FI, FR, LT, NL, PT, SI, SK) it exceeds

68
10 days. In all cases, fathers are entitled to paternity leave as a non-means-tested benefit. In
15 Member States (AT, BE, DE, DK, EE, ES, FI, FR, IE, LV, MT, NL, PT, SE, SI), equivalent
second parents are also entitled to the leave.

Countries can be divided into three groups, depending on when fathers can take paternity
leave. In the largest group (19 countries: AT, BE, CY, CZ, DE, DK, EL, HR, HU, IE, IT, LU,
LV, NL, PT, RO, SE, SI, SK) fathers are entitled to at least 10 days of leave any time until
the child reaches six months of age. In three countries (BG, ES, MT) fathers take leave
immediately after the child is born, while in five countries (EE, FI, FR, LT, PL) they are
entitled to do so once their child is six months old. The third group does not fall fully in line
with the provisions of the WLB Directive, whose Article 4(1) specifies that paternity leave is
to be taken on the occasion of the birth of the worker’s child, when the child is born.

Twenty-five Member States comply with the WLB Directive inasmuch as they do not
impose any specific conditions for taking paternity leave, given that the right to paternity
leave must not be made subject to a period of work qualification or to a length of service
qualification. The remaining two countries are Austria (where the right to leave is
conditional on the father living in the same household as the child) and Bulgaria (where
the father must be married to or must live in civil partnership with the mother).

During paternity leave, Member States provide financial compensation to fathers for the
whole period of leave. In the majority of the Member States (21), such compensation is
covered by social security contributions (although in Romania it is paid in advance by the
employer). In the remaining six countries, paternity allowance is either disbursed by the
employer (EL, MT) or by the state and the employer (BE, HU, LU, NL). As a rule, that is,
in 24 Member States, the amount is calculated as a percentage of the worker’s previous
salary. The amount is generally relatively high: at least 70-80% of the previous salary. In
more than half of the Member States (15), the amount is capped, albeit at a high level,
ranging from EUR 1,700 to EUR 12,541. In 15 of the 27 Member States, fathers receive
unconditional financial support. In 12 countries, the disbursed amount is proportional
to periods of previous employment, which is allowed by the WLB Directive with certain
limitations. In the countries concerned, the payment depends on the periods of previous
employment, which must not exceed six months immediately prior to the expected date
of the birth of the child (Article 8(2) of the WLB Directive). Four countries (IE, DK, FR,
SK), however, apply more conditions than allowed by the WLB Directive: the required
periods of previous employment exceed the one defined in the Directive or may constitute
a discrimination of part-time workers. Article 20(7) of the WLB Directive allows Member
States not to provide financial support during paternity leave as long as two conditions
are otherwise met: first, both parents must be entitled to a parental leave of at least six
months and, second, the allowance amount must be at least 65 % of the worker’s net
wage. Member States may make the right to a payment or an allowance subject to periods
of previous employment, which shall not exceed six months immediately prior to the
expected date of the birth of the child. (European Commission, 2022).

69
Good practice: Romania
In Romania, fathers are entitled to a paternity leave of ten working days; however, if they
attend a childcare course, they are entitled to an extra five days. Paternity leave can be
taken at any time until the child reaches eight weeks of age. During paternity leave, the
amount of the benefit is equal to the father’s previous monthly earnings.

Parental leave and childcare benefits

In conformity with the provisions of the WLB Directive, all EU Member States grant
four months of parental leave to each biological or adoptive parent. Two and two months
of the leave are non-transferable, which contributes to a more balanced distribution of
childcare responsibilities within the family. Determining the amount of the benefit paid
during parental leave falls into the competence of the Member States. In 23 Member
States, parental leave is longer than the period of 4+4 months set forth in the WLB
Directive. There are only four member states where parents are entitled to the minimum
period of parental leave: four months in Belgium and Greece, 18 weeks in Cyprus, and
eight months per family in Croatia. In 16 countries, the duration of parental leave is
specified per parent (AT, BG, CZ, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, IE, LT, LU, LV, NL, SE, SI, SK), while
in four (EE, IT, PL, RO) per family. In three countries (Malta, Portugal and Hungary) the
two approaches are combined. In Hungary, there are two types of entitlement to parental
leave. First, each family is entitled to up to three years of childcare leave; second, each
parent is entitled to 44 working days of non-transferable leave per child until the child
reaches the age of three years.
In some of the Member States referred to above, the parental leave of 2+2 months is an
individual and non-transferable right, in conformity with the WLB Directive (BE, CZ, DE,
DK, EL, ES, FR, LU, LV, NL, SK). In other Member States, the right is only partially of such
nature, and the non-transferable period may exceed the required duration (BG, CY, FI,
HR, HU, IE, IT MT, PL, PT, SE, SI). In Hungary, for example, the family may decide who
takes parental leave, which allows for great flexibility and freedom of choice. Another
aspect on the basis of which Member States can be categorised is the time when parental
leave can be taken. In 10 countries (AT, CZ, DK, EE, ES, FI, FR, LT, RO, SK), parental leave
can be taken within three years after the childbirth or adoption, while in 15 countries (BE,
BG, CY, DE, EL, HU, HR, IE, IT, LV, MT, NL, PL, PT, SE), this period is longer than three
years. In the 25 Member States referred to above, both parents are entitled to the same
period. In 11 of these Member States, parents have to take their parental leave in full in
the first three years, while in 14 countries they can do so until the child reaches the age of
12 years. The case of Luxembourg and Slovenia is different though, given that the father
and the mother are entitled to different periods of parental leave.

In 14 Member States eligibility to parental leave is subject to certain conditions, while in

13 it is not. Of the 14 countries that do impose a condition, seven (BE, CY, FR, IE, MT,
PL, RO) do so in line with the WLB Directive, that is, the length of the period of previous
employment/service does not exceed one year. The case of Greece is an interesting

70
example: one year of service is required for each child, which means that for the second
(third, fourth etc.) child an additional year of employment is required after the expiry
of parental leave for the previous child. Albeit Member States should not impose any
conditions for parental leave other than a specific period of employment, five countries
(AT, DE, HR, LU, PT) do so. In Austria or Germany, for example, the working parent must
live in the same household as the child to be entitled to parental leave.

As for the way of taking parental leave, workers are entitled to request to take parental
leave on a part-time basis and in alternating periods in the first four months. Thirteen
Member States comply with this WLB provision; the remaining 14 comply only partially.

Mention must be made of parents who, for some reason, raise children in a special
situation, for example, are adoptive parents, parents with a disability, have a child with
disability, or have a chronically ill child. Most Member States (AT, BE, CY, DE, DK, EL,
ES, FI, FR, HU, IE, IT, LU, PL, PT, RO, SI, SE, SK) have specific measures in place for this
group of parents. Most measures entail an extension for adoptive parents of the period
during which parental leave can be taken (as a rule, this period is defined on the basis
of the child’s age). Three countries regulate parental leave for parents with disabilities
(DE, EL, SE): they provide for the possibility for one parent (or another family member)
to take the leave if one parent (or both parents) is/are unable to do so due to illness. In
15 Member States (BE, CY, DE, EL, ES, FR, HU, IE, IT, LU, PL, PT, RO, SI, SK), special
measures apply to parents of children with disabilities: most often, parents are entitled to
a longer period of parental leave.
Parents receive financial support during parental leave in all Member States. In 11
Member States, parents are entitled to such compensation for the whole period of their
parental leave, while in the other 16 Member States financial support is available only
for a part of the leave. In the majority of Member States, the period during which parents
get support exceeds the 2+2 (4 months in total) specified by the WLB Directive. However,
there are only 14 Member States where the amount of such allowance exceeds 65% of
that of the parent’s previous earnings, and out of them only 10 Member States (AT, FI,
HR, LT, LU, NL, PL, SE, SI, SK) where parents are entitled to a non-transferable parental
leave of 2+2 months, during which they receive an adequate amount of financial support.
In the remaining 13 Member States, the level of support is as follows: seven Member
States (BE, BG, CZ, EL, FR, IE, MT) provide a flat-rate benefit of a moderate amount, five
Member States (DE, HU, IT, LV, PT) an income compensation whose amount, calculated
as a percentage of the previous income, ranges between 10% and 65% (in Denmark,
it reaches 100% but is capped at a low amount). As a rule of thumb, parents in all EU
Member States should be entitled to any financial compensation during parental leave
if they are actually on leave, but there are two Member States (CZ, LV) where parents
are entitled to a certain percentage of the allowance even if they are engaged in gainful
employment in the meantime, and four Member States (AT, EE, HU, SK) where 100% of
the allowance amount is paid to working parents, too.

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Good practice: Finland
Parents are entitled to take parental leave once the child is born. The leave period is 320
days (calculated excluding Sundays) and is divided equally between the two parents (160-
160 days). Parental leave can be taken until the child reaches two years of age. In Finland,
parents can opt for partial parental leave, which means that the parent works part-time and
spends part of the time caring for the child. The amount of the allowance to be disbursed
is 70% of the previous daily earnings and is calculated as per working day. When parental
leave ends, parents can take childcare leave until the child reaches three years of age,
during which time they may receive a childcare fee. Having taken parental leave, parents
of children under three years of age may also to claim a flexible childcare fee, provided
that they work less than 80% of the normal full working time, that is, maximum 30 hours
per week. The benefit can only be claimed for one child at a time, even if there are several
eligible children in the family.

Child benefit

Child benefit as a form of family policy measures is available in all EU Member States.
In Hungary, the predecessor of child benefit started to evolve in the early 20th century,
but did not become universal until 1979. There are Member States where child benefit
has a history of half a century, while in others it was introduced a few years ago. The
universal child benefit is intended to contribute to the cost of bringing up the child(ren)
in each household.
In the majority Member States, child benefit is made up of a basic benefit and, in some
cases, a supplementary benefit. As a rule, the amounts are disbursed monthly. In most
cases, child benefit is a tax-free allowance. As for the amount of benefit, it varies widely
between Member States, however, it is difficult to compare them given the complexity
of the systems. Nevertheless, the monthly amount per child varies between EUR 10 and
EUR 600, the most common amount being around EUR 100.
As a rule, the beneficiary is the parent: the parent is entitled to receive benefit for the
child, the only exception being Luxembourg, where the entitled person is the child. In
most Member States, the mother receives the allowance; nevertheless, in a number of
Member States the parents may apply for a split payment. In Germany, even grandparents
can claim the allowance provided that the child lives with them. In Finland, the child can
claim it, too, provided that he or she has reached the age of 15 and lives in a separate
household.
In the majority (16) of Member States (AT, BE, BG, CY, CZ, DK, EL, ES, FR, HR, IT, MT,
PL, PT, RO, SI), child benefit is granted depending on the family’s income and wealth
status; however, the calculation methodology differs: some states have a ceiling, others
have a banding system. In contrast, in 11 Member States (DE, EE, FI, IE, HU, NL, LT, LV,
LU, SE and SK), entitlement to child benefit is a universal right, and the basic amount
does not depend on the family’s financial situation, or only depends on the number of
children or the type of family. In one Member State (DE) even the age or number of
children does not change the amount of child benefit per child. However, in some of the

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above 11 Member States the amount of supplementary child benefit is already income-
related allowance.
Nevertheless, there may be certain conditions applicants must meet. For example, they
must live in the same household as the child and have a permanent address. In some
Member States, the applicant is required to have been resident in the given Member
State for at least three or five years. Some Member States (HU, RO) make the award of
child benefit conditional on compulsory schooling and the number of days of unjustified
absences from school.
In all cases, family allowance is paid until the child reaches a certain age (generally until
the end of secondary education), but may continue to be paid if the child pursues further
studies in higher education or adult education. In the latter case, many Member States
set a ceiling a maximum amount for the annual income of a child residing at the parental
home as a condition for retaining entitlement to child benefit. In some member states,
there are special provisions in place for people in compulsory military service, orphans,
or people with incapacity or disabilities; for them, the age limit may be higher: 24, 25
or even 26 years. In some Member States, the disbursable amount depends on the age
of the eligible child, too. In that regard, two approaches are pursued: the amount of the
allowance either increases or decreases with the age of the child.
In most Member States, it is the number of eligible children in the family that determines
the amount of child benefit which generally increases with the number of children (in
some cases, in varying proportions). The exception to this general practice is France, where
family allowance is paid only to parents with two or more children, the consideration
being that no additional allowance is needed for one child supported by both parents. In
Germany and Slovakia, neither the number nor the age of the children matters, as parents
are entitled to the same amount for each child. With regard to the number of children,
mention must be made of the fact that in a number of countries large families receive an
additional supplementary allowance on top of the basic benefit.
In the vast majority of Member States, single parents are entitled to an additional
supplementary benefit. As another common practice, special support is provided for
parents of children with disability, where the supplementary benefit is often independent
of income (e.g. Italy). In Estonia and Lithuania, families where a parent is in compulsory
military service receive a supplementary allowance. Denmark offers a higher amount
of allowance to parents of twins, and a special support for students in higher education
and for mothers of children whose father is unknown. Finally, it is to be noted that
several countries provide a “13th-month family allowance” for starting school, intended
to contribute to covering the increased costs that incur at the beginning of the school
year. This benefit can be a one-off payment or an amount disbursed every year for
children of compulsory school age. Finally, mention must be made of Portugal, where
low-income earners are entitled to claim a “pre-natal family allowance” from the 13th
week of pregnancy. If awarded, the allowance is paid until the child is born, but no child
benefit is paid thereafter.

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Good practice: Denmark
In Denmark, the child benefit is a basic allowance disbursable for all children under 18 who
reside in Denmark. The benefit amount depends on the child’s age and the family’s income.
Entitlement is conditional on the claimant having lived or worked in Denmark for at least six
years in the 10 years preceding disbursement. The benefit amount decreases with the age of
the child (EUR 636 per month for young babies and EUR 132 per month for secondary-school
students). In the case of joint custody, the amount can be shared between the parents. If the
parent’s annual tax base exceeded EUR 114,312 per year in 2023, the child benefit amount
is reduced. In Denmark, the number of people entitled to a supplementary child benefit is
particularly high. Beneficiaries include single parents, parents of twins until the children
reach seven years of age, retired parents with children under 18, parents pursuing studies
in higher education (provided that they have lived in Denmark for six years in the last 10
years), and mothers if the father of the child is unknown or the paternity proceedings are
still pending.

Family taxation

Four-fifths of EU Member States offer some form of income tax benefits for families
with children. There are four Member States (CY, FI, LT, SE) where no such options are
available. The remaining 23 Member States (AU, BE, BG, CZ, DE, EE, EL, ES, FR, HU,
HR, IE, IT, LV, LU, MT, NL, PL, PT, RO, SI, SK) provide family tax benefit options, albeit
practices differ widely. In some Member States, the tax base is reduced, some provide
targeted tax benefits, and some allow for monthly, quarterly or annual tax credits. Some
Member States (e.g. BE, FR) have a family taxation system (joint spousal taxation system)
in place, which means that tax is declared on the basis of a joint tax number. The income
of the spouse and the number of dependent children are also taken into consideration,
and both parents are entitled to tax benefits. In some cases (e.g. BG, EE, GR), child tax
benefits are only available up to a certain annual income threshold, while in others (e.g.
HU, LV) tax credits are available regardless of income. Practices of the Member States also
vary when it comes to the disbursement period. The lowest age is 12 years (e.g. NL), while
some Member States offer allowance also for young people in higher education (e.g. FR,
and to some extent HU). In some Member States, tax benefits are awarded on the basis
of entitlement to child benefit (e.g. DE, HU). Germany is unique inasmuch as families
may choose between child benefit and tax benefits, depending on their preferences. The
amount also varies considerably across Member States, with annual tax base reductions
for children ranging from EUR 20 to EUR 2,400 per child.
Member States also provide tax benefits for persons with special needs, for example,
some offering higher allowances for single-income couples or single parents (e.g. AU). In
several countries (e.g. BE, BG, PT), parents of children with disabilities can claim higher
tax base reductions; in most cases (e.g. HU, PL), large families are also entitled to higher
(or very high) reductions.
Recent years have seen a new trend in a number of countries: typically with the intention
to reduce emigration young people under 26 are offered exemption from personal

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income tax in their home country (e.g. HU, PL). In other Member States (e.g. HR) those
under 30 pay 50% less tax. Hungary and Poland lead the way in supporting parents with
four children: in Hungary mothers of four or more children enjoy life-long exemption
from the payment of income tax, while in Poland, parents of four or more children only
below a certain income threshold are entitled to the same exemption. In Hungary, as of
1 January 2023, mothers who become parents before the age of 30 are also exempt from
personal income tax.

Good practice: France

An important element of French family policy is the family taxation system, that is,
support offered via the taxation system, the fundamentals of which have remained largely
unchanged since World War II. The system is intended, among others, to ensure that families
of different composition but with similar income before tax do not have different living
standards because of having children. More specifically, upon the assessment of income tax,
the composition of the family and the number of children are also taken into consideration,
which means that large families pay less tax than smaller families or families without
children do. Another objective of the system is to incentivise parents to have at least three
children, as families with three or more children receive a higher tax reduction. Within the
framework of the family taxation system, married couples and civil partners file a joint tax
return. The maximum amount of the available tax benefit is EUR 1,759 per child for the first
and second child, and double this amount for the third child. Additional tax benefits can
be claimed by parents of children in secondary or higher education. The amount of the tax
benefit depends on the level of education and is available until the child reaches 25 years
of age, provided that he/she is not engaged in gainful employment.

Housing

Family housing subsidies and/or accommodation support are not offered in all EU
Member States within the family support systems. There are mainly cultural reasons
for this difference: while in Western Europe there is a high proportion of people living
in rented accommodation in cities, Central and Eastern European people regard home
ownership as a priority.
The majority of Member States (17) offer some form of housing subsidies; they fall into
two broad categories. The larger group, consisting of 12 Member States (AU, BE, CZ, DE,
DK, ES, FI, FR, IE, LU, PT, SE) provide some form of needs-based assistance to contribute
to covering the costs of housing or rent. The smaller group, made up of three countries
(HU, LV, PL), operate purchase-related housing subsidy schemes. Twelve out of the 27
Member States (BG, CY, EE, EL, HR, IT, LT, MT, NL, RO, SI, SK) do not offer any housing-
related assistance.
Countries providing housing assistance, typically in Western Europe, normally offer direct
help in rent payment to those in need. As for the conditions for awarding the subsidy,
some Member States define an income threshold, while others take into consideration
the percentage of salary spent to cover housing costs. In some cases, the subsidy is

75
disbursed to the tenant, while in other cases directly to the landlord. Some Member States
“subsidise” landlords via tax benefits, provided that the property is rented by tenants who
are entitled to rent support. In a number of Member States, supported target groups are
comprised of large families and young people aged between 18 and 35. For the former
target group, the subsidy amount may increase with the number children, while for the
latter the subsidy is age-related and is intended to help young people starting out in their
careers. In these Member States, there are three other housing-related forms of support
in addition to rent subsidy. In some cases, the state provides a subsidy for the payment
of the deposit (usually in the form of vouchers) which then can be transferred to the
landlord; in some cases, support is available for heating costs; and in some member states
means-tested assistance is offered to the costs of moving house.
There are three Member States, however, which prioritise support for house purchases.
The Polish state offers a “housing voucher” based on the number of household members.
In Latvia, families with three or more children are entitled to a non-repayable grant to buy
or build a house. In Hungary, a new system of Family Housing Subsidy was introduced
in 2015, consisting of a non-repayable grant until 2023, coupled with a state-subsidised
loan at a very favourable interest rate. The loan amount is determined on the number of
children born and to be born. In Italy, first-time home buyers under 36 years of age were
granted a subsidy for three years. In the Netherlands, parents were allowed for seven
years to give their children money as tax-free gift to purchase a home (the scheme was
discontinued on 1 January 2024).
It may be concluded then that EU Member States prioritise reducing the housing costs of
those in need, and less than a fifth of them attach importance to financial contributions
to purchasing a home.

Good practice: Hungary

The Hungarian government, first with the Family Housing Subsidy system (Hungarian
abbreviation: CSOK) introduced in 2015 and then with its renewed version (CSOK Plusz)
in 2024, introduced a housing subsidy that encourages the birth of desired children and
provides meaningful help to families. The subsidy is available to those married couple as
well who already have a child/children, but decide to have more. CSOK Plusz is a state-
subsidised loan with an interest rate of up to 3%. The interest rate is guaranteed by the
state until the end of maturity. The minimum loan amount is HUF 2 million (EUR 5,000), the
maximum is HUF 50 million (EUR 125,000), with the actually disbursed amount depending
on the number of children born and to be born in the family. The support is available to
married couples who are planning to have a child/children. Another condition is that the
woman must be under 41 years of age. As of 1 January 2024, a two-year transitional period
was introduced, during which the support can be claimed regardless the woman’s age,
provided that a proof of a 12-week pregnancy is produced. If the children planned are born,
the couple can apply for another benefit: for up to one year after the first child is born, loan
repayment is suspended, and with each more child the loan principal is reduced by HUF 10
million. Another preferential condition is that if no child is born then in the first year after
taking out the loan the couple must pay only interest, but no principal.

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RECONCILING FAMILY AND WORK
IN THE INDIVIDUAL MEMBER STATES
All Member States attach particular importance to the reconciliation of family life and work,
given that it is a factor that has a direct impact on the social well-being and performance
of workers in the given country and, thus, on the economic growth of the European
Union as a whole. In a competitive society, work and having children are aspects of life
that do not exclude but reinforce each other. This means that the employment of parents
with young children, the existence of flexible working arrangements or carers’ leave, and
the assessment of the institutional system for early childhood education and care may
give an insight into how successfully people can hit work-life balance in a Member State.
However, mention must be made of the fact that each Member State provides relevant
arrangements and schemes according to its own cultural traditions. In some Member
States, the maternity/parental leave period is relatively short, and the majority of parents
return to gainful employment before the child reaches one year of age. In other Member
States, parents can opt for a longer leave.

Employment

As shown by 2022 data, the reasons for 25-64-year-old persons to take up part-time
employment differ widely. For women, the top reason is to care for children or for adults
in need of long-term care (29.2% of women and 7.7% of men), while for men is that they
have failed to find a full-time job (19.2% of women and 29.6% of men) (Eurostat, 2023).
In 2022, 17.0% of the employed worked part-time. In all Member States (except
Romania) women were more likely to belong to this category than man were (27.8% vs.
7.6%). Part-time employment was most widespread in the Netherlands (38.4%), Austria
(30.1%), Germany (27.9%) and Belgium (23.0%). The Member States where more than
one-third of female employees worked part-time in 2022 are as follows: the Netherlands
(60.6%), Austria (51.0%), Germany (47.3%) and Belgium (37.5%). The largest differences
between women’s and men’s part-time employment were detected in the same countries.
The lowest rates of part-time employees among full-time workers (less than 4%) were
measured in Bulgaria, Slovakia and Romania.
Another factor to be examined is the link between the share of part-time employment and
the number of children. In 2022 in the EU, nearly one-third (31.5%) of employed women
aged 25-54 with children worked part-time, while the proportion of part-time was much
lower (20.2%) among employed women without children. As for men, an opposite trend
is detected: the rate of those in part-time employment is lower among men with children
than among men without children (4.9% as opposed to 7.2%). In all but a few countries
(DK, EL, LT, PT), the share of women with children working part-time was higher than
the share of women without children working part-time.
For historical and cultural reasons, the availability of the option of part-time work is not
uniform across EU Member States: in some Member States, especially in the Central
and Eastern European countries (BG, HU, HR, LV, PL, PT, RO, SK), the rate of part-time

77
workers in the total employed population was below 10%, regardless of the employees
having or not having children.

Carers’ leave

Having a sick or dependent relative has also been shown to have a negative impact on
women’s employment and results in some women dropping out of the labour market
entirely. Therefore, to ensure that workers with caring responsibilities have better chances
to remain in the labour market, the WLB Directive (referred to in the Introduction)
specifies that all workers must be entitled to at least five days of carers’ leave per year
in case of the illness of their child or other relative. The Directive does not determine
a minimum level of remuneration for the leave period.
All Member States comply with this provision: half of the Member States (AT, BE, CY,
DK, EL, FI, HR, HU, LV, MT, PL, PT, RO) provide for the minimum number of days (five
days), while 14 Member States have a more generous carer’s leave scheme in place, with
leave periods ranging from 10 days (BG) to two years (ES). The average number of days
granted in the Member States is 14 days. In most Member States, the leave period is
defined in terms of the total number of days taken in a given year; yet in some Member
States (HR, CZ, DK, EE, FI, LT, SI, ES) the number of leave days is determined on the basis
of the illness in question. In several Member States (EL, FR, MT), public administration
employees are entitled to more leave days than other workers are.
In 22 Member States, the individual worker is entitled to carer’s leave, while in the
remaining five (BG, IE, EE, SE, SI) it is a family entitlement. Given the fact that caring
tasks are mainly performed by women, family entitlement does not contribute to a more
equal sharing of caring responsibilities between men and women. Therefore, it is more
appropriate for all employees to have an individual and non-transferable right to carers’
leave, as provided for in the WLB Directive.
As indicated by relevant data, not all Member States regard carers’ leave as a priority. In
Belgium, Cyprus, France, Italy, Lithuania, Malta and Cyprus, carers’ leave, by definition,
is unpaid and available for very short periods (3-10 days; the exception being Italy, where
for children under three years of age the sick leave period is unlimited). In Ireland and
Denmark, carers’ leave can be taken for only a few days (2-3 days); however, during that
period employees receive 100% of their previous earnings. The majority of Member States
offer a compensation of the loss of earnings with an amount that equals the amount paid
to persons on sick leave. In some cases, for example in Croatia or Romania, the length of
leave entitlement or the rate of compensation decreases as the child grows older.

Good practice: Sweden

Parents of children under 12 years of age can opt for temporary parental leave to care for
a sick child. During the leave period, they receive an allowance of 77.6% of their previous
income (up to a certain income limit). Overall, parents have a maximum of 120 days of
parental leave per child to care for a sick child, but in case of a serious illness, there is no
time limit. Parents are entitled to this type of leave until the child reaches 12-15 years of

78
age, conditional on a medical certificate. A medical certificate is required in all cases of
illness of more than seven consecutive days. Should the primary carer fall ill, 60 of the 120
days can be taken by another relative of the young child.
For children under 18 years of age suffering from a terminal/serious illness (among life-
threatening conditions), there is no upper limit to the number of leave days, and both
parents can be on leave at the same time. Parents whose child is ill for a period exceeding six
months are entitled to disability care allowance (omvårdnadsbidrag) and a supplementary
child care benefit (merkostnadsersättning för barn).

Flexible working arrangements

Flexible working arrangements such as part-time employment, remote working

arrangements or special working arrangements tailor-made to the needs of the worker
are essential for a good work-life balance. The WLB Directive requires all Member States
to allow workers with children up to the age of eight years and workers with caring
responsibilities to request flexible working arrangements, including a reduction in
working hours, remote working arrangements or flexible working schedules.
Three Member States (FR, IE and LU) do not comply with this requirement inasmuch
as they do not offer their workers any form of flexible working arrangements. Fifteen
Member States (AT, BG, CY, CY, CZ, DE, EE, ES, FI, HU, IT, LV, PT, SE, SI and SK)
implement the provisions of the Directive to a certain degree. In some Member States,
certain categories of workers are excluded from the opportunity of flexible working
arrangements. Such categories include private sector workers (AT), public sector workers
(ES), employers with a low number of employees (AT and PT) or those in management
(HU) (European Commission, 2022).
Three Member States (HR, LT, MT) provide flexible working conditions for the workers
concerned as required by the Directive. Six Member States (BE, DK, EL, NL, PL and RO)
offer even more, for example, they have extended the parents’ entitlement to request
part-time up to a relatively older age of the child or made worker’s right to part-time
employment a universal right. Such arrangements are available for public sector workers
in Belgium, for companies with more than 10 employees in the Netherlands and for all
employees in Romania.
The employer must consider and respond to a request for flexible working arrangements,
taking into account the needs of both the employer and the worker. Employers must
provide reasons for any refusal of such a request or for any postponement of such
arrangements. As for the latter provision, the only exception is Italy, where employers,
should they refuse the worker’s request, are not obliged to justify their decision (European
Commission, 2022).
A special form of reduction in working hours is the break given to breastfeeding mothers.
This option is available in Member States where the combined length of maternity leave
and parental leave is relatively low, and, therefore, mothers typically return to work
before their child reaches 12, 9 or 6 months of age. As a rule, within the framework of
this arrangement mothers can take breaks of a combined duration of 1-1.5 hours per day.

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For the break periods, mothers are entitled to 100% of her earnings (Blum et al., 2023,
European Commission, 2023c).

Good practice: The Netherlands

In the Netherlands, employers are obliged to offer flexible working arrangements and the
option of working from home to any worker whom they have employed for at least six
months, provided that the employer has more than 10 employees and the work schedule
allows for such arrangements. This means that employees with children are entitled to
request flexible working arrangements (and the employer is obliged to provide them) even
after their child reaches eight years of age, provided that the above conditions are met.

Early Childhood Education and Care

All EU Member States have day-care facilities for young children, such as crèches,
kindergartens and other childcare arrangements. The availability of institutional early
childhood education and care (ECEC) facilitates the participation of women with
young children in the labour market and may promote the child’s social and cognitive
development, especially in the case of disadvantaged children.

A further consideration is the relatively favourable trends in birth rates observed in

countries that prioritise the reconciliation of family and work responsibilities of parents
with young children. Nevertheless, given the differences in the cultural and social
contexts and family support systems of the individual countries, the take-up rate for early
childhood care services varies considerably. There are major differences, for instance, as
to at what age a young child is guaranteed a place in ECEC. There are only seven Member
States (DK, DE, EE, LV, SI, FI and SV) where guaranteed access to day care is offered
immediately after a well-paid parental leave period (European Commission, 2023c).

There are only eight Member States (BE, CZ, ES, FR, LU, HU, PL, PT) where state-subsidised
free pre-school placement is guaranteed to children between the age of three and that
of compulsory schooling. In one-third of the Member States, children are guaranteed
admission only for the last 1-2 years of kindergarten. In three Member States (IT, MT,
IE) there is no universal entitlement to a place in kindergarten at any age (European
Commission, 2023c).

As for the take-up of services, it reflects, among others, the preferences of families, which,
again, may vary considerably between countries. For the age group from newborn babies
to children of the age of two years, the take-up of institutional (or formal) day care is
low in most countries: it is below 30%, while non-formal day care (family or other care
arrangements) is much more common than formal care. This holds particularly true
for some Southern Member States, as well as for the majority of Central and Eastern
European Member States.

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Recognising that the rates of access to child daycare are far below the desired levels, the
European Council in 2002 adopted the “Barcelona targets”, which specify that 33% of
children under three and 90% of children between three and six years of age must have
access to day care.

By 2016, the EU average rates had almost reached the targets in both age groups; however,
there are significant differences at the Member State level. In 2022, the European
Commission proposed a revision of the Barcelona targets in order to give new impetus
to the individual countries’ efforts to improve access. Having taken into account the fact
that in many European countries day care for children is expensive while its quality is
not adequate, the European Commission also made recommendations on affordability
and quality.

In the EU in 2023, 37.4% of children aged 0-3 years received day care services. The rate
was 89.1% among children between the age of three and that of compulsory schooling.
Therefore, the overall conclusion is that since the introduction of the Barcelona targets
most Member States have seen an increase of the rate of young children in day care, for
the 0-3 (nursery) and 3-6 (pre-school) age groups alike.

Good practice: Slovenia

In Slovenia, children from the age of 11 months on are entitled to state-subsidised ECEC
care, which means that for the parents there is no gap between well-paid childcare period
and guaranteed ECEC placement. Nursery care and kindergarten care are combined, and
the parents can freely decide whether to enrol their child or not. Slovenia boasts of one the
highest enrolment rates: 52.3% for children under three years of age and 96.4% for those
under six years of age. In Slovenia, the employment rate for women with young children
significantly exceeds the EU average (81.6% as opposed to 65%).

SUMMARY
As shown by the facts discussed above, individual Member States apply various tools to
support families and to promote the reconciliation of family and work. The reason for
such differences lies in the different needs arising from the individual historical, cultural
and social contexts, as well as in the intentions of the governments. The ways of the
implementation of family support schemes also differ, depending on whether the given
country’s government regards childbearing and childrearing as a private matter or as
public matter, whether it sees family support as a social policy issue, or how it defines
the institution of the family. At this point, it must be added that country’s family support
system influences economic welfare and emotional well-being alike (Fűrész, 2024), which
calls for a very careful adoption of relevant measures. As regards to supporting families,
each Member State pursues different practices, yet, at the same time, there are similarities
between certain regions.

81
In northern Member States (e.g. DK, FI, SV), family support systems are characterised
by high levels of social spending on families. Policy focuses include gender equality, as
a strong emphasis is placed on the equal participation of both parents in the labour market
and in family life. Moreover, special attention is paid to early childhood education and care
services, with the intention to ensure that children have access to high-quality services.
In Central and Eastern Europe (e.g. HU, PL, RO), a long parental leave is offered (up
to three years) to promote the deepening and strengthening of family ties as early as
possible. Under these arrangements, parents are free to decide if they prefer to return to
gainful employment as soon as possible or to stay at home and deepen family life. The
institutions of early childhood education and care services have a long tradition and, as
a rule, are available free of charge. Policies reflect a combination of traditional family
roles and work-life balance as a modern concept, and many Member States offer special
support to large families.
Compared to other Member States, Southern countries (e.g. EL, IT, PT) typically have
less extensive family support systems in place. In many cases, the accessibility of early
childhood education and care services is not adequate, while their quality varies greatly,
which often leads to family members providing care. Financial support for families is
generally of a lower amount and less comprehensive in nature. Previously, Member State
policies used to focus on social issues; by contrast, nowadays addressing demographic
challenges is prioritised as low birth rates urge Member States to place an increasing
emphasis on contributing to higher fertility through various forms of support.
Family support systems in Western European Member States (e.g. BE, DE, NL) combine,
on the one hand, elements of comprehensive support (similar to those in place in
Northern Europe) and, on the other hand, a relatively limited level public intervention
(characteristic of Southern European Member States). Family support policy centres
around the social support offered to families; at the same time, a strong emphasis is laid
on the promotion of work-life balance, typically through shorter periods of parental leave.
These Member States allow same-sex marriage, which is an indication of a concept of
“family” that is highly different from the concept prevalent in, for example, Central and
Eastern European Member States.

Several countries opt for a neutral approach, relying on social policy consideration
while seeking only to alleviate the disadvantaged situation of families with children. By
contrast, other Member States implement family support measures with the intention
to remove the financial and social barriers to childbearing and to benefit those who rear
children. In all Member States, a growing number of young people delay starting a family
or have fewer children than they originally planned, which is all too often due to financial
considerations, coupled with the difficulty of reconciling work and care responsibilities.
To improve this situation, the EU adopted a single directive which, however, offers
but a partial remedy. Family policy falls into the Member States’ national competence,
which means that any comparison, even when performed on the basis of a uniform set of
criteria, will necessarily be limited. One can safely conclude though that people in Europe
need support for families, as evidenced by a 2022 survey of the Századvég Europe Project,
representative of all EU Member States (plus the United Kingdom): 42% of respondents

82
attach great importance and a further 39% attach importance to state support subsidising
families and family formation (Századvég, n.d.).

Family support measures, if selected carefully, contribute to the families’ financial

prosperity and emotional well-being and, thus, may be able to address the issues of
population ageing, a shrinking working-age population, the shortage of labour, migration
and integration problems, depopulation and brain drain. Balanced and flexible family
support systems that are responsive to the needs of families may enhance the awareness
of the values represented by the family among EU citizens.

REFERENCES AND SOURCES

Directive (EU) 2019/1158 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 June 2019
on work-life balance for parents and carers and repealing Council Directive 2010/18/EU.
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32019L1158 (Accessed:
09.07.2024.)
Blum, S., Dobrotić, I., Kaufman, G., Koslowski, A. & Moss, P. (2023). International Review
of Leave Policies and Research 2023. http://www.leavenetwork.org/lp_and_r_reports/
(Accessed: 09.07.2024.)
European Commission (2022). The transposition of the WLB Directive in EU Member
States (II). https://www.equalitylaw.eu/downloads/6048-the-transposition-of-the-work-
life-balance-directive-in-eu-member-states-ii-considerable-work-still-to-be-done (Accessed:
09.07.2024.)
European Commission (2023a). Communication on demographic change in Europe:
A toolbox for action. https://commission.europa.eu/publications/communication-
demographic-change-europe-toolbox-action_en (Accessed: 09.07.2024)
European Commission (2023b). Work-life balance: Commission decides to refer BELGIUM,
IRELAND AND SPAIN to the Court of Justice of the European Union for failing to fully
transpose the Work-Life Balance Directive https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/
detail/en/ip_23_5372 (Accessed: 09.07.2024)
European Commission (2023c). Eurydice: Access to early childhood education and care in
Europe 2022/2023 https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/sites/default/files/2023-11/ECEC_
Access_factsheet220.pdf (Accessed: 09.07.2024)
European Commission (2023d). Flash Eurobarometer 534 - Demographic change in Europe
https://europa.eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/3112 (Accessed: 09.07.2024)
European Commission (2024). Demographic change in Europe: A toolbox for action EP
Briefing Authors: Marketa Pape and Balazs Szechy with Mislav Grbesa Members’ Research
Service PE 762.302https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2024/762302/
EPRS_BRI(2024)762302_EN.pdf (Accessed: 09.07.2024.)
European Commission. Areas of EU action https://commission.europa.eu/about-european-
commission/role-european-commission/law/areas-eu-action_en (Accessed: 09.07.2024.)

83
European Council (2024). Work-life balance for parents and carers https://www.consilium.
europa.eu/en/policies/work-life-balance/ (Accessed: 09.07.2024.)
European Parliament (2023). Maternity and paternity leave in the EU https://www.
europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/ATAG/2023/739346/EPRS_ATA(2023)739346_EN.pdf
(Accessed: 09.07.2024.)
European Council (2024). Leave and flexible working https://europa.eu/youreurope/
business/human-resources/working-hours-holiday-leave/leave-flexible-working/index_
en.htm (Accessed: 09.07.2024.)
Eurostat (2023). Part-time and full-time employment – statistics https://ec.europa.eu/
eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Part-time_and_full-time_employment_-_
statistics (Accessed: 09.07.2024.)
Fűrész, T. (2024). Család: a legszemélyesebb közérdek. [Family: the most personal public
interest.] Budapest, Kommentár 2024/2
Századvég (n. d.) Európa Projekt. [Project Europe] https://szazadveg.hu/europa-projekt/
(Accessed: 09.07.2024.)

84
Country profiles
Country portraits - methodological notes
The aim of our volume is to provide as much insight as possible into the family
policy system of each EU Member State. These systems also affect the population and
demographic indicators of countries, which in turn highlight the demographic phenomena
and concerns that a country has to face.

In the first part of the country portraits, based on the most recent data available at the
time of preparation of the volume, we explore the demographic situation of the given
country, present its main population data, the decisive population changes over the past
two decades (2001-2023), and its population pyramid. Following these basic data, in
the second part, we present the family policy systems of each country, first focusing on
family supports in a narrower sense; reviewing what supports a family can expect from
the birth of children until they reach adulthood. In a separate subsection, we review the
tax benefits, as well as the options available for home creation and housing support. At
the end of the country portraits, we take a closer look at those measures that support
the reconciliation of work and family life: including employment data, carer’s leave and
flexible working arrangements, as well as the nursery and kindergarten systems providing
day care for young children.

We hope that by providing a broad overview of the European Union, and a comparable
presentation of supports and benefits for families, we will create an opportunity for more
people to get to know and compare the different practices of European countries.

ABBREVIATIONS
In our volume, countries follow each other according to the Hungarian alphabet. In many
cases, European Union Member States are referred to by their abbreviations, as follows:
Austria AT Italy IT
Belgium BE Latvia LT
Bulgaria BG Lithuania LV
Croatia HR Luxembourg LU
Cyprus CY Malta MT
Czech Republic CZ Netherlands NL
Denmark DK Poland PL
Estonia EE Portugal PT
Finland FI Romania RO
France FR Slovakia SK
Germany DE Slovenia SI
Greece EL Spain ES
Hungary HU Sweden SV
Ireland IE

87
SOURCE OF DATA
Throughout the presentation of the demographic data and the family policy system of
each EU Member State, we have tried to provide as up-to-date information as possible.
The manuscript was closed in terms of demographic data in August 2024, while the
review of family policy systems was finalized in June 2024.

Demographic data

The volume includes data from the current 27 Member States of the European Union,
with demographic data from the Eurostat database and the official website of the
country’s statistical office. The latter are marked with * and the given statistical office is
indicated.

Family policy

The description of the family support system of the EU Member States was based on the
information contained in the MISSOC (Mutual Information System on Social Protection;
https://www.missoc. org/). These have been supplemented with information from
the European Commission on the support system of the given Member State (https://
ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=858&langId=en) and, if applicable, information from
the Member State’s own national information pages. These sources are included in
a footnote.

In compiling the country portraits, we relied heavily on the 19th International Review of
Leave Policies and Related Research, published by Blum et al. in September 2023,1 which
provides an international overview of maternity and childcare leave in 50 countries,
measures for workers with young children, and the main elements of early childhood
education and care policies.

In order to provide the most complete picture of the structure, operation and financing
of nursery and kindergarten care in the 27 Member States of the EU, we used the2
information of the Eurydice portal on European education systems in the section on early
childhood education and care.

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

The family policies of the countries are basically examined from a Hungarian perspective,
therefore the elements of the Hungarian system are the reference points for the
classification of different family support measures, and we have categorized the benefits

1
https://www.leavenetwork.org/fileadmin/user_upload/k_leavenetwork/annual_reviews/2023/Blum_etal_LPRN_full_re-
port_2023.pdf
2
https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/

88
of each country accordingly. The conditions of each benefit may vary significantly from
country to country, so we have tried to make the definitions we have created sufficiently
broad to make the classification of different measures, subsidies and benefits as clear
as possible.

Demographic data

Population pyramid: a graph showing the age distribution of the population by gender.
The population pyramid shows the distribution of a given population by gender and age
in such a way that the number of women on the right and the number of men on the left
for each age (or age group) is depicted in the form of stacked diagrams. (Eurostat)

Live birth: A live birth is the birth of a child who showed any sign of life; the number of
live births refers to the number of births excluding stillbirths. (Eurostat)

Mortality: Mortality is the number of deaths for a given area during a given period.
(Eurostat)

Immigrant: An immigrant is a person who arrives in the destination country with the
intention of either settling or long-term residence. (Eurostat)

Emigrant: An emigrant is a person who leaves the country without the intention of
returning. (Eurostat)

Marriage: A ceremony or legal process in which two people formally connect their lives.
It may be of a civil or religious nature, and its validity may be determined by means
recognized by the laws of each country. (Eurostat)

Divorce: A marriage dissolved or annulled by a final court judgment. Divorce is possible

in all Member States of the European Union, in almost every country the divorce is
dissolved in a legal process, in the court. (Eurostat)

Total Fertility Rate (TFR): One of the most commonly used fertility indicators. It shows
how many children, on average, a woman would give birth to in her lifetime if fertility data
for a given year were to remain constant. The value required to maintain the population
of a country without immigration or emigration is above 2. (Eurostat)

Family policy

Since all Member States of the European Union are bound by Directive (EU) 2019/1158
of the European Parliament and of the Council (20 June 2019) on work-life balance for
parents and carers, in the case of paternity leave, parental leave, carers’ leave and flexi-
ble working arrangements, we have followed the definitions in Article 3 thereof.

89
System of family support

Birth grant
In most cases, a one-time allowance is provided to one of the parents, typically the
mother, after the birth of the child. In addition, there can be support available for
expectant mothers and adoptive parents to help cover the increased costs associated with
pregnancy and childbirth.

Maternity leave and benefit

Maternity leave is leave of a specified duration after or partly immediately before
childbirth. The benefit disbursed during maternity leave, which is related to the birth of
the child, the care of the infant, and is primarily paid to the mother, is called maternity
benefit.

Paternity leave
Paternity leave is work leave granted to fathers and is directly related to the birth of
a child.

Parental leave and benefit

Parental leave is granted to parents to care for the child after maternity leave.
The benefit paid (in part) for parental leave for the purpose of caring for a young child is
called parental benefit.

Child benefit
Regular, cash benefits provided by the state from the birth of the child until the end of
his/her student status. Its purpose is to contribute to the costs related to the upbringing
of the child(ren) living in each household.

Family taxation
Allowance that reduces the tax payable by parents, depending on the presence and
number of children.

Housing
It is a grant that helps the home creation or housing situation of families with children.

Reconciling work and family life

Employment
Employment data (employment rate, part-time employment rate, employment rate of
men or women raising young children) are obtained from Eurostat databases. The latest
available data (2023) has been used for all countries. The reference year may vary from
country to country, given the data provided by the given Member State, the earliest data
of the examined period (2001-2023) was taken into account.

90
Employment rate
The employment rate is the percentage of people employed as a percentage of the total
population. In the case of the data series dealing with this, the 15-64-year-olds, that is, the
economically active group, were highlighted. (Eurostat)

Employment rate of women and men raising young children

The proportion of people employed raising young children under the age of 6 as
a percentage of the total population. In the case of women raising young children, we
compare it to the entire female population, and in the case of men raising young
children, to the entire male population. In the case of the data series dealing with this,
the 18-64-year-old age group was highlighted. The reason for choosing the age group was
that quite a few people under the age of 18 raise children under the age of 6, which could
have given a false picture of the employment of parents with young children. (Eurostat)

Part-time employment rate

Part-time work is a form of employment in which the employee spends less time at work
than full-time employees. It may be different in each country, but usually the limit is 30-
35 hours. The part-time employment rate is the percentage of people employed part-time
as a percentage of the total population. In the case of the data series dealing with this, the
15-64-year-olds, that is, the economically active group, were highlighted. (ILO Part-Time
Work Convention, 1994 (No. 175)3; A. van Baestelar, 19974)

Carer’s leave
Leave from work for employees in order to provide personal care or support to a relative,
or to a person who lives in the same household as the worker, and who is in need of
significant care or support for a serious medical reason, as defined by each Member State.

Flexible working arrangements

The possibility for workers to adjust their working patterns, including through the use
of remote working arrangements, flexible working schedules, or reduced working hours.

Early childhood education and care

This refers to the institutional system of early childhood education and care (ECEC):
organized day care -typically nursery and kindergarten- for children from birth until they
reach primary school age. (Eurostat) This includes services and opportunities that help
parents of young children to (re)enter the labour market and work by providing care for
them during the day.

3
https://normlex.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO::P12100_ILO_CODE:C175 [Accessed: 03. Octo-
ber 2024]
4
van Bastelaer, A., G. Lemaître and P. Marianna (1997), „The Definition of Part-Time Work for the Purpose of Internatio-
nal Comparisons”, OECD Labour Market and Social Policy Occasional Papers, No. 22, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.
org/10.1787/132721856632.

91
 Austria

KEY DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS

2001 2011 2016 2021 2022 2023

Population 8 020 946 8 375 164 8 700 471 8 932 664 8 978 929 9 104 772

Live birth (persons) 75 485 78 109 87 675 86 078 82 627 77 605*

Death (persons) 74 767 76 479 80 669 91 962 93 332 89 760*

Immigrant (persons) 89 928 82 230 129 509 118 511 201 622 N/A

Emigrant (persons) 72 654 51 197 64 428 67 299 74 271 N/A

Marriage (number) 34 213 36 426 44 890 41 111* 47 482* 45 855*

Divorce (number) 20 582 17 295 15 919 14 510* 13 997* 14 721*

TFR 1.33 1.43 1.53 1.48 1.41 N/A

Source: Eurostat, * Austrian Statistical Office (Download date: 12.08.2024.)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 000 75 000 50 000 25 000 0 25 000 50 000 75 000 100 000

92
 Austria

DEMOGRAPHICS
The population of Austria on 1 January 2023 was 9,104,772. The population increased
by 13% between 2001 and 2023. In Austria, in addition to the Austrian population, three
traditional nationalities (Carinthian Slovenes, Croats and Hungarians) and immigrants
make up the country’s population. According to the latest data, the majority of immigrants
are of German, Serbian, Turkish and Romanian origin.
The country’s population pyramid shows an aging society, with the number of people
aged under 25 stagnating.

The annual number of births was around 75–78 thousand between 2001 and 2011, after
which it increased strongly, which coincided with the increase in immigration to the
country. Overall, compared to 2001, the number of live births increased by 3% and the
number of deaths by 25% by 2023. Since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, the
country has been experiencing natural decrease: while previously the number of births
exceeded the number of deaths, in the last three years more people have died than were
born. In 2023, the difference was more than 15 thousand people.

The population growth is mainly due to immigration. Net migration has been positive
for decades and has been rising steadily. In 2001, it was slightly more than 17 thousand
people, and in 2022, it exceeded 125 thousand people. While in 2001, nearly 90,000
immigrants arrived in the country, this number has more than doubled by 2022 (201,622).
The number of emigrants fell by 30% between 2001 and 2011, then gradually increased,
but did not reach 40% of immigration in 2022.

There is a positive trend in both marriages and divorces, with the number of marriages
having increased by approx. 39% between 2001 and 2023, while the number of divorces
has fallen by a third by 2022. Same-sex couples’ marriage is being recognised in Austria
since 2019, so the figures for recent years include same-sex marriages.

The total fertility rate fluctuated between 2001 and 2016, rising from 1.33 to 1.53, the
closest to the EU average over the period. Between 2016 and 2022 (with the exception of
2021), the rate decreased and dropped to 1.41 in 2022.

93
Austria

FAMILY POLICY

I. System of family support

Birth grant
In Austria, there is no such benefit.
Maternity leave and benefit
The length of maternity leave (Mutterschaftsurlaub) is 16 weeks, of which 8 weeks must
be taken before the expected due date and 8 weeks after the birth. In some cases (e.g.:
high-risk pregnancy), maternity leave may start up to 12 weeks before delivery, or the
postpartum period may be extended to 12 (or even up to 16 weeks) in the case of caesarean
section, twins or premature birth.

Mothers are entitled to maternity benefit (Wochengeld) for 8 weeks before and 8 weeks
after the expected date of childbirth. The amount paid depends on the expectant
mother’s previous earnings. To qualify, she must be covered by compulsory insurance at
the start of the maternity leave and have an income above the income threshold (EUR 501
per month in 2023). Only mothers are eligible, and the benefit is not transferable to other
persons, including fathers. The benefit of employees is equal to 100% of their previous
monthly net salary, with no upper limit. Those entitled to unemployment benefits receive
a maternity allowance equal to 180% of the most recent benefit paid. Support for people
who are in marginal employment and who have voluntary insurance is EUR 10 per day.1
Self-employed women are entitled to a flat-rate benefit of EUR 61 per day.2

Paternity leave
Fathers are entitled to one month of paid leave (Papamonat) within the first 91 days
following birth. Paternity leave cannot be taken intermittently nor part-time and it
cannot be transferred to the other parent.3 The amount of the benefit for paternity leave
(Familienzeitbonus für Väter (FZB)) has been EUR 52 per day (up to EUR 1626 per month)
since 1 January 2024.4

Parental leave and benefit

Parental leave (Elternkarenz) starts after the end of maternity leave and lasts until the child is
2 years old (in the case of twins, until the children are 5 years old). Parental leave is a family
entitlement and can be taken by both parents. Parents must agree in advance on who will

1
MISSOC
2
https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1101&langId=en&intPageId=4402
3
MISSOC
4
https://www.arbeiterkammer.at/papamonat

94
 Austria

exercise this right and when. Parental leave can be shared twice between the parents, i.e.
a total of three periods of leave are permissible (e.g. mother/father/mother). Each period has
to last for at least 2 months. All parents in employment relationships are legally entitled to
parental leave, which requires only legal residence, not Austrian citizenship. Parents also
have the right to change their contractual working time or work pattern if they do not want
to use the leave for their full working time specified in the contract. Termination protection
also applies during parental leave and extends to the father. After returning from maternity
or parental leave, the women’s employment contract becomes fully effective again, allowing
employees to return to their previous jobs.

The benefit received for the parental leave, called child care allowance in Austria
(Kinderbetreuungsgeld), is available to both parents. In the event that the family’s income
is below the defined income threshold, the parent receiving the child care allowance may
also engage in other gainful activities. They distinguish between a flexible flat-rate child
care allowance and an income-related child care allowance:
• The flexible flat-rate child care allowance (Kinderbetreuungsgeldkonto) is paid to one
parent within the duration of 365 and 851 days (approximately 12-28 months) from
the birth of the child, and to both parents from 456 to 1063 days (approximately 15
and 35 months). The child care allowance is EUR 39 per day for the shortest variant
and EUR 17 per day for the longest. The longer it is taken, the less the daily amount
becomes. All parents legally residing in Austria are entitled to the flat-rate child care
allowance regardless of their employment status and nationality. For this variant
20% is allocated to the other parent, which is not transferable (in the shortest variant
it is 91 days).
• The income-related child care allowance (Einkommensabhängiges Kinder-
betreuungsgeld) can be received by one parent for up to 365 days from the birth of the
child and by two parents for 426 days. The income-dependent child care allowance
is 80% of the last income earned, up to a maximum of EUR 77 per day. This support
is given to parents on a monthly basis. In this case, 61 days is non-transferable and
reserved for the other parent. 5

The child care fee is always paid for the youngest child, i.e. it is not possible to apply
for more than one child at the same time. For twins, the income-related allowance is
unchanged, and the flat-rate is increased by one and a half times. From 2023, the child
care allowance will automatically increase with the rate of inflation in January each year.

The condition for receiving the allowance for the entire period is that the 10 (otherwise
free) examinations indicated in the Mother-Child Health passport (Mutter-Kind-Pass) -
five before and five after childbirth - must be carried out at the prescribed time and
5
https://www.bundeskanzleramt.gv.at/en/agenda/family/family-benefits/childcare-allowance.html

95
Austria

the Austrian health insurance fund (Österreichische Gesundhetiskassa - ÖGK) must

be notified about it in time. If only one test is not carried out or its completion is not
confirmed in time, EUR 1300 will be deducted from the child care allowance.6
The child care allowance may be accompanied by a partnership bonus (Partnerschafts-
bonus). If both parents share the duration of the parental leave almost equally (50:50 or
40:60) for at least 124 days each, they can receive a partnership bonus of EUR 500 per
person. This payment will be made after the maximum possible period of entitlement to
childcare allowance.7
Childcare support or aid (Kinderbetreuungsbeihilfe)8 is available to those who have
difficulty covering the costs of paid childcare. In the event that either:
• a change in their working hours necessitates the institutional placement of the child;
• their financial situation has significantly deteriorated despite their employment, so
they want to use an institution for day care of the child;
• are currently looking for a job and/or attending a course.

The condition of the application is that the child lives in a common household with the
claiming parent and is under the age of 15. The monthly gross income of the claimant
shall not exceed the total income of EUR 2,700 for singles. The support can be provided
for a maximum period of 6 months at a time, the maximum support period is 3 years per
child. Job-seeking mothers and fathers can receive up to EUR 300 per child per month,
depending on their income and the childcare costs incurred. Childcare costs are supported
up to the age of 15, however if the child is disabled, then up to the age of 18. The support
can be used for nursery, kindergarten, after-school care center, employed childminders
with the appropriate childcare license and self-employed childminders.

Child benefit
In Austria, a parent living with a child in the same household is entitled to child benefit
(Familienbeihilfe)9 - called “family allowance” in Austria -, if he/she has registered
employment and insurance in Austria. Family allowance is normally paid until the child
is 18 years old. If the child continues studying in vocational training or adult education,
he/she can apply up to the age of 24, if the annual income of the child does not exceed
EUR 15,000. The amount of family allowance depends on the number and the age of the
children, and it is paid on application and monthly.

6
https://www.oesterreich.gv.at/themen/familie_und_partnerschaft/finanzielle-unterstuetzungen/3/2/Seite.080625.html
7
https://www.oesterreich.gv.at/themen/familie_und_partnerschaft/finanzielle-unterstuetzungen/3/2/Seite.080631.html
8
https://www.sozialleistungen.at/b/Kinderbetreuungsbeihilfe
9
MISSOC

96
 Austria

Monthly basic amount of family allowance in 2024:10

• EUR 132 per child aged 0–3,
• EUR 142 per child aged 3 to 10 years,
• EUR 164 per child aged 10–18,
• if the child continues his/her studies, EUR 192 between the ages of 19–24.

The monthly amount of family allowance is increased for each child be the sibling
supplement, i.e.: by increasing the basic amount according to the age of the children:
• EUR 8 for two children,
• EUR 20 for three children,
• EUR 31 for four children,
• EUR 37 for five children,
• EUR 42 for six children,
• EUR 60 for seven or more children.

Children with severe disabilities are paid an additional EUR 181 per month in 2024.

In addition to the child benefit - a so-called 13th month benefit -, a school start allowance
(Schulstartgeld) of EUR 116 is paid in August each year for each child between the ages
of 6 and 15. The school start allowance is paid together with the August child benefit, no
separate application is required.11

Parents with three or more children are also entitled to an income-related additional
multi-child allowance (Mehrkindzuschlag) of EUR 23 per month for the third and each
additional dependent child. The additional allowance can be claimed for an annual
income of less than EUR 55,000. This additional allowance must be claimed separately
each calendar year and is paid as part of the employee tax assessment or included in the
income tax return.12

Tax credits and other benefits

Family taxation
As of 2019, the previous “child discount” (Kinderfreibetrag) has been replaced by the
so-called “Familienbonus Plus”, which is a tax base-reducing discount for all families in
which Austrian employees work. The annual amount is EUR 2000 per child up to the

10
https://www.oesterreich.gv.at/themen/familie_und_partnerschaft/familienbeihilfe/Seite.080714.html and https://www.arbeiter-
kammer.at/beratung/berufundfamilie/BeihilfenundFoerderung/Familienbeihilfe.html
11
https://www.finanz.at/steuern/familienbeihilfe/schulstartgeld/
12
https://www.oesterreich.gv.at/themen/familie_und_partnerschaft/familienbeihilfe/Seite.080713.html and https://taxsummari-
es.pwc.com/austria/individual/other-tax-credits-and-incentives

97
Austria

age of 18. After the age of 18, the family receives a reduced Familienbonus Plus in the
amount of EUR 650 per year, if child benefit is still paid to the family after the child.
Familienbonus Plus can be shared with spouses and cohabiting partners.13

The child deduction (Kinderabsetzbetrag)14 is available to those taxpayers who are entitled
to family allowance. The child deduction is 68 EUR per month per child.15 The amount is
paid together with the family allowance, there is no need to apply separately. This aid is
also paid to non-taxable persons and to low taxpayers.

Single-income families are entitled to a family tax credit.16 There are two types of this
credit, with slightly different rules but the same amount:
a) Single-earner tax credit (Alleinverdienerabsetzbetrag) for families where both parents
raise their children together, but only one of them has earnings; and
b) Single-parent tax credit (Alleinerzieherabsetzbetrag);
The discount reduces the annual tax base, by number of children, by the following
amounts:17
• for 1 child EUR 572;
• for 2 children EUR 774;
• for each additional child EUR 255 each.

Housing
The rent subsidy (Wohnbeihilfe) supports citizens in need to pay their rent, but the rules
vary from province to province. In general, if a family’s total income is below the minimum
set by the province, a subsidy of up to 25% of the housing costs can be claimed.18 The
amount of the subsidy depends on the number of people living together in the apartment,
the total income of the persons living in the household and the size of the apartment. The
rent subsidy is available if the claimant lives in privately financed apartment, lives in
rented accommodation, is the main tenant of the apartment and is at least 18 years old.
Support is only available for housing that qualifies as a primary residence. Under certain
conditions, it is even possible to get rent benefit for a home that one owns. (The average
rent for an apartment in 2022 was EUR 900.)

13
https://www.bmf.gv.at/themen/steuern/arbeitnehmerinnenveranlagung/steuertarif-steuerabsetzbetraege/familienbonus-plus.
html and https://www.usp.gv.at/en/steuern-finanzen/einkommensteuer/steuerabsetzbetraege.html and https://www.bmf.gv.at/
en/topics/taxation/family-and-children/family-bonus-faq.html
14
https://www.missoc.org/missoc-database/comparative-tables/results/
15
https://www.arbeiterkammer.at/beratung/berufundfamilie/BeihilfenundFoerderung/Familienbeihilfe.html
16
https://www.bmf.gv.at/themen/steuern/arbeitnehmerinnenveranlagung/steuertarif-steuerabsetzbetraege/alleinverdiener-allei-
nerzieher-absetzbetrag.html and https://www.usp.gv.at/en/steuern-finanzen/einkommensteuer/steuerabsetzbetraege.html
17
https://www.usp.gv.at/en/steuern-finanzen/einkommensteuer/steuerabsetzbetraege.html and https://www.bmf.gv.at/themen/
steuern/arbeitnehmerinnenveranlagung/steuertarif-steuerabsetzbetraege/alleinverdiener-alleinerzieher-absetzbetrag.html
18
https://www.wohnnet.at/finanzieren/wohnbeihilfe-oesterreich-49741791

98
 Austria

With the federal housing and heating subsidy introduced in 2023, an additional subsidy
of between EUR 200 and EUR 400 per person is available for the lowest one third of the
Austrian population, with the amount and procedure also varying from one province to
another.

II. Reconciling work and family life

In recent years, Austrian family policy has focused on expanding childcare services and
reconciling work and family life. One strategy to improve employment opportunities for
mothers is to increase fathers’ commitment to parental and childcare responsibilities.

Employment
In 2023, the employment rate for women aged 15-64 was 70.3% (EU-average: 65.7%) and
77.9% for men (EU-average: 75.1%). The employment rate for women aged 18-64 with
young children under 6 years of age has hovered around 67% over the past decade but
was 73.7% in 2023 (EU-average: 75.1%). The employment rate for men with children
under 6 was around 90% over the past decade and peaked at 92.4% in 2022. This changed
to 91.1% in 2023 (EU-average: 89.6%). While the share of women aged 15-64 working
part-time and/or in flexible arrangements was 43.7% in 2009, it rose to 50.1% in 2023,
well above the EU average which was 28.5% in 2023. In 2009, 8.1% of men worked part-
time, but by 2023 the share of men working part-time had risen to 12.2%, slightly above
the EU average (8.4%) in 2023.

Carer’s leave 19
Employees are entitled to two weeks’ leave per year to care for sick children under the
age of 12 and one week per year for other dependents/family members who need care,
with full earnings replacement. This entitlement is also available for adoptive and foster
parents.

There are two types of extended care leave in Austria. Firstly, employees have a statutory
right to take up to 6 months of family hospice leave (Familienhospizkarenz) to care for
terminally ill family members. If the leave is taken for seriously ill children, it can be
extended to 9 months. The leave for care of severely ill children may be renewed twice
(i.e. in total up to a maximum of 27 months). Secondly, if their employer agrees, workers
(who have worked with their current employer for the previous three months) can take
long-term care leave (Pflegekarenz). This leave allows carers to organise (formal) care
or provide (informal) care for sick family members for up to 3 months. The minimum
duration of the leave is 1 month. It can be extended from 3 to 6 months if the patient’s health

19
Blum et al. Leave Policies 2023

99
Austria

deteriorates significantly. Workers are entitled to a cash benefit (Pflegekarenzgeld) during

the above-mentioned carer’s leave, amounting to 55% of average net earnings, paid by
social security. The maximum duration of the payment is 6 months per worker (or 12
months per dependant if the leave is shared).

In Austria, workers can take between 2 and 12 months’ leave for private reasons (e.g.
further studies or family reasons). This is based on a mutual agreement between the
employer and the employee and is unpaid. If the leave is taken for educational reasons
(Bildungskarenz), it is possible to claim continuing training allowance from unemployment
insurance funds (although the employee must also meet the eligibility conditions for
unemployment benefit and the employer must employ a replacement for the period
of leave).

Flexible working arrangements

Mothers are allowed to a 45-minute breastfeeding break per day by law if they work
between 4.5 and 8 hours a day. If a mother works 8 hours or more, she is entitled to two
45-minute breaks or one 90-minute break per day.

Parents are entitled to work part-time (Elternteilzeit) until their child’s seventh birthday
(or the start of school) if they live in the same household with the child, work in
a company with more than 20 employees and have been continuously employed by their
current employer for at least three years. It is not possible to work part-time for less
than 12 hours or more than 32 hours a week. Parents working in companies with fewer
than 20 employees can ask their employer for agreed parental part-time work until the
child’s fourth birthday. An employee cannot request part-time parental leave if the other
parent is on parental leave.

Parents are protected under employment law until their child’s 4th birthday and cannot
be dismissed without justification until the child’s 7th birthday (or the start of school).

Caregivers of sick family members are also entitled to work part-time for a period
of time in both of the carers’ cases detailed above, both for family hospice leave
(Familienhospizkarenz) and long-term care leave (Pflegekarenz). From 1 January 2020,
part-time carers’ leave can be requested for up to 2 weeks, which can be extended by
a further 2 weeks. For long-term care leave, a minimum working week of 10 hours is
compulsory.

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 Austria

Early childhood education and care

In Austria, there are two levels of early childhood education and care (ECEC) services: day
care for children up to the age of 3 is provided by centrally (state) regulated nurseries,
while children aged 3-6 attend kindergartens. For children aged 5, a compulsory and free
kindergarten year was introduced in Austria in 2009. In the year before starting school,
children must attend kindergarten for at least 4 days a week for 20 hours.
Some provinces provide free childcare for certain age groups20:
• Vienna: free full-day childcare up to the age of 6
• Burgenland: free half-day and full-day childcare up to the age of 6
• Lower Austria: free half-day childcare (7-13 hours) for children up to the age of 6.
• Upper Austria: free half-day childcare (7-13 hours) for children up to the age of 6
• Carinthia: 100% of the parental contribution is reimbursed up to the age of 6.
• Tyrol: free half-day childcare for children aged 4 to 6.
• Salzburg: free half-day childcare for children aged 3-6.

There is also a system of family day care and a regulated home-based family day care scheme
for children and young people up to the age of 16. In the years preceding the compulsory
kindergarten year, the costs taken by parents or guardians for their children’s attendance
at nursery and kindergarten vary by province. Compared to 2010, the number of nursery
groups more than doubled by 2020, while the number of kindergarten groups increased
by 12% over the same period.
In 2023, 24% of children aged 0-3 were in nursery care, below the EU average of 37%
and a significant increase from 4% in 2005. In 2023 92% of children aged 3-6 were in
kindergarten or equivalent services above the EU average (89%), compared to only 26%
in 2005.

20 https://www.bundeskanzleramt.gv.at/en/agenda/family/early-childhood-education.html

101
 Belgium

KEY DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS

2001 2011 2016 2021 2022 2023

Population 10 263 414 11 000 638 11 311 117 11 554 767 11 617 623 11 742 796

Live birth (persons) 115 372 128 705 121 896 118 349 114 095 110 198*

Death (persons) 103 447 104 292 108 097 112 331 116 424 111 255*

Immigrant (persons) 110 410 147 377 123 702 139 743 208 356 N/A

Emigrant (persons) 75 261 84 148 92 471 87 272 84 627 N/A

Marriage (number) 42 110 41 001 44 725 40 845 48 513 46 564*

Divorce (number) 29 314 27 522 23 583 22 72 19 363 20 034*

TFR 1.67 1.81 1.68 1.60 1.53 1.47*

Source: Eurostat, Belgian Statistical Office (Download date: 12.08.2024.)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 000 75 000 50 000 25 000 0 25 000 50 000 75 000 100 000

102
 Belgium

DEMOGRAPHICS
The population of Belgium on 1 January 2023 was 11,742,7961, which, in addition to
a trend of continuous growth, represents an increase of 14% compared to the population
number of 2001. The population of Belgium is made up of two major communities: the
Dutch-speaking Flemish (55%) and the French-speaking Walloons (31%). A small number
of Germans also live in Belgium, that is why German is the third official language.
Belgium’s population pyramid shows the picture of a slowly aging society, with an almost
continuously decreasing population under the age of 55.

A natural increase can be observed in the number of live births after 2001, then a gradual
decrease between 2011 and 2023 and there was an overall decrease of 4.5% between 2001
and 2023. Although the number of deaths showed a slow but persistent increase until
2022, and then started to decline in 2023, with an overall increase of 7.5% between 2001
and 2023.

The number of immigrants has almost doubled from 2001 to 2022, and each year typically
more immigrants arrive than children are born in Belgium. The rate of emigration is
fluctuating, but its magnitude falls short of that of immigration. The positive net
migration of 2022 (+123,729 people) can presumably be explained by emigration from
the areas affected by the Russian-Ukrainian war.

The number of marriages has shown a fluctuating trend in recent decades: in 2013 and
2014, fewer than 40,000 marriages took place, but this number was even smaller in 2020
when - due to the coronavirus epidemic - less than 33,000 couples tied the knot. In 2021, we
can see growth again, until 2022, when already 48,513 marriages were registered, which
is almost 9% more than the average of the period 2017-2019, so in 2022, presumably,
many weddings were celebrated that had to be postponed before due to the pandemic.
In 2023, this number started to fall again. The number of marriages increased by 10.6%
between 2001 and 2023. In Belgium, same-sex couples have been allowed to marry since
2003, that is why since 2003 the data already include same-sex marriages.

The number of divorces decreased continuously between 2001 and 2022 by 35% overall,
then increased again in 2023. The number of divorces fell below 20,000 for the first time
in 2022, but exceeded 20,000 again in 2023
The total fertility rate reached its peak in 2010 with a value of 1.86 (EU-average: 1,57), but
in 2023 it was only 1.47.

1
https://statbel.fgov.be/en/themes/population/structure-population

103
Belgium

FAMILY POLICY

I. System of family support2

Birth grant
The one-off amount paid upon the birth or adoption of a child (allocation de naissance/
kraamgeld) is EUR 1,289 for the birth of the first child in the French-speaking part of the
country (Wallonia and the Brussels region), EUR 586 for the birth of additional children,
and the amount is doubled in the case of twins. In 2022 the amount in the Dutch-speaking
part of the country (Flanders) was EUR 1,191, and EUR 1,198 in the German-speaking
area, here the amount is also doubled in the case of twins.

Maternity leave and benefit

Maternity leave (congé de maternité/moederschapsverlof) is 15 weeks (17 weeks in the
case of twins). It can be started 6 weeks before the expected due date (8 weeks in the case
of twins), but it is obligatory to take leave 1 week before the birth. The remaining part
must be taken after the birth (9 weeks after delivery is mandatory). In the case of self-
employed women, the length of maternity leave is 12 weeks, of which 1 week must be
taken before the expected date of delivery and 2 weeks after. Maternity leave is extended
by 1 week if the mother is unable to work in the 6 weeks before the birth. The condition
for taking maternity leave is 120 days of insurance.
Employed women receive 82% of their salary during the first 30 days (15 weeks) of
maternity leave (indemnité de maternité/moederschapsuitkering), and 75% from the 31st
day, with a maximum of EUR 171 per day in 2023. Self-employed women are entitled to
EUR 830 for the first 4 weeks (50% of this in the case of part-time work), and EUR 760
(50% of this in the case of part-time work) from the 5th week onwards.
Unemployed mothers are entitled to unemployment benefit plus 19.5% of their previous
earnings in the first month (maximum gross EUR 135 per day). From the second
month they can receive the unemployment benefit plus 15% of their previous earnings
(maximum gross EUR 128 per day).

Paternity leave
Under the birth leave, previously known as paternity leave (congé de naissance/
geboorteverlof), the father is entitled to 20 working days of leave from 1 January 2023,
which can be taken during the first four months after the birth of the child. 100% of
the salary is due for the first 3 days, and 82% for the following days, with a maximum
amount of EUR 171 per day in 2023. All male employees and self-employed workers
are eligible.

2
https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1102&langId=en&intPageId=4414 and https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?cat-
Id=1102&langId=en&intPageId=4415

104
 Belgium

Parental leave and benefit

All parents who work full-time or part-time are entitled to parental leave (congé parental/
ouderschapsverlof) until the child is 12 years old. Both parents can take it at the earliest
after the end of the maternity leave. Parental leave is a maximum of 4 months (per parent)
if it replaces full-time work, and a maximum of 8 months if the parent continues to work
for 4 hours and takes it only for the remaining 4 hours.
A lump sum can be claimed during parental leave. The amount depends on the age of
the parent (under or over 50), on the level of employment, and on whether it is a one-
or two-parent family. If the parent has worked full time, he or she receives EUR 978 per
month, and EUR 1,647 as a single parent. If the parent continues to work for 4 hours and
takes parental leave for the remaining 4 hours, he or she receives a monthly allowance
of EUR 489 (if the parent is single, the amount is EUR 823) under the age of 50 and EUR
659 (singles receive EUR 823) over the age of 50 in 2023. Self-employed mothers can take
12 weeks of optional leave in 7-day increments within 36 weeks after giving birth. The
individual 7-day sections can be divided into 14-day part-time sections.

Child benefit
The child benefit consists of a basic allowance and other additional parts, which depend
on the family’s income and social situation (for example being a single parent), the
age of the children, and the degree of disability in the case of raising a child who lives
with disability. The amount of the benefit can also vary according to the provinces and
language areas of the country. In general, the benefit is granted until the child is 18 years
old, but if the child is participating in vocational training or pursuing higher education,
the upper age limit is 25 years. The recent change in the family allowance system also
meant that children born before or after 1 January 2019 are uniformly differentiated in
the country. For children born after 1 January 2019, the benefit amounts are higher. In
the case of children born after 1 January 2019, the monthly amount of the child benefit
varies between EUR 173 and EUR 181 per child. Depending on income, province and the
number of children, an amount of between EUR 30 and EUR 100 is paid as an additional
poverty allowance. As an additional allowance for age, depending on the region and the
age of the child, EUR 16 and EUR 63 per month is being disbursed.

Additional support for children with disabilities

This new type of additional support has been paid monthly since 1 January 2023 for
children with disabilities under the age of 21. Its amount varies depending on the degree
of disability (number of points on the social-medical scale). The amount of support for
each category differs minimally between the three communities, in total an amount of
between EUR 87 and EUR 287 can be provided as additional support.

105
Belgium

Education allowance
The education allowance is paid once a year, in August, together with the child benefit, to
make it easier for families to prepare for the start of school. This benefit is automatically
added to the July child benefit (which is paid in August). The allowance varies depending
on the child’s age and need. The annual one-time payment is between EUR 23 and EUR
137 per child.

Tax credits and other benefits

Family taxation
When calculating the personal income tax, the income of the spouse and the number of
dependent children are taken into account. The tax declaration of the spouses is based on
a common tax number, and the tax-free part of the income increases based on the number
of dependents.
According to the rules valid for 2024, this amounts to3:
• For 1 dependent child: EUR 1,850;
• For 2 dependent children: EUR 4,760;
• For 3 dependent children: EUR 10,660;
• For 4 dependent children: EUR 17,250;
• for each additional child: EUR 1,850.
A tax credit can be claimed in a double amount for a disabled child.

Housing4
In the Brussels Region, relocation assistance (allocation de relogement/allocation
déménagement) and rent allowance (allocation loyer) are available to those in need.
The purpose of relocation assistance is to enable low-income people to move from an
unhealthy, overcrowded neighbourhood to a healthier place. In 2017, this meant a one-
time benefit of EUR 1,009 for a married couple with two children. The amount of the
rent allowance varies between EUR 120 and 160 per month, depending on the income,
and on top of that there is an additional EUR 40 per child available. The support can be
requested for a maximum of two 5-year periods. Both benefits are income dependent. In
2017, a married couple with two children was only eligible if their total household income
of 2016 did not exceed EUR 22,670. The measure was introduced in 2014, and in 2022,
12,000 Brussels residents met the conditions for the rent allowance. In the Flemish part,
university students can also receive rent subsidies. This can amount to a maximum of
EUR 160 per month. The average rent for an apartment in 2022 was EUR 1,000.

3
https://taxsummaries.pwc.com/belgium/individual/deductions
4
https://www.brusselstimes.com/225689/brussels-failing-to-pay-rent-allowance-owed-to-citys-most-vulnerable

106
 Belgium

II. Reconciling work and family life

Employment
In Belgium, the employment rate of mothers between 18-64 with children under the age
of 6 was 69.6% in 2023, which is slightly higher than the EU average (66.4%). There was
no significant change in the rates between 2009 and 2023: in 2009, the rate was 67.0%
(EU average: 57.4%). The employment rate of fathers with small children was 87% in
2009, and 85,6% in 2023, the EU-average being 89,6%. Part-time work is very widespread
in the country, well above EU-average. In 2009, 40.7% of women worked in this way,
falling slightly to 38.1% by 2023, compared with an EU average of 28.5%. In 2009, 8.7%
of men worked part-time, rising slightly to 10.8% in 2023, also above the EU average
(8.4%).
Roughly half of fathers claim paternity leave in Belgium, typically using the entire
available period. In 2010, 38,053 women took parental leave, and by 2022 this number
rose to 55,908. The number of men taking parental leave has almost tripled in ten years,
from 13,891 in 2010 to 30,402 in 2022. The proportion of fathers among all leave takers
rose from 27 to 35 percent in the period 2010-2022.

Carer’s leave
Employees are entitled to 10 days of unpaid carer’s leave a year for the purpose of caring
for their child or other relative. In the case of a severely ill family member, 1-12 months
of paid care leave can be requested, and in the case of taking care of a relative requiring
palliative care, 2 months of benefits are paid under the same conditions as parental leave.
In the 9 months following childbirth, the mother is entitled to a breastfeeding break of 30
minutes per day if the daily working time is shorter than 7.5 hours, and 60 minutes per
day if the daily working time is longer than 7.5 hours.

Flexible working arrangements

Since November 2022, parents with young children can apply for a four-day working
week, i.e. they can merge the 5 working days of the week into 4 days, but they cannot
work more than 10 hours a day.5

Early childhood education and care

Early childcare is available for children up to the age of 2 and a half years (up to the
age of three in the case of the German-speaking community). In the case of childcare
centres parents usually pay around EUR 45 per day. For state-subsidised providers, the
proportion of the cost borne by parents depends on their income, ranging from EUR 1 to
EUR 30 per day.

5
Blum et al. Leave Policies 2023

107
Belgium

Different rules apply to kindergarten in the 3 provinces: in Flanders, children are legally
entitled to free kindergarten education from the age of 2.5. In Wallonia, children from the
age of 2.5 years are legally entitled to 23 hours of free kindergarten education per week.
In the German-speaking Community, children are entitled to free kindergarten education
from the age of three,
Kindergarten care is mainly public, but there are also private and church-run institutions.
In Belgium, starting from the 2020-2021 academic year, compulsory schooling starts
from the age of 5 instead of 6 with the compulsory kindergarten, so-called “pre-primary”
education, while primary education starts from the age of 6. Childcare for children up to
the age of three is subject to a fee.
In 2023 in Belgium, 56% of 0-3 years old children attended nursery, higher than the EU
average (37%), which is an increase compared to the 2005 Belgian figure (41%). In 2023,
99% of 3–6-year-olds attended kindergarten, higher than the EU average (89%) and there
is no change in the value compared to 2005 (99%).

108
 Bulgaria

KEY DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS

2001 2011 2016 2021 2022 2023

Population 8 149 468 7 369 431 7 153 784 6 532 117 6 482 484 6 447 710

Live birth (persons) 68 180* 70 846 64 984 58 678 56 596 55 103

Death (persons) 112 368 108 258 107 580 148 995 118 814 98 928

Immigrant (persons) N/A N/A 21 241 39 461 40 619 56 807*

Emigrant (persons) N/A N/A 30 570 26 755 13 175 15 227*

Marriage (number) 31 974 21 448 26 803 26 620 26 013 21 800**

Divorce (number) 10 275 10 581 10 603 10 021 9 525 9 088**

TFR 1.2* 1.51 1.54 1.58 1.65 1.81**

Source: Eurostat,*World Bank (Download date: 04.06.2024.),** Bulgarian Statistical Office (Download date: 08.12.2024.)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 000 75 000 50 000 25 000 0 25 000 50 000 75 000 100 000

110
 Bulgaria

DEMOGRAPHICS
Bulgaria’s population has been decreasing since the 1990s, and on 1 January 2023, the
total population was 6,447,710, which represents a 21% decrease compared to 2001.
Bulgarians make up nearly 79% of the population. A large number of Turks (8%) and
Gypsies/Roma people (4%) are also present.1
Bulgaria’s population pyramid paints the picture of an aging society, with far fewer
people aged 30 and under than older cohorts.

One of the main reasons of the shrinking of the population is that the number of
deaths far exceeds the number of live births. In 2023, almost twice as many people died
(98,928 people) as were born (55,103 people). In 2001, 68,180 children were born, in
2023 only 55,103, which represents a 19% decrease. Since 2001, the number of deaths
has fluctuated, but showed a significant imbalance only during the COVID pandemic,
when the number of deaths rose to nearly 150,000. From 2001 to 2023, the number of
deaths decreased by 12%.

In the past years, the number of immigrants has increased significantly, therefore
recent years have been characterized by a migration surplus. According to the data of
the Bulgarian Statistical Office, in 2023 almost four times as many people arrived in
the country (56,807 people) than emigrated (15,227 people). Between February 2022
and December 31, 2023, 2,151,780 Ukrainian citizens entered the territory of Bulgaria as
a result of the Russian-Ukrainian war, out of which 52,180 settled in the country.2 Until
the 2020s, the country’s migration balance was slightly negative, with a few thousand
more people leaving the country than arriving.

We can witness a slight decrease in the number of marriages after 2016 and then in
2023 the number suddenly dropped compared to 2022. Compared to 2001, the figure is
already almost 32% lower. Nevertheless, the number of marriages is steadily higher than
the number of divorces, in 2023 almost twice as many people got married (21,800) as
divorced (9,088). Since 2001, the number of divorces has decreased by 11.5%.

While the country’s fertility rate was 1.2 in 2001 - which was the third lowest value (the
EU average was 1.43) - in the last 15 years it has been permanently above 1.5. In 2022, it
reached 1.65, which was the third highest in the EU. In 2023, the rate reached 1.81.

1
https://infostat.nsi.bg/infostat/pages/reports/result.jsf?x_2=2110
2
https://bulgaria.iom.int/sites/g/files/tmzbdl1291/files/inline-files/-2023-iom-bulgaria-ukraine-response-sitrep.pdf

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Bulgaria

FAMILY POLICY

I. System of family support

Birth grant
Every mother receives a one-time allowance (еднократна помощ) upon the birth of her
child, regardless of the family’s financial situation. The amount is BGN 250 (EUR 128) for
the first child, BGN 600 (EUR 307) for the second, BGN 300 (EUR 153) for the third, and
BGN 200 (EUR 102) for each additional child. In the case of adoptive parents, one of them
receives a one-time grant of 250 BGN (128 EUR) for each adopted child.
There is also a one-time allowance for multiple births (Еднократна междый помощь
за хорошов на близнаци). This benefit is also provided to parents regardless of the
family’s income. The allowance is BGN 1,200 (EUR 614) per child. When a child is born
with a disability, the parents are entitled to an additional, one-time subsidy of BGN 100
(EUR 51).
Mothers studying full-time receive a lump sum of BGN 2,880 (EUR 1,473) upon the birth
of their child in two instalments, half after the birth of the child, and the other half if the
child enrolls in the next semester before turning one year old.3

Maternity leave and benefit

Mothers who have been insured for at least 12 months are entitled to a total of 410
days of paid leave during maternity leave (Обезшчетение за грубансь и работа), which
must start 45 days before the expected due date. The amount of the benefit is 90% of
the average income calculated for the last 24 months, but it cannot be lower than the
minimum wage defined by law (780 BGN (399 EUR) in 2023).
Since 1 January 2020, if another child is born within 410 days, the amount of the maternity
pay for the second child remains the same as for the first child (thus ensuring that the
mother cannot receive less for the second child).

If the mother returns to work after the child is 6 months old, 50% of the benefit is paid.
With the mother’s consent, the father can also use the remaining 410 days from the
child’s age of 6 months, and then he will receive benefits instead of the mother for this
period. However, only the mother can use the first 135 days.
Women who do not have the required insurance period but have a permanent residence
in Bulgaria and whose average monthly income per person is less than BGN 610 (EUR
210), can receive a one-time subsidy of BGN 150 (EUR 77) during pregnancy.
If the pregnant woman is insured but does not have the required insurance period, she
will receive a proportional part of the pay for a maximum of 45 days. And after the birth

3
https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1103&langId=en&intPageId=5060

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 Bulgaria

of the child, she will receive the pay (Месечни помощи за зодом на дете до навершване
на една года) until the child is 1 year old, the amount of which is BGN 200 (EUR 102) per
month. In 2022, one fifth of mothers used this form of support.
Mothers raising a child with a permanent disability, receive a monthly benefit of BGN
200 (EUR 102) regardless of their income level, until the child is 2 years old.4

Paternity leave
A father who has paid social insurance for at least 6 months is entitled to 15 calendar
days of paid paternity leave after the birth of the child, which he has to take following
childbirth. The amount is calculated in the same way as in the case of the mother, i.e. the
father receives 90% of the average earnings of the previous 24 months, in the amount of
at least BGN 710 (EUR 363) per month.

From August 2022, fathers (including adoptive fathers) are also entitled to 2 months of
paid leave until the child turns 8 (отпуск за отглейдане на дете до 8-годишна вазраст
от баштста/осиновителыа). For this period, a monthly benefit of 710 BGN (363 EUR)
applies.

Parental leave and benefit

After taking 410 days of maternity leave, one of the parents or grandparents insured
for at least 12 months is eligible to parental leave until the child turns 2 years old and
receives child care assistance during that period (Обезщетение за хорошой на малько
дете до 2-гранный обшит), the amount of which in 2023 BGN 780 (EUR 399) per month.
Until the child reaches the age of 8, both parents are entitled to 6 months of unpaid
childcare leave each. The leave can be used in parts, both parents can decide when they
want to use it, but they cannot use it at the same time. A maximum of 5 months out of
the 6 months can be transferred to the other parent.

In the case of a single parent, childcare leave can be up to one year.

Adoption leave (for the adoption of a child under the age of five) is 365 days and can
be used from the day of the child’s arrival until the child’s fifth birthday at the latest,
amounting to BGN 780 (EUR 399) per month in 2023.
Single adoptive fathers/mothers are entitled to the same leave and benefit.

Child benefit
The child benefit (Месечни помощи) is a monthly allowance until the child reaches the
age of 20 or completes secondary education. The benefit is available to families whose
monthly per capita income does not exceed BGN 510 (EUR 261). The amount of the
family allowance in 2023:
4
MISSOC

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Bulgaria

• 50 BGN (25 EUR) for a family with one child;

• 110 BGN (56 EUR) for a family with two children;
• 165 BGN (84 EUR) for a family with three children;
• 175 BGN (89 EUR) for a family with four children;
• increases by BGN 20 (EUR 10) for each additional child.

In the case of twins, the amount of the child benefit is 75 BGN (38 EUR) per child. In
the case of families raising a disabled child, the child benefit is paid regardless of the
household’s income. Parents (adoptive parents), relatives or voluntary foster families of
a permanently disabled child are entitled to monthly support until the child turns 18
or completes high school studies, but no more than 20 years of age. The amount of the
subsidy depends on the degree of disability:
• 90% or more severe - BGN 930 (EUR 476)
• 70% - 90% - 450 BGN (230 EUR)
• 50% - 70% - BGN 350 (EUR 179)

If the family’s monthly income per person in the previous year is between BGN 510 (EUR
261) and BGN 610 (EUR 312), they are entitled to 80% of the above amounts.
Parents receive support if their child is in grades 1-4 or continues studies in grade 8. The
grant amounts to BGN 300 (EUR 154) and is paid in two equal instalments at the start of
the first and second semesters.

Tax credits and other benefits

One-time allowance: Mothers raising 3 or more children receive free round-trip national
rail and bus travel (годетни майки) once per calendar year.5

Family taxation
Families with children can enjoy a tax discount, the amount of which depends on the
number of children. For each child, the tax base can be reduced by BGN 6,000 (EUR
3,067) per year, up to a maximum of BGN 18,000 (EUR 9,200). A tax base reduction of
BGN 12,000 (EUR 6,134) per year can be claimed for a disabled child.6

Housing
In Bulgaria, there is no such support.

5
MISSOC
6
https://taxsummaries.pwc.com/bulgaria/individual/deductions

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 Bulgaria

II. Reconciling work and family life

Employment
In 2009, the employment rate of women aged 15-64 was 58.3%, which surpassed the EU
average and increased to 67.4% by 2023 (EU average that year: 65.7%). An increase can
also be seen in the case of men during the examined period: in 2009, 66.9% of men was
working. In 2023 the percentage was 73.9%, which was close to the EU average (75.1%).
In 2023, 64.8% of women aged 18-64, who were raising children under the age of 6 were
employed, which is only minimally behind the EU average measured in the same year,
which was 66.4%. 85,1% of men raising children under the age of 6 were employed,
which is also close to the EU average, which was 89.6% in 2022. Compared to 2009, the
employment of those raising minor children increased significantly for both genders: it
was 49.2% for women and 78.6% for men.
In 2023, only 1.4% of the Bulgarian population between the ages of 15 and 64 worked
part-time (women 1.5%, men 1.3%). These values ​​were significantly lower than the EU
average (28.5%, respectively 8.4%).

Carer’s leave
Insured family members have 60 days per year to take care of a sick family member or
child (отпуск при временна неработопоспосност). During this period, they are entitled
to 80% of their monthly gross earnings.
Working mothers with a collective work agreement are entitled to 2 days off each year
if they care for two or more children under the age of 18 (платен отпуск за две И меже
гиви детса). Mothers raising three or more children are entitled to 4 days.

Flexible working arrangements

For the purpose of (breast)feeding a baby (отпуск за кармене И новый на малко дете)
the mother is allowed 2 hours of absence per day if the child is younger than 8 months
and the mother works full-time (8 hours per day). When the child reaches the age of
8 months, the paid absence due to (breast)feeding is reduced to 1 hour per day. If the
mother works 7 hours a day or less, she is entitled to a one-hour break.
As of August 1, 2022, the possibilities for reconciling personal and professional life
have been broadened, as a result of which the employee can request remote work or
a modification of working hours if necessary. This option can be used by parents of
children younger than 8 years old, as well as those who care for their parents, spouse
or other relatives due to serious health reasons. Before 2022, only those returning from
maternity/parental leave could apply for flexible working. However, the employer is not
obliged to allow flexible working, but is obliged to give reasons for rejecting the request.

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Bulgaria

Early childhood and education care

Since April 1, 2022, municipal nurseries and kindergartens are completely free of charge.
Bulgarian children can attend nurseries between the ages of 3 months and 3 years, and
kindergarten from the age of 3. If there are not enough places in the nursery school in the
affected settlement, children can start kindergarten from the age of 2.7 In the two years
before school, pre-school education is compulsory and is provided free of charge by the
kindergarten or primary school, including teaching aids.8
In 2023, 17% of children aged 0–3 received nursery services, which was significantly
lower than the EU average (37%) and represented a slight increase compared to 2005
(16%). In 2023, 95% of 3-6-year-olds attended kindergarten, which exceeded the EU
average (89%) and is a significant increase compared to 2005 (38%).

7
https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-education-systems/bulgaria/early-childhood-education-and-care
8
https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-education-systems/bulgaria/organisation-education-system-and-its-structure

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 Croatia

KEY DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS

2001 2011 2016 2021 2022 2023

Population 4 295 406 4 289 857 4 190 669 4 036 355 3 862 305 3 850 894

Live birth (persons) 40 993 41 197 37 537 36 508 33 883 32 170

Death (persons) 49 552 51 019 51 542 62 712 56 979 51 275

Immigrant (persons) 24 415 8 534 13 985 35 912 57 972 69 396*

Emigrant (persons) 7 488 12 699 36 436 40 424 46 287 39 218*

Marriage (number) 22 076 20 211 20 467 18 203 18 074 17 306*

Divorce (number) 4 670 5 662 7 036 5 100 4 808 4407*

TFR 1.46 1.48 1.42 1.58 1.53 N/A

Source: Eurostat, * Croatian Bureau of Statistics (Download date: 09.08.2024.)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

50 000 40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000 0 10 000 20 000 30 000 40 000 50 000

118
 Croatia

DEMOGRAPHICS
The population of Croatia is steadily decreasing. On 1 January 2023, the population was
3,850,894, a decrease of 10% since 2013. According to the 2021 census data, Croatia is
mainly populated by Croats (91.6%). The largest ethnic minority is Serb (3.2%), while
the others represent less than 1-1% of the population (Albanians, Bosniaks, Czechs,
Hungarians, Slovenes, Roma, Italians).1
Croatia has been steadily losing population over the last three decades. The demographic
decline is partly the result of war-related losses of life in the 1990s, and partly influenced
by a declining birth rate, increasing emigration and limited immigration. Since Croatia
joined the European Union in 2013, emigration of young and educated people has reached
a record high.
The country’s age profile shows an ageing society, with a steady decline in the under-65
age group, apart from two small waves of growth. Children aged 0-14 account for just
over 14% of the population, while those aged 65 and over make up 22.7%.

In February 2024, the Croatian government adopted a strategy for “demographic

renewal”, which it aims to complete by 2033. It sets two key objectives: a stimulating built
environment for families and young people, and balanced mobility of the population.2
For the implementation just over EUR 9.6 billion is planned.

As in other countries in the region, Croatia has a higher death rate than births, and
emigration is a major contributor to depopulation.
In 2023, the number of live births was 22% lower than in 2001, while deaths were 3%
higher. The country has been experiencing a natural decrease in population for decades,
from around 10,000 per year in the early 2000s to 19,000 last year, which represents 60%
of the birth rate.
Emigration in Croatia became significant after 2010, with 9,000 people leaving the
country in 2007, nearly 13,000 in 2011 and more than 47,000 in 2017. The number of
emigrants fell sharply (by around 16%) from 2017 to 2018 but started to rise again in
2022. The number of immigrants was at its lowest in 2011, but has been increasing
every year since then, reaching almost 60,000 in 2022, presumably due to the war. As
a result, the negative migration balance of the last decade turned positive again in 2022,
with a surplus of 30,000 in 2023. Since 2001, immigration has almost tripled, while the
number of emigrants has more than quintupled.
In Croatia, the marriage rate has been decreasing, from around 20-23,000 marriages per
year in the past to around 17-19,000 in the recent period. Compared to 2001 (22,076), the
number of marriages has decreased by 22% by 2023 (17,306). In contrast, the number

1
https://dzs.gov.hr/u-fokusu/popis-2021/popisni-upitnik/english/results/1501
2
https://www.portfolio.hu/global/20240215/a-horvatok-ujra-megprobaljak-lassitani-a-nepessegfogyast-669377

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Croatia

of divorces increased sharply until 2018 (one and a half times), but then decreased year
by year, and by 2023 it had decreased to 4,407, which is even lower than in 2001 (4,670).
The fertility rate used to be below the EU average, stagnating since 2011 and then slightly
increasing from 2016 onwards. Since 2020, it has been higher than the EU average, but it
slightly decreased in 2022 (1.53).

FAMILY POLICY

I. System of family support

Birth grant
Female workers are entitled to a one-off maternity allowance of EUR 310 on the birth
of their child. The allowance is paid in one lump sum to mothers after the birth and to
adoptive mothers within 30 days of the adoption.

Maternity leave and benefit

Maternity leave (rodiljni dopust) for working mothers starts on the 28th day before the
due date and lasts until the child is 6 months old. Maternity leave is divided into two
parts: a non-transferable, compulsory leave of 70 days and a part-time leave transferable
to the father. During the maternity leave, the mother is entitled to maternity benefit
(rodiljna naknada), which is 100% of the previous average net wage, with no upper
limit. To qualify, the mother must have been in continuous employment for 9 months or
interrupted employment for 12 months in the 2 years preceding the birth.
Unemployed mothers or mothers with a shorter period of insurance or inactive mothers
are entitled to a benefit called maternity exemption from work (rodiljna pošteda od rada)
from the date of birth until the child is 6 months old and receive a monthly amount of
EUR 310 until the child is 6 months old.

Paternity leave
As from 1 August 2022, all fathers are entitled to 100% paid paternity leave for 10 days or
15 days in the case of twins. Paternity leave is optional, but if the father decides to take it,
his employer must grant it. Paternity leave can be taken during the first 6 months of the
child’s life. All employed fathers are entitled to paid paternity leave if they have at least
9 months of continuous service or 12 months of interrupted service in 2 years.

Parental leave and benefit

For employees, the period of parental leave (roditeljski dopust) is 4 months for the first
two children (per child and per parent) and 15 months for the third and subsequent
children. Parents can take the leave in several instalments up to the age of 8, share it and

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 Croatia

work full-time or part-time. In the latter case, the period of leave is doubled. Unemployed
or ineligible parents receive a total of 6 months, and twins or parents with three or more
children receive 2½ years.
During the first 6 months of parental leave (from the age of 6 months to the age of 1 year),
the full amount of the previous salary is paid, up to a maximum of EUR 995 per month and
a minimum of EUR 310 per month. After 12 months, the monthly amount is EUR 552.3
After parental leave, unpaid leave can be requested until the child reaches the age of 3.
A parent of a child with a severe physical or mental disability is entitled to childcare leave
until the child is 8 years old, with a monthly allowance of EUR 552. The allowance is also
available after the child reaches the age of 8 if the parent takes up a part-time job.

Child benefit
The child benefit (doplatak za djecu) is an income-related benefit. It is payable if the net
income per person in the family does not exceed EUR 310 per month and the family
has lived in Croatia for at least 3 years. It is paid up to the age of 15, up to the age of 19
for children in education and up to the period of disability for disabled children. The
monthly amount of the benefit per child varies according to the family’s monthly per
capita income:
• below EUR 72: EUR 40;
• between EUR 72 and EUR 149: EUR 33;
• between EUR 149 and EUR 310: EUR 27.

The amount is 15% higher for single parents and 25% higher for disabled or orphaned
children. The family allowance is EUR 66 per month for a third child and EUR 133 per
month for a fourth or more.

Tax credits and other benefits

Family taxation
Tax relief is available for those who have children, including children over 18, if they are
in regular education or if they are disabled. The amount is EUR 280 per year for the first
child, EUR 392 per year for the second child and EUR 560 per year for the third or more
children. In addition, for children with a disability, EUR 168 is paid for a mild disability
and EUR 560 for a 100% disability.4

3
https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1104&langId=en&intPageId=4454
4
https://taxsummaries.pwc.com/croatia/individual/deductions

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Croatia

Tax allowance for young people

In order to encourage young people to work and reduce youth emigration, a partial
personal income tax exemption for under-25s was introduced from 2020, while those
aged between 26 and 30 pay 50% less personal income tax. The personal income tax
system in Croatia is a two-rate system: a 20% tax rate applies to income below EUR 45
500 per year, and a 30% tax rate applies to the part above that.
Young people do not benefit from the tax relief on a monthly basis (their monthly net
income does not increase), but can claim back the personal income tax paid each year.
The reduction applies to income from employment, not to income from self-employment.
They can also claim the reduction for the tax year in which they reach the age of 25.
The same rules apply to employees aged between 26 and 30, except that they can receive
a 50% refund instead of a 100% refund.

Housing
In Croatia, there is no such allowance.

II. Reconciling work and family life

Employment
In 2023, the share of employed persons with young children (aged 18-64) was 77.4%
in the EU and 80.1% in Croatia. 89.2% of men aged 18-64 with children under 6 were
employed, close to the EU average (89.6%). For women aged 18-64 with young children,
the rate was 71.7%, slightly above the EU average (66.4%). The share of women aged 15-
64 working part-time was only 4.5% and 3% for men in 2023, both significantly below
the EU average (28.5% and 8.4% respectively).

Carer’s leave
Workers are entitled to carer’s leave to look after a sick child: its length is up to 60 working
days per family per year, for which 100% of previous earnings are paid for children
under 3 years of age, and 70% of previous earnings for children aged 3 to 7. For children
aged 7 to 18, carer’s leave is up to 40 working days per family and 70% of previous
earnings are paid. In the case of serious illness of an adult relative, the maximum length
of carer’s leave is 20 working days per family member, and 70% of previous earnings is
paid.
In addition, the worker is entitled to 5 days’ unpaid leave per year to care for a relative
living in the same household.

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 Croatia

Flexible working arrangements

A mother breastfeeding her child under 12 months is entitled to a breastfeeding break
of 1x2 hours or 2x1 hours per day, during which time she is entitled to 100% of her
earnings.
After the childcare leave has been fully used, the parent can request to work 20 hours
a week until the child is 3 years old, if the child’s health or development requires care.
A monthly allowance of EUR 486 is paid for this period.
A worker with a child under 8 years of age may request flexible working arrangements,
which the employer must consider.

Early childhood education and care

Croatia has a unified institutional system for day care for young children from 6 months
to 7 years of age. Since 2015, children are obliged to attend a pre-school programme one
year before starting school. Those born between January and March start school in the
year they turn 6 and the rest when they turn 7.
Apart from the last year of kindergarten, nursery and kindergarten care is not free of
charge and fees are regulated and set at regional level.
There are regional differences in accessibility and affordability, and participation rates
are low, particularly in poorer areas in central and eastern Croatia.
In 2023, 30% of children aged 0-3 in Croatia attended nursery, lower than the EU average
(37%) but a significant increase compared to the first available Croatian data in 2013
(10%). In 2023, 82% of 3-6-year-olds attended nursery, below the EU average (89%) but
a notable increase compared to 53% in 2013.

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 Cyprus

KEY DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS

2001 2011 2016 2021 2022 2023

Population 697 549 839 751 848 319 896 007 904 705 920 701

Live birth (persons) 8 167 9 622 9 455 10 309 10 197 N/A

Death (persons) 4 827 5 504 5 471 7 202 7 295 N/A

Immigrant (persons) 17 485 23 037 17 391 24 001 31 052 N/A

Emigrant (persons) N/A 4 895 14 892 18 410 17 958 N/A

Marriage (number) 10 574 6 210 6 375 5 066* 6 645* N/A

Divorce (number) 1 197 1 934 1 948 2 061* 1 503* N/A

TFR 1.57 1.35 1.37 1.39 1.37 N/A

Source: Eurostat, * Cyprus Statistical Office (Download date: 04/06/2024)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

10 000 5 000 0 5 000 10 000

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 Cyprus

DEMOGRAPHICS

The population of Cyprus has been growing steadily for the past 50 years. As of 1 January
2023, the population of the country was 920,701. Compared to 2001, the population has
increased by one third, that is, by 223 152 persons. Almost 99% of the population are
Greeks, the other 1% are Turks, Armenians and other minorities.

The population pyramid of Cyprus shows the picture of an aging society with a sharply
decreasing population between the ages of 10–30.

The reason for the increase in the population is that the number of live births exceeds the
number of deaths, and the number of immigrants is also higher than that of emigrants.
Compared to 2001, the number of live births increased by 24% and the number of deaths
by 51% in 20 years, but still almost a third fewer people die than are born. Thanks to natural
increase, the population of the country has increased by 3-4 thousand people per year.

From 2011 to 2022, emigration nearly quadrupled, with immigration increasing by about
80%. Thanks to the positive migration balance of the country, the population of the
country increased by 5-7 thousand people per year, the rate of which further developed
in 2022, the positive net migration amounted to almost 15 thousand people.

The number of marriages is significantly higher than that of divorces, the number of
marriages decreased by more than 40% between 2001 and 2011, and then increased
slightly by 2022. The number of divorces showed an upward trend until 2021 and almost
doubled; in 2022, however, it fell significantly.

The overall fertility rate has fallen from 1.57 in 2001 (EU average: 1.43) to 1.35 in 2011,
with no significant change since then, standing at 1.37 in 2022, which is lower than the
EU average of 1.46.

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Cyprus

FAMILY POLICY

I. System of family support

Family support generally applies to families who have lived legally and continuously in the
territory under the effective control of the Republic of Cyprus for at least 5 years prior to
the submission of the application. Eligibility for the support is determined by the residence
requirements, the total gross income of the family and its assets. The amount of benefits is
calculated depending on the number of children and the income level of the family.1

Birth grant2
Child birth grant (Βοήθημα Τοκετού) is a one-off benefit paid to the insured married
woman or the insured man’s uninsured wife after the birth of the child. The amount is
also due to the woman if she has lost her child after at least 28 weeks of pregnancy. The
application for the grant must be submitted within one year from the date of birth. The
child birth grant amounted to EUR 581 in 2022.

Special child birth grant (EUR 581 in 2022) is available to mothers (e.g. unmarried or
uninsured) who are not eligible for the child birth grant but have resided in Cyprus for
the last 12 consecutive months. The application for the special child birth grant must be
submitted within three months from the date of birth.

Maternity leave and benefit3

Mothers are entitled to 18 weeks of paid maternity leave (Επίδομα Μητρότητας) if they
have had at least 26 weeks of insurance. 2 weeks of maternity leave must be taken before
the expected due date, while 9 weeks must be taken after the date of birth. The length of
maternity leave is extended by 6 weeks in the case of premature birth and by 4 weeks in
the case of multiple births.

During maternity leave, the woman receives 72% of her previous income (which increases
to 80%, 90% and 100% depending on the number of twins in multiple births), and there
is no upper limit to the benefit. One will not be able to receive maternity benefit if one
returns to work full-time. In the case of part-time work, one may receive the benefit, but
the amount of the wage and the benefit may not exceed the total amount of the wage. The
same conditions apply to the adoptive parent or surrogate.

1
https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1105&langId=en&intPageId=4999
2
https://child-birth-grant.service.gov.cy/
3
https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1105&langId=en&intPageId=5000

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 Cyprus

The benefit is paid for 18 weeks starting from the second week before the expected due
date, for 16 weeks in the case of adoption, or for 14 weeks in the case of a surrogate
mother. In the case of multiple births, the 18-week period is extended by 4 and 8 weeks
respectively.

Paternity leave4
The insured father is entitled to two weeks of paternity leave (Επίδομα Πατρότητας) after
childbirth, which must be taken in a consecutive period and until the child is 20 weeks
old. During this time, he receives 72% of his previous salary (which increases to 80%, 90%
and 100% depending on the number of twins in multiple births), and there is no upper
limit to the benefit. Adoption is also subject to these rules. According to Cypriot social
security data, 35% of fathers used the possibility of paternity leave in 2021 compared to
the number of births.

Parental leave and benefit5

Following maternity leave, both parents are entitled to an additional 18 weeks of parental
leave (Γονική Άδεια) (23 weeks for widows or single parents), which can be taken by the
mother after the end of maternity leave and by the father following paternity leave, at the
latest until the age of 8 for the child or until the age of 18 for the disabled child. Out of
the 18 weeks, 2 weeks are transferable if the parent has used at least 2 weeks of the leave
before. A maximum of 4 weeks of leave may be taken in a calendar year (or 7 weeks in
the case of three or more children). As of 1 January 2025, already 5 weeks may be taken.

The parental benefit (ΕπίδομαΓονικής ∇δειας) is paid to insured parents on parental leave.
The benefit is due to each parent for up to 6 weeks per child, with the further 12-week
period being unpaid. From August 2024, the parents receive benefits for the first 8 weeks
of parental leave.6

In the case of a child with a disability, the duration of parental leave benefit is extended by:
• Four weeks provided that the child has been certified as a person with a severe
disability or with a moderate mental disability.
• Six weeks provided that the child has been certified as a person with a total disability.

4
https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1105&langId=en&intPageId=5000
5
MISSOC and https://www.mlsi.gov.cy/mlsi/dlr/dlr.nsf/parentalleave_en/parentalleave_en?opendocument and https://ec.euro-
pa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1105&langId=en&intPageId=5000
6
https://gzg.com.cy/news/announcements/the-new-paternity-parental-caring-force-majeure-leave-and-flexible-work-arrange-
ments-for-work-life-balance-law/

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Cyprus

Child benefit
The amount of the child benefit (Επίδομα Τέκνου) depends on the number of children
and the family’s income and assets. The condition for receiving the benefit is that the
family has lived in Cyprus for at least 5 years. It is normally paid until the age of 18 of the
child, extended to 20 if the child has not completed secondary school, or 21 if the child
is serving in the military. In addition, it is paid for all children regardless of age who are
permanently unable to take care of themselves.

The benefit is payable for families with one child under a total annual family income of
EUR 49,000 and two children under EUR 59,000. For each additional child, the ceiling
is increased by EUR 5,000. In addition to the income criterion, the child benefit is also
not payable if the total value of the family’s assets, including real estate, shares, bonds,
securities and deposits, exceeds EUR 1,200,000.

The amount of the child benefit in 2023:

Annual income In the case In the case In the case In the case
of the family of 1 child of 2 children of 3 children of 4 children

0 – 19,500 EUR EUR 540 EUR 648 EUR 1,188 EUR 1,904

19,500 EUR – 39,000 EUR EUR 483 EUR 591 EUR 1,131 EUR 1,734

39,000 EUR – 49,000 EUR EUR 432 EUR 432 EUR 864 EUR 1,432

49,000 EUR – 59,000 EUR - EUR 392 EUR 784 EUR 1,290

59,000 EUR – 59,500 EUR - - EUR 784 EUR 1,290

59,500 EUR – 60,000 EUR - - - EUR 1,290

Single parents are entitled to an additional single parent benefit of EUR 204 per child
per month below an annual income of EUR 39,000 and EUR 181 per child per month in
case of an annual income between EUR 39,000 and EUR 49,000. Payment shall be made
annually in the case of one and two children and monthly in the case of three or more
children. An application for a child benefit shall be submitted every calendar year.

Tax credits and other benefits

Family taxation
In Cyprus, there is no family tax credit.

Housing
In Cyprus, there is no such benefit.

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 Cyprus

II. Reconciling work and family life

Employment
The employment rate among women aged 18-64 with children under the age of 6 was 73.5%
in 2023, exceeding the EU average of 66.4%. For men, the indicator was 91.6%, which is also
above the EU average (89.6%). Between 2009 and 2023, only a slight increase is visible: in 2009,
71.4% of women with young children worked, compared to 91.3% of men. Part-time work is
not widespread. In 2023, the part-time employment rate for women aged 15–64 was 4.5% and
3% for men, the former being much lower than the EU average (28.5% and 8%, respectively).

Carer’s leave
In order to care for dependants, each worker is entitled to a maximum of 7 days of unpaid leave
per year in case of force majeure (i.e. urgent cases such as a dependent’s illness or accident). As
dependent is considered a worker’s child, husband, wife, parent, sibling or grandparent. Such
leave may be granted as a single leave period or divided into separate periods. In the case of
married couples, both spouses are entitled to such leave separately.

Flexible working arrangements

Working parents have the right to request flexible working hours for care reasons. This includes
restructuring employment patterns, so they can also request teleworking, flexible scheduling
or reduced working hours. To be eligible, employees must have six months of continuous
employment with the same employer. Employers must respond to the request within one
month and have the right to reject or postpone the request for a reasoned decision.

For 6 months following maternity leave, the working mother may arrive at work one hour later
as a breastfeeding time reduction and leave one hour earlier or take a one-hour break during the
working day for 6 months.

Early childhood education and care7

In Cyprus, nurseries (pedokomikoi/vrefokomikoi stathmoi) are open to children from birth to
4 years and 8 months. There are public, community and private nurseries, all of which are
typically fee-paying, with varying rates of contribution.

A free preschool class starting at the age of 4 years and 8 months is mandatory for all children.
Primary education in Cyprus starts at the age of 5 years and 8 months.
In 2023, 37% of children aged 0–3 received nursery care, which is the same as the EU average
and more than double the 2005 figure (16%). 88% of 3–6-year-olds in the country attended
kindergarten in 2023, almost the same as the EU average (89%).

7
https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-education-systems/cyprus/overview

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 Czech Republic

KEY DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS

2001 2011 2016 2021 2022 2023

Population 10 232 027 10 486 731 10 553 843 10 494 836 10 516 707 10 827 529

Live birth (persons) 90 715 108 673 112 663 111 793 101 299 91 149*

Death (persons) 107 755 106 848 107 750 139 891 120 219 112 795*

Immigrant (persons) 12 918 27 114 64 083 69 360 347 429 141 263*

Emigrant (persons) 21 469 55 910 38 864 18 630 31 764 46 591*

Marriage (number) 52 374 45 137 50 768 46 778 54 820 48 268*

Divorce (number) 31 586 28 113 24 996 21 107 19 846 19 453*

TFR 1.15 1.43 1.63 1.83 1.64 1.45*

Source: Eurostat, * Czech Statistical Office (Download date: 12/08/2024)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 000 75 000 50 000 25 000 0 25 000 50 000 75 000 100 000

130
 Czech Republic

DEMOGRAPHICS
The population of the Czech Republic was 10,827,529 as of 1 January 2023. According to
the 2021 census, 4.7% of the population were foreign citizens. The highest proportion of
them are citizens of Ukraine (1.4%), Slovakia (0.9%) and Vietnam (0.5%).1

The country’s population pyramid apart from the 10-12 age group, shows an aging society,
and the mass retirement of the current 40-year-old age group will be a challenge in the
coming decades. As in other countries in the region, the Czech Republic has a higher
proportion of women over the age of 60.

In the Czech Republic, the population increased by 6% (595 thousand people) from
1 January 2001 to 1 January 2023, and since 2011 there has been a slight increase,
followed by an increase of more than 300,000 from 2022 to 2023. The natural loss of the
population is not more than a few thousand people, however, the positive net migration
has increased significantly in recent years, exceeding 300 thousand in 2022, and 141
thousand in 2023, which is presumably the result of the Russian-Ukrainian war.

The lowest number of births since 2011 was in 2023 (91,149 people), with a decrease of
about 16% compared to 2011. In 2001, a total of 90,715 children were born, which is 0.5%
lower than the number of live births in 2023. The number of deaths is slightly increasing
in the country: compared to 2001, 5% more people died in 2023. In 2021 (139,891) and
2022 (120,219), the country experienced a spike in deaths, which was probably the result
of the COVID-19 pandemic, with deaths reaching around 110,000 in 2019 and again in
2023. In 2023, the Czech Republic had one of the highest death rates (12.7), ranking third
in the EU. The EU-27 average was 15.7.

From 2011 to 2019, the natural increase was mild, a few thousand people a year, but
since 2020, there has been a shift to natural population decline amounting between 20-30
thousand people yearly.

There has been negative net migration at the beginning of the 2000s, but the population
of the country has been increasing by 25-35 thousand people annually in the recent
period. The positive net migration of 2022 and 2023 was extremely high due to the
refugees from Ukraine, in 2022, nearly 350,000 people arrived in the country, and in
2023, 141,000. Compared to 2001, the number of immigrants has increased more than
tenfold. Emigration has also increased in the Czech Republic over the past decades, with
21,469 people leaving the country in 2001, but doubling to 46,591 in 2023.

1
https://scitani.gov.cz/citizenship#null

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Czech Republic

The number of marriages is around 45-55 thousand per year, 48,246 marriages were
concluded in 2023 in the country, 8% less than in 2001 (52,374). The number of divorces
decreased: while in 2001, there were 31,586 divorces, in 2023, there were only 19,453,
which means a 38% decrease.

The Czech Republic had the lowest fertility rate in the EU in 2001 (1.15), well below the
EU average (1.43). Looking at the period 2011-2021, the fertility rate in the Czech Republic
increased from 1.43 to 1.83 (an increase of 28%), meaning the second highest value in the
European Union in 2021, but decreased to 1.64 by 2022 (fourth highest value). In 2023,
the ratio has fallen further to 1.45. Considering the large number of forty-years old seen
in the country’s population pyramid, it is expected that this age group will be affected by
a further strong decrease in the next decade.

FAMILY POLICY

I. System of family support

Pregnancy and maternity compensatory benefit

Employed expectant mothers and mothers with young children who have been placed
in a lower position as a result of having children are entitled to a compensatory benefit
(vyrovnávací příspěvek v těhotenství a mateřství) until the 6th week before childbirth or,
in exceptional cases, after childbirth. The benefit is the difference between the average
daily earnings of the last 12 months and the average daily earnings of the lower position.

Birth grant
In the Czech Republic, birth grant (porodné) is paid to the mother for the first two
live-born children. This is a one-time benefit paid to families whose income does not
exceed 2.7 times the family subsistence minimum (CZK 29,673 (EUR 1,176) for a couple
expecting their first child) in the quarter preceding the birth of the child. The amount of
the grant is CZK 13,000 (EUR 535) for the first child and CZK 10,000 (EUR 411) for the
second child.

Maternity leave and benefit

Eligibility for maternity benefit (peněžitá pomoc vmateřství) is subject to at least 270 days
of insurance for employees in the two years before maternity leave, at least 180 days of
insurance for entrepreneurs in the year before childbirth, and university/college students
are also eligible for maternity benefit.

Length of the maternity leave is 28 weeks (37 weeks in the case of multiple births), during
which time mothers receive 70% of their previous income, up to a maximum of CZK

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 Czech Republic

47,700 (EUR 1,931) per month. Of the maternity leave, 6–8 weeks can be used before
and 20–22 weeks after birth. 14 weeks of leave is mandatory, of which at least 6 weeks
must be taken after childbirth. From the 7th week after the birth, this leave can be shared
between the parents, so the mother and father can take turns with the child, and part-time
work is also possible from week 7.

Paternity leave
The paternity leave (otcovská dovolená) is 14 days (as of 2022, previously it was 7 days),
which can be taken in one period, within 6 weeks of the birth of the child (unless the child
or mother needs hospitalization, in which case this period is extended by the number of
days spent in the hospital). The paternity allowance is 70% of the previous salary, but
a maximum of 22,260 CZK (EUR 902) for the 14 days. In the case of adoption, fathers are
entitled to 10 days of leave. In addition, fathers receive leave with wage compensation
for the time when the mother of their unborn child is taken to the hospital, and they
are entitled to unpaid leave for the time of childbirth. The proportion of fathers taking
paternity leave has been around 40% since its introduction in 2018.

Parental leave and benefit

Parental leave (rodicovska dovolena) is an unpaid leave to which both parents are entitled
until the child turns 3 years old. The mother can take parental leave after maternity
leave and the father can take parental leave after the birth of the child, which cannot be
transferred to another person.

Parental allowance (rodičovský příspěvek) is available for those who do not send their
children to private or public day care. In the case of children born after 1 January 2024,
the parental allowance is only payable up to the age of 3 (in the case of children born
until 31 December 2023, it is payable up to the age of 4 of the child) and can only be used
by one of the parents, and it is also possible to work part or full-time while receiving the
allowance.

The maximum amount of the allowance is

• CZK 350,000 (EUR 13,896) for children born after 1 January 2024 and CZK 525,000
(EUR 20,804) for twins,
• CZK 300,0002 (EUR 12,150) for children born by 31 December 2023 and CZK 450,000
(EUR 18,226) for twins.
Parents are free to choose the monthly amount they want to receive and the length of the
payment, but the benefit per month cannot exceed CZK 53,910 (EUR 2,136). Those who are
not insured are entitled to a monthly parental allowance of up to CZK 13,000 (EUR 515).

2
https://www.mpsv.cz/web/en/state-social-support

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Czech Republic

The allowance can also be used by grandparents or other persons who take care of the
child during the day.

Since July 2021, families will be provided with a lump sum payment for the unused
portion of the parental allowance if they have another child before the full amount of
CZK 350,000 (EUR 12,150) is being disbursed.

Child benefit
In the Czech Republic, child allowance (prídavek na dítě) is linked to school attendance
and family income and is being disbursed until the child reaches the age of 15. An
exception is made if the child continues to study, is living with disability, or is unable to
work in the future for other health reasons (e.g. disabled). In these cases, the allowance
may be granted up to the age of 26.

Depending on the family income, the monthly amount of the child allowance was CZK
830/CZK 1,330 (EUR 33/53) for children under 6 years of age, CZK 970/CZK 1,470 (EUR
38/55) for children between 6 and 15 years of age, and CZK 1,080/CZK 1,580 (EUR
43/58) for children between 15 and 26 years of age in 2023.3 If a family member receives
a minimum wage or other social allowance, they will receive a higher child allowance.

When assessing the support, the family’s income is taken into account, which cannot
exceed 3.4 times the family subsistence minimum (which varies depending on the
number of people living in the household and the age of the children). There is no child
allowance provided above this amount.

Supporting single parents

Thanks to the measure introduced in December 2020, the state provides financial support
(náhradní výživné) to single parents raising their children if the other parent does not pay
the child maintenance. This benefit aims to offset income loss caused by unpaid alimony
up to maximum of CZK 3,000 (approximately EUR 123) per month. Single parents can
apply for the benefit from 1 July 2021 onwards, for a maximum period of 24 months.

Tax credits and other benefits

Family taxation
Tax allowance is granted if the child lives in the same household as the taxpayer. The tax
base is reduced by a fixed amount, which is deducted from the tax advance. In 2022, the
tax allowance amounted to CZK 15,204 (EUR 626) per year for the first child, CZK 19,404
(EUR 799) for the second and CZK 24,204 (EUR 996) for the third and each additional
3
https://www.mpsv.cz/web/en/state-social-support

134
 Czech Republic

child. If the tax advance payable by the taxpayer is less than the tax allowance, the
taxpayer can claim the difference.

Those whose husband’s/wife’s annual income does not exceed CZK 68,000 (EUR 2,799),
are entitled to tax allowance in the amount of CZK 24,840 (EUR 1,022) per year.

Housing
Housing allowance may be claimed if 30% of the family’s total income (35% in Prague)
is insufficient to cover the housing costs. The difference can be claimed in the form of
state aid.

II. Reconciling work and family life

Employment
In the Czech Republic, the employment rate of mothers (in the age group 18-64) raising
children under the age of 6 is quite low, 45.4% according to 2023 data. The EU average
is 66.4%, leaving the Czech Republic well behind. However, there is an improvement
compared to 2009, when 33.5% of mothers with young children were employed. At the
same time, the employment rate of fathers with young children is 94.4%, which is one of
the highest values in the EU, as the EU average is 89.6%. As of 2009, the Czech Republic
significantly exceeds the EU average for employment of fathers with young children.
Part-time employment (in the age group 15-64) is less widespread in the country, with
11.6% of women (EU average: 28.5%) and 3.2% of men (EU average: 8.4%) working this
way in 2023. Compared to 2009, there was an increase for both men and women, with
the share of part-time employment at 2.0% for men and 8.5% for women, but still well
below the EU average.

Carer’s leave
A worker may take leave to care for a sick relative at home (in case of illness of a child
under the age of 10 in any case or in case of serious illness of other relatives). During the
leave period, an amount equal to 60% of the earnings is due, up to a maximum of CZK
855 (EUR 36) per day. A worker can take a maximum of 9 days of leave at a time, but
there is no limit on the frequency of taking leave. Parents can take turns taking leave to
care for their sick child.

Flexible working arrangements

In the case of a worker caring for a child under the age of 15, the employer is obliged
to grant the request for part-time work, unless this would cause serious operational
problems in the workplace. From 2023, part-time employment has also been made more

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Czech Republic

attractive for employers by receiving a 5% discount on the social security contribution for
part-time employment of parents with children under the age of 10.

Teleworking is regulated by law as of 2023.4 In the case of some protected workers (e.g.
pregnant workers, a worker caring for at least one child under the age of 9 or a worker
responsible for the long-term care of another person), if they apply for a teleworking
opportunity and the employer does not approve the application, the employer must
justify its decision in writing.

Early childhood education and care

In the Czech Republic, children under 3 years of age attending nurseries are subject to the
fees set by the relevant law, provided that the place is financed by an operating subsidy
from the state budget.

Kindergarten care is mainly provided by the state, but there are also private and church
institutions. The child can be enrolled from the age of 3, but kindergarten education is
mandatory from the age of 5 and is free of charge. Primary education starts at the age of 6.

In 2023, only 4% of 0–3-year-old children in the Czech Republic attended nursery, being
the second lowest value in the EU, well below the EU average (37%) and only slightly
higher than in 2005 (2%). 81% of 3–6-year-old children attended kindergarten in 2023,
which is lower than the EU average (89%) and a slight increase compared to 2005 (76%).

4
https://www.expats.cz/czech-news/article/big-updates-to-czech-labor-code-come-into-force-how-will-you-be-affected

136
 Denmark

KEY DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS

2001 2011 2016 2021 2022 2023

Population 5 349 212 5 560 628 5 707 251 5 840 045 5 873 420 5 932 654

Live birth (persons) 65 458 58 998 61 614 63 473 58 430 57 469*

Death (persons) 58 338 52 516 52 824 57 152 59 435 58 384*

Immigrant (persons) 55 984 52 833 74 383 63 489 121 183 98 344*

Emigrant (persons) 43 980 41 593 52 654 44 008 62 927 68 172*

Marriage (number) 36 567 27 198 30 767 27 643 32 544* 31 068*

Divorce (number) 14 597 14 484 17 222 12 760* 12 145* 12 684*

TFR 1.74 1.75 1.79 1.72 1.55 1.50*

Source: Eurostat, *Danish Statistical Office (Download date: 12/08/2024)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

50 000 40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000 0 10 000 20 000 30 000 40 000 50 000

138
 Denmark

DEMOGRAPHICS
The population of Denmark has been increasing since 2000, and as of 1 January 2023, it
was 5,932,654. Since the start of the millennium, the population has grown by 11%, with
nearly 600,000 people. 90% of Denmark’s population are Danes, the rest are of German,
Albanian, Arab or Pakistani descent.
The population pyramid of Denmark shows the image of a balanced, slightly aging society.
The population of Denmark is constantly growing, which is clearly due to the positive
net migration.

Although the birth rate slightly decreased in the early 2010s, it then increased again
and stagnated around 61-63 thousand per year. In 2022, however, the number of births
fell again below 60,000, and, following a further decrease to 57,469 by 2023. Thus
fewer children were born than died in the country. In the previous years (including the
years 2020 and 2021 affected by the COVID-19 pandemic), the country increased by
6-8 thousand people through natural increase. The number of deaths decreased to 52-
53 thousand per year by the beginning of the 2010s, but in 2023, it has exceeded 58
thousand again. Between 2001 and 2023, the number of live births fell by 12%, while the
number of deaths remained stable.

Between 2001 and 2023, the rate of emigration has risen with fluctuations. From 44,000
at the beginning of the century to one and a half times that figure (68,000). In the case of
immigration, no clear trend can be identified. It decreased slightly by the 2010s (from 56
thousand to 53 thousand) and reached 63 thousand in 2021. In 2022, the figure almost
doubled (to 121 thousand), while the following year it fell back to 98 thousand. The
country’s net migration is positive: in the 2000s, immigration increased by an average
of 8-10 thousand people, but since 2010 it has increased significantly, and in 2023, 40
thousand more people arrived than emigrated.

The number of marriages was about double the number of divorces, and even triple of it
in 2019. The number of marriages increased until 2018 and then began to decrease. The
2022 spike may be due to the replacement of marriages postponed during the pandemic.
The number of divorces decreased significantly in 2019 and then increased significantly
again in 2020 (by 48%). Compared to 2001, both marriages and divorces decreased
by 10-15%.

The total fertility rate has been above the European average in recent years, in 2001, the
country had the third highest fertility rate with a value of 1.74 (EU average 1.43). but by
2023 it has fallen significantly to 1.5.

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Denmark

FAMILY POLICY

I. System of family support

Birth grant
In the case of adoption of a foreign child, adoption allowance (adoptionstilskud) can be
claimed, which amounts to a lump sum of DKK 57,635 (EUR 7,731), otherwise there is
no such benefit.

Maternity leave and benefit1

Pregnant women are entitled to 4 weeks of pregnancy leave (graviditetsorlov) before
childbirth and 10 weeks of maternity leave (barselsorlov) after childbirth, of which
2 weeks must be taken after childbirth. During this time, they will receive maternity
benefit. The amount of the benefit is calculated on the basis of the number of working
hours and the hourly wage of the worker, which is a maximum of DKK 4,550 (EUR 610)
gross per week or DKK 123 (EUR 16,5) per hour (on a 37 hours per week-basis).
Women who are not eligible for the full amount of the allowance and do not have
unemployment insurance receive a so-called holiday allowance (ferieydelse), which is
conditional on 12 months of employment before giving birth. The benefit is paid from
1 May after giving birth to 30 April the next year. The amount of the holiday allowance
is equal to the amount of the maternity benefit.
The same rules apply to adoption. Special family allowance (særligt børnetilskud) is due
to those parents who decide to adopt as a single or retired person. This amounts to DKK
4,380 (EUR 588) per child per quarter, which can be reduced if the family income exceeds
the social benefit threshold.

Paternity leave
Fathers are entitled to 10 weeks of paid paternity leave (fædreorlov), which can be used
until the child is 1 year old. 2 weeks are non-transferable and must be taken after the
birth of the child. Strictly speaking, this 2-week (10 working days) paternity leave is due
to fathers after the birth of their child. The amount of the benefit is the same as the
maternity benefit.

Parental leave and benefit2

As of July 1, 2022, there are new rules on the allocation of the duration of parental leave.
The new rules on same-sex and single parents came into force on 1 January 2024. The
amendments are based on the EU’s wish to provide both parents with separate leave to

1
https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1107&langId=en&intPageId=4487
2
https://bm.dk/arbejdsomraader/aktuelle-fokusomraader/orlovsregler-for-boern-foedt-fra-2-august-2022/

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 Denmark

achieve a better work-life balance and promote gender equality. The new rules apply to
parents of children born on or after August 2, 2022.
According to the new regulation, parents are entitled to 48 weeks of paid parental leave
(forældreorlov) together with maternity leave after the birth of the child. The 48-week
leave is divided equally between the parents, so both parents will be given 24 weeks of
leave following birth.
2+8 weeks out of 24 weeks should be taken around the expected due date (see above).
Thereafter, an additional 14 weeks are available to the parents, of which 9 weeks are
non-transferable and must be claimed before the child is one year old, and an additional
5 weeks are transferable and can be claimed until the child is 9 years old. This means
that a total of 2+9 weeks of maternity/parental leave has been reserved for each parent.
The remaining 8+5 weeks of leave are transferable to the other parent. (Previously, 48
weeks were also available, of which 14 weeks were reserved for the mother and two
weeks for the father. The remaining 32 weeks could be shared between the parents.) As
of January 2024, single parents can transfer a few weeks of their parental leave to close
family members, while same-sex couples can transfer them to each other.
During paid parental leave, parents receive an allowance similar to the maternity benefit.
The amount of the benefit is calculated on the basis of the number of working hours and
the hourly wage of the worker, which is a maximum of DKK 4,550 (EUR 610) gross per
week or DKK 123 (EUR 16,5) per hour (on a 37 hours per week-basis).
The conditions of the benefit for workers:
• at least 160 hours of working time during the 4 months preceding the paid leave and
40 hours of working time per month for at least 3 months during this period; or
• eligibility for unemployment benefits.

The conditions of the benefit for students:

• recent graduates (who completed their studies not more than 1 month before
receiving the benefit); or
• have completed their studies after childbirth, up to the child’s age of 46 weeks; or
• have completed at least 18 months of continuing vocational training before the
birth of the child; or are currently pursuing such studies; or are students in paid
professional practice.

The conditions of the benefit as recent graduates:

• being with the child every day, i.e. physically together during the leave, and
meeting one of the following conditions:
1) Have attended a business training course of at least 18 months’ duration
and completed it no more than one month before the expected due date.
2) After giving birth, have completed her studies and made herself available as a job
seeker in the employment center, that is, she is entitled to unemployment benefits.

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Denmark

• The condition of the benefit for entrepreneurs is that they worked a minimum of
18.5 hours per week for at least 6 months during the 12 months before giving birth.

Child benefit3
The child benefit (børne- og ungeydelse) is a benefit for all children under the age of
18 living in Denmark, the amount of which depends on the age of the child and the
family’s income situation. The full amount of the benefit is conditional on the claimant
having lived or worked in Denmark for at least 6 years in the 10 years preceding the
payment. (If they have lived in Denmark for less time, they are entitled to a proportionately
smaller amount.)
In 2022, amounts per child were as follows:4
• 0–2 years - DKK 4,746 (EUR 636) per quarter;
• 3–6 years - DKK 3,756 (EUR 503) per quarter;
• 7–14 years - DKK 2,955 (EUR 396) per quarter;
• 15–17 years - DKK 985 (EUR 132) per month.

If the parents exercise joint custody of the child and live together, both parents will
automatically receive half of the benefit. If only one of the parents exercises full custody,
he/she will receive the full amount.
If the parent’s tax base exceeded DKK 852,600 (EUR 114,312) per year in 2023, they are
entitled to a reduced amount of family allowance.
Quarterly supplementary family allowance (børnetilskud) is due:
• for single parents as an extra child benefit (regardless of the number of children) of
DKK 1,558 (EUR 209) or DKK 1,588 (EUR 213) per child until the age of 18.
• for parents with twins up to the age of 7 of the child (if they received child benefit
before 1 January 2018, they will continue to receive child benefit if they have lived
in Denmark for at least 2 years within 10 years). The amount of the child benefit is
DKK 2,572 (EUR 344) for twins and DKK 5,144 (EUR 689) for triplets per quarter.
• for retired parents raising children under 18 years of age. (If they received child
benefit before 1 January 2018, they will continue to receive child benefit if they have
lived in Denmark for at least 2 years within 10 years). The amount of the benefit is
DKK 1,558 (EUR 209) if both parents are retired, and DKK 3,984 (EUR 534) if only
one of the parents is retired.
• for students with children, if they have lived in Denmark for 6 years within the last
10 years, or if they received child benefit before 1 January 2018, they will continue
to receive child benefit if they have lived in Denmark for at least 2 years within 10
years. Another condition is that their net income does not exceed DKK 327,580 (EUR
43,921) per year if they raise their child alone or DKK 409,460 (EUR 54,884) for

3
MISSOC
4
https://www.legaldesk.dk/privat/boernetestamente/boernepenge

142
 Denmark

parents living together. The amount of the allowance is DKK 2,047 (EUR 274) per
quarter.
• in the case of an unknown father or if the paternity proceedings are still ongoing,
the mother is entitled to a benefit of DKK 4,500 (EUR 604) per quarter until the age
of 18 of the child.

Tax credits and other benefits

Family taxation
There is no family tax credit.

Housing5
Since February 2016, residents in Denmark can apply for a “boligstøtte” (housing
allowance), which can reduce the monthly rent. This is a tax-free amount that is available
to anyone renting an apartment, provided that the apartment meets certain criteria and
the household’s income does not reach a certain level. One of these conditions is that
the rental property must have its own kitchen (which excludes student apartments with
shared kitchens, which are called kollegier in Danish) and one must live in the property
for the long term.
Homeowners may also be eligible to apply for housing allowance in certain circumstances.
The amount of the allowance - the amount of money received per month - depends on the
total income of the household (the sum of the incomes of all earners living at the address),
the number of children and adults living at the address, the amount of the rent and the
size of the house or apartment. The average rent for a property is DKK 9,000-13,000 (EUR
1,170-1,690) per month.

II. Reconciling work and family life

Employment
Denmark has one of the highest employment rates of women with small children in the
EU. The employment rate of mothers (in the age group 18-64) raising children under the
age of 6 was 78.3% in 2023, which is much higher than the EU average of 66.4%. For men,
this indicator is 89.5%, almost the same the EU average (89.6%). Danish family policy
focuses on the principle of “dual-earners”, thus supporting equality between women and
men. Part-time work is very widespread in the country, with 35.2% of women and about
16.1% of men choosing this form of employment in 2023 (the EU average is 28% for
women and 8.4% for men).

5
https://lifeindenmark.borger.dk/housing-and-moving/housing-benefits

143
Denmark

Carer’s leave
Most employment contracts and labour market agreements include the right to take leave
to care for a sick child. Civil servants are entitled to 2 days of 100% paid carer’s leave.
Depending on the assessment of the local government, all employees may be entitled to
care allowance (plejevederlag) if they are caring for a terminally ill relative or close friend
at home. The municipality determines the duration and extent of the allowance. There is
no entitlement to leave associated with this allowance.

Flexible working arrangements

Parents with young children may apply for flexible working with their employer, which
may include teleworking, working from home or reducing working hours. The employer
must give reasons if the application is rejected. The prohibition of dismissal during leave
also applies when the employee requests a change of work schedule. The changes will
be effective as of August 2022, while for same-sex parents, they will be effective as of
1 January 2024.

Early childhood education and care

In Denmark, municipalities are obliged to ensure early childhood education and care
services for all children between the age of 26 weeks and the start of primary school.
According to the Act on Day Care Facilities, the fees charged cannot exceed 25 % of the
gross operational expenses including lunch. The fee is paid by the parents as a monthly
fixed amount. The public funding therefore comprises at least 75 % of the expenses and
is covered by the municipalities. Institutional childcare is free of charge, provided that
the total income of those living in the household does not exceed DKK 15,475 (EUR
2,075) per month.
From the age of 2, all children are assessed for their language skills, and where language
development is not age-appropriate, help is provided. Parents may lose the general child
benefit if they do not accept language development and training.
Instead of providing institutional care, the municipality may support the parent caring
for the child (tilskud til pasning af egne børn) or the financing of private care (tilskud
til privat pasning). Both subsidies are available from the age of 26 weeks until the start
of school. In the case of childcare allowance, it is a condition that the parents reside in
Denmark for 7 of the previous 8 years and that the parents speak the Danish language at
the appropriate level, which is necessary for the child’s language development (the latter
condition does not apply to EU/EEA/CH citizens).
Exceeding the EU average of 37%, 70% of children under 3 in Denmark were in nursery
care in 2023 (the second highest rate among EU Member States), a slight decrease from
73% in 2008. 97% of 3–6-year-olds attended kindergarten in 2023, above the EU average
(89%) and the same as in 2008.

144
 Estonia

KEY DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS

2001 2011 2016 2021 2022 2023

Population 1 392 720 1 329 660 1 315 944 1 330 068 1 331 796 1 365 884

Live birth (persons) 12 632 14 679 14 053 13 372 11 646 10 949*

Death (persons) 18 516 15 244 15 392 18 587 17 315 16 002*

Immigrant (persons) 241 3 709 14 822 19 524 49 414 26 399*

Emigrant (persons) 2 175 6 214 13 792 12 481 9 657 12 543*

Marriage (number) 5 647 5 499 6 360 6 396 7 200 6 504*

Divorce (number) 4 312 3 099 3 262 2 554 2 546 2 648*

TFR 1.32 1.61 1.60 1.61 1.41 1.31*

Source: Eurostat, Estonian Statistical Office (Download date: 12.08.2024.)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

15 000 10 000 5 000 0 5 000 10 000 15 000

146
 Estonia

DEMOGRAPHICS
Estonia’s population on 1 January 2023 was 1 365 884, a slight decrease of 5% compared
to 2001 (1 392 720). Estonians make up nearly 70% of the population, with Russians
making up the highest proportion of ethnic groups at 24%, but there are also Ukrainians,
Belarusians and Finns living in Estonia.

The country’s population pyramid shows a picture of a rapidly ageing society, with
a sharp decline in the under-30 age group.

One of the main reasons for the population decline is that deaths have consistently
outnumbered births, resulting in a natural decrease of a few thousand people a year. The
number of live births has been around 12-14 thousand per year since 2001 but fall below
11 thousand by 2023. While in 2001, 18 thousand people died, in the 2010s the figure
was around 15 thousand, in 2021 it jumped to 18 thousand and then fell to 16 thousand
in 2023. Between 2001 and 2023, live births fell by 13.3% and deaths by 13.6%.

Immigration was practically non-existent in 2001, but by 2015 it had increased sharply.
In 2022 - presumably as a result of the Russian-Ukrainian war - the number of immigrants
was almost 50,000, more than double the 2021 figure. This compares with a significant
decrease in 2023, when almost half (26,000) of the total number of immigrants arrived in
the country. This figure remains high compared to 2001 and 2011. Although emigration
has also increased over this period (12,000 in 2023), the migration balance has remained
positive for many years, steadily increasing the population.

The marriage and divorce rates in Estonia have been on an upward trend: while in 2001
the number of divorces was almost 80% of the number of marriages, in 2023 it was only
40%, i.e. almost two and a half times as many marriages were registered than divorces.
This is partly because the number of marriages has risen steadily and because divorces
have fallen. Between 2001 and 2023, the number of marriages increased by 15.2% and
divorces decreased by 38.6%.

The total fertility rate rose from 1.32 in 2001 to 1.72 in 2010, before falling back to 1.41
in 2022, below the EU average (1.46). In 2023 it further reduced to 1.31.

147
Estonia

FAMILY POLICY

I. System of family support

Birth grant1
The childbirth allowance is a one-time allowance of EUR 320 (sünnitoetus) paid after the
birth of the child. For multiple births, the allowance is EUR 1,000 per child. The grant is
conditional on employment before the birth, compulsory insurance and registration of
the birth in the population register.
Estonia also has an adoption allowance (lapsendamistoetus), which is also a one-time
payment of EUR 320 to the adoptive parent.2

Maternity leave and benefit3

Maternity leave (sünnituspuhkus) for a working mother is up to 100 consecutive
calendar days. 70 days may be taken before the expected due date and minimum 30
calendar days have to be taken after the birth. Maternity leave is non-transferable and
cannot be interrupted or taken part-time. In the case of adoption, the adoption leave
(lapsendamispuhkus) is a paid leave for a maximum of 70 days (if the adopted child is
under 18).4
The maternity benefit (ema vanemahüvitis) paid during this period is 100% of the
mother’s previous earnings; from 1 January 2024, its lower limit is EUR 725 gross
per month, and there is no upper limit. For insured mothers who did not work in the
reference year, the amount of the maternity benefit is equal to the monthly minimum
wage paid in the preceeding calendar month. For adoptive parents, the adoptive benefit
(lapsendamishüvitis) during the adoption leave is also 100% of the reference wage.

Paternity leave5
Paternity leave (isapukhus) in Estonia is 30 calendar days, which can be taken up to 30
days before the expected due date or up to 3 years after the birth of the child, even in
several instalments.

The amount of the paternity benefit (isa vanemahvitis) is 100% of the previous average
salary. From 1 January 2024, its minimum amount is EUR 725 gross per month and its

1
MISSOC, https://www.sotsiaalkindlustusamet.ee/en/family-benefits-and-allowances/family-allowances/childbirth-allowance
2
https://www.sotsiaalkindlustusamet.ee/en/family-benefits-and-allowances/family-allowances/adoption-allowance
3
MISSOC and https://www.sotsiaalkindlustusamet.ee/en/family-benefits-and-allowances/family-benefits-overview/mater-
nity-benefit-and-maternity-leave
4
https://www.sotsiaalkindlustusamet.ee/en/family-benefits-and-allowances/family-allowances/adoption-allowance
5
https://www.sotsiaalkindlustusamet.ee/en/family-benefits-and-allowances/family-benefits-overview/paternity-benefit-and-pater-
nity-leave

148
 Estonia

maximum is EUR 4,734 gross per month. Employed and unemployed fathers (including
self-employed) receive the paternity benefit for 30 calendar days.

According to Estonian Health Insurance Fund data for 2021, 74.7% of new fathers took
up paternity leave, an increase compared to 2020, when only 60% took up the option.6

Parental leave and benefit7

Parental leave (jagatav vanemapukhus) is available up to the age of 3 of the child. During
parental leave, benefits are paid for up to 475 days up to the age of 3. While maternity
and paternity benefits are individual rights of the parents, parental leave is a family
entitlement and can be shared between parents. The shared parental leave can be taken in
stages from the child’s 31st day of life up to the age of 3. However, parental leave can be
taken for a maximum of 60 days at a time (in which case the total period of parental leave
is reduced accordingly). Parents can also transfer the leave to the person who is actually
caring for the child. The same provisions apply to adoptive parents if the adopted child
is under 13. In 2021, 83.8% of parental leave was taken by women and 16.2% by men.

The benefit (jagata vanemahvitis) paid during parental leave is 100% of the average salary,
alike paternity benefit. From 1 January 2024, its minimum amount is EUR 725 gross per
month and its maximum is EUR 4,734 gross per month. In addition to parental leave, it
is possible for the parents to work. If the parent earns up to EUR 2,367 per month, the
parental benefit will not be reduced. The same provisions apply to adoptive parents.

If a family has triplets or multiple twins, the state pays the family an allowance for
multiple birth of three or more children (kolmikute vői enamaarvuliste mitmike toetus).
The allowance amounts to EUR 1,000 per family per month and is paid until the children
are 18 months old.

In Estonia, both parents get 10 (paid) days off per child per year and can take an additional
10 unpaid working days off for childcare reasons.

Child benefit8
The Estonian state pays child allowance (lapsetoetus) for each child from birth until the
end of that school year during which they turn 19 years of age. The child allowance is
paid monthly, regardless of income. In 2024, the amount of the allowance is EUR 80 for
the first and second child and EUR 100 for the third and each additional child.

6
Blum et al. Leave Policies 2023
7
MISSOC and https://www.sotsiaalkindlustusamet.ee/en/family-benefits-and-allowances/family-benefits-overview/shared-pa-
rental-benefit and https://www.eesti.ee/en/family/benefits-and-allowances/shared-parental-benefit-and-parental-leave
8
MISSOC and https://www.sotsiaalkindlustusamet.ee/en/family-benefits-and-allowances/family-allowances/child-allowance

149
Estonia

Single parents or parents raising a disabled child are entitled to a higher child allowance. Single
parents (üksikvanema lapse toetus) receive a supplement of EUR 80 per month on top of the
child allowance. Disabled child allowance (puudega lapse toetus)9 depends on the degree of
disability, ranging from 540% of the social benefit rate for disabled persons (sotsiaaltoetuste
määr) to 945% of the social benefit rate. It is paid on top of other benefits.
Families with three or more children are entitled to a large family allowance (lasterikka
pere toetus)10 until the eldest child reaches the age of 19. The allowance is EUR 450 per
month for families with three to six children and EUR 650 per month for families with
seven or more children. The allowance is paid per family and the beneficiary can be one
of the children’s parents or a guardian or carer.
In Estonia, there is also a conscript’s child allowance (ajateenija lapse toetus)11 if one of
the child’s parents is serving in the Estonian Defence Forces, or in alternative non-combat
service. The allowance is EUR 900 per month for each child and paid until the end of the
parent’s military service.

Tax credits and other benefits

Family taxation12
In Estonia, tax relief is available for families with children if the parent’s taxable income
is less than EUR 25,200 per year. The yearly income tax exemption is EUR 7,848 and
is available up to an annual income limit of EUR 14,400. If the annual income level is
between EUR 14,400 and EUR 25,200, the tax credit is reduced proportionally.

Housing
In Estonia, there is no such benefit.

II. Reconciling work and family life

Employment
The employment rate for women with children under 6 years of age was 72.4% in 2022,
above the EU average of 66,4%. For men, the indicator is 91.2%, also above the EU average
(89.6%). Part-time work is not widespread. In 2023, 13.5% of the population aged 15-64
worked part-time, well below the EU average (17.8%), even though the rate is improving
year by year. The share of women aged 15-64 in part-time employment is higher at 18.1%
in 2023 (still low compared to the EU average of 28.5%), while the share of men is slightly

9
https://www.sotsiaalkindlustusamet.ee/en/disability-and-welfare-services/benefits-disabled-people/allowance-disabled-child
10
https://www.sotsiaalkindlustusamet.ee/en/family-benefits-and-allowances/family-allowances/allowance-family-many-children
11
https://www.sotsiaalkindlustusamet.ee/en/family-benefits-and-allowances/family-allowances/conscripts-child-allowance
12
https://www.eesti.ee/en/family/benefits-and-allowances/parental-benefit-income-tax-exemption

150
 Estonia

above the EU average: 8.9% of Estonian men work part-time, compared to the overall EU
average of 8.4% in 2023.

Carer’s leave13
In Estonia, a person with health insurance is entitled to carer’s leave in the following cases:
• for up to 14 days per illness for a person caring for a child under 12 or a disabled
person under 19 (80% of earnings is paid);
• for a maximum of 60 consecutive days for a person caring for a child under 12 years
of age if the cause of the illness is a malignant tumour and the treatment of the child
requires hospitalisation;
• up to 7 consecutive days for a person caring for a sick family member at home;
• if the person caring for a child under 3 or a disabled child under 16 is himself or
herself ill, for a maximum of 10 consecutive days.
Parents caring for a child with disability may take 1 day of leave per month, with full
working time allowance, or 5 working days per year to care for a relative with a severe
disability.

Flexible working arrangements

There are special provisions for breastfeeding in Estonia14: Mothers who have returned to
work and are breastfeeding a child under 18 months of age can take either one 30-minute
breastfeeding break every 3 hours during their working hours or a one-hour break once
a day. The state compensates 100 percent of the breaks, except for mothers who receive
parental benefit.

Early childhood education and care15

In Estonia, local authorities have a duty to provide all children aged between 1.5 and
7 living in their area and whose parents request it with the opportunity to attend nursery
and kindergarten. Attendance at kindergarten is not compulsory. In both nurseries and
kindergarten, parents cover the cost of enrolment and meals. The fee varies according to
the age of the child but cannot exceed 20% of the minimum wage. Compulsory primary
education starts at the age of 7.
In 2023, 38% of children aged 0-3 years attended nursery, the same as the EU average
(37%) and much higher than the 11% in 2005. 95% of Estonian children aged 3-6 years
attended nursery in 2023, higher than the EU average (89%) and meaning an increase
from 79% in 2005.

13
https://www.kriis.ee/en/education-work-life-services/work-life-employee/sick-days-certificates-care-leave
14
https://www.eesti.ee/en/family/further-activities-after-the-birth/breastfeeding-at-work
15
Eurostat and https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-education-systems/estonia/early-childhood-education-and-care

151
 Finland

KEY DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS

2001 2011 2016 2021 2022 2023

Population 5 181 115 5 375 276 5 487 308 5 533 793 5 548 241 9 104 772

Live birth (persons) 56 189 59 961 52 814 49 594 44 951 77 605*

Death (persons) 48 550 50 585 53 923 57 659 63 219 89 760*

Immigrant (persons) 18 955 29 481 34 905 36 364 49 998 N/A

Emigrant (persons) 13 153 12 660 18 082 13 459 15 635 N/A

Marriage (number) 24 830 28 408 24 464 19 579 21 942 45 855*

Divorce (number) 13 568 13 469 13 541 12 081* 11 370 14 721*

TFR 1.73 1.83 1.57 1.46 1.32 N/A

Source: Eurostat, *Finnish Statistical Office (Download date: 12/08/2024)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

50 000 40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000 0 10 000 20 000 30 000 40 000 50 000

152
 Finland

DEMOGRAPHICS
Finland’s population has been rising since 2000. The country’s population on 1 January
2023 was 5 563 970, an increase of almost 9% compared to 2001. Finnish speakers make
up 89% of the country’s population. The other two larger groups are Swedish and Russian
speakers.

Finland’s population pyramid has long been revealing a relatively balanced society, but
the number of people under 30 has declined significantly compared to older people.
Until 2016, there were more births than deaths, but since then there has been no birth
surplus, but a positive net migration balance, which is responsible for the natural increase
in the population.

The number of live births showed an increasing trend until 2011 but has been decreasing
significantly since then. The birth rate in 2023 shows a drop of almost 25% compared to
2001. While in the early 2010s there were nearly 60,000 births a year, by 2023 there were
only 43,000. While the number of births has fallen, the number of deaths has risen by
roughly 24% by 2023 compared to 2001.

In terms of migration flows, between 2001 and 2022, immigration increased by a factor
of almost two and a half, with a further dramatic increase in 2023, when it was one and
a half times the 2022 figure. Emigration has fluctuated over the same period, increasing
by only 18% over the period reviewed. In 2023, almost five times as many people entered
the country as left.

The number of marriages increased by 14.5% from 2001 to 2011, but declined after 2013,
and although it increased again slightly in 2022, overall, it fell by 17% in 2023 compared
to 2001. In Finland, the Marriage Act was amended in 2017 to include same-sex couples,
so that as of 2017, the number of marriages includes same-sex marriages.1 The number
of divorces was essentially unchanged for the first fifteen years of the period under
review, after which it started to decrease and in 2023, there were 16% fewer divorces than
in 2001.

In 2001, they had the fourth highest fertility rate in the EU (1.73) (EU average 1.43), but
after 2011, it started to fall significantly. Finland still had the fourth highest fertility rate
among EU countries in 2011, but by 2022 it had fallen to 1.32 (EU average 1.46). The rate
of 1.26 in 2023 represents a further decline.

1
https://www.stat.fi/en/statistics/documentation/ssaaty/2023-08-18

153
Finland

FAMILY POLICY

I. System of family support

In Finland, the family leave reform entered into force on 1 August 2022, replacing
maternity and paternity benefits with a single parental allowance (vanhempainraha) and
a single pregnancy allowance (raskausraha). The main changes include the introduction
of gender neutral terminology, equal distribution of leave quotas between parents, the
possibility to transfer part of the leave to the other parent, an extension of the duration of
parental leave and greater flexibility. The reform aims to increase equality between men
and women in the workplace and between parents and to take better account of different
types of families.2

Birth grant3
The maternity grant (äitiysavustus) is a one-time tax-free benefit of EUR 170. In Finland,
a pregnant woman can get a maternity grant only if she has been pregnant for at least
154 days and has had regular medical check-ups during pregnancy. Mothers can choose
to receive the maternity grant in cash or in a package worth EUR 170, which includes
various items needed for the first period of childbearing.4 The benefit is payable for each
child and is also available for adopted children under 18 years of age. In the case of a twin
birth, the mother receives the standard maternity grant multipled by two for the second
child, making a total of three times the grant. For a third child, the amount is tripled, so
that for a triplet birth, the maternity grant is six times the amount.
In the case of international adoptions, the Finnish state provides an adoption grant
(adoptiotuki)5 to cover the costs of adopting from abroad. The adoption grant varies between
EUR 5 000 and EUR 9 000, depending on the child’s country of origin. There is no such
grant for adoptions within Finland. The adoption grant is a lump sum payment and is free
from tax. If more than one child is adopted at the same time, the adoption grant paid for the
second and each additional child adopted is equal to 30% of the full grant.

Maternity leave and benefit6

Maternity leave (raskausvapaa) is 40 working days (calculated on a 6-day working
week), of which 14-30 days can be taken before the expected due date. In practice, it
usually starts 30 days before the expected due date. When the maternity leave starts,
2
https://stm.fi/en/reform-aims-to-encourage-both-parents-to-take-family-leave and https://www.kela.fi/families-quick-guide
3
https://www.kela.fi/maternity-grant and https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1109&langId=en&intPageId=4514 and
MISSOC
4
https://www.kela.fi/maternity-package-2023
5
https://www.kela.fi/adoption-grant
6
https://www.kela.fi/pregnancy-allowance-and-special-pregnancy-allowance and https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?cat-
Id=1109&langId=en&intPageId=4514 and MISSOC

154
 Finland

the “birthing parent” (terminology used in Finnish law) receives 40 days of maternity
benefit, or in other words pregnancy allowance (raskausraha) from Kela, the Finnish
social security. The pregnancy allowance is only paid to the mother and cannot be shared
between the parents. In the case of adoption, the parents are not entitled to maternity
leave and therefore to the allowance. The pregnancy allowance during maternity leave is
90% of daily earnings up to EUR 64,048 per year and 32.5% of earnings above the part of
earnings exceeding EUR 64,048.
Non-employed parents and those with an annual income lower than EUR 10,665 per year
are entitled to a flat-rate benefit of EUR 32 per working day (EUR 800 per month). In
2022, 15% of pregnant women received this minimum benefit.
If someone is exposed to radiation, chemicals or infectious diseases at work and cannot be
transferred to another job, they can stay off work as soon as their pregnancy is confirmed.
They are entitled to a special pregnancy allowance (erityisraskausraha) for this period.
The special pregnancy allowance is paid until the actual start of the pregnancy allowance,
and is paid by Kela to the employer.7

Paternity leave
Since the reform of the family leave system in 2022, there is no longer a dedicated paternity
leave (formerly known as isyysvapaa), the parental leave shared equally between parents.

Parental leave and benefit8

Parental leave (vanhempainvapaa) starts after the birth of the child and lasts 320 days
(excluding Sundays), divided equally between the two parents (160 days each). Out of
these, 97 days are reserved for both parents, while the remaining 63 days may be granted
to the other parent, the parent’s spouse or other legal guardian of the child. In the case
of a single parent, the parent is entitled to all 320 days. In the case of multiple births or
adoption, 84 days are added to this period for each additional child. The leave can be
taken until the child is 2 years old or until 2 years after adoption. If parents move to
Finland with a child aged 1 or over, parental leave is half of the total days.
In Finland, there is also partial parental leave (osittainen vanhempainvapaa), which
means that the parent works part-time and spends part of the time caring for the child.
The part-time work must be agreed with the employer and the parent can then apply
for partial parental allowance (osittainen vanhempainraha). During the period of partial
parental leave, the working time cannot exceed 5 hours a day (25 hours a week).9

7
https://www.kela.fi/special-pregnancy-allowance
8
https://www.kela.fi/parental-allowance-and-partial-parental-allowance, https://www.kela.fi/child-care-allowances , https://
ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1109&langId=en&intPageId=4514 , https://www.pam.fi/en/working-life/guide-to-wor-
king-life/employment-relationships/holiday-and-leaves/family-leave/ and MISSOC
9
https://www.kela.fi/parental-allowance-and-partial-parental-allowance#partial-parental-allowance

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Finland

Following the reform of family leave, the minimum amount of parental leave allowance
(vanhempainpäivärahat) was EUR 32 per day in 2023. All parental allowances are calculated
on the basis of annual income, calculated for the reference period of 12 calendar months
preceding the calendar month in which the entitlement to parental allowance starts. The
allowance is paid on working days (Monday to Saturday, excluding public holidays) and
is equal to 70% of daily earnings up to an annual earning of EUR 41,629; 40% for the
part of earnings between EUR 41,630 and EUR 64,048; and 25% for the part of earnings
above EUR 64,048. For the first 16 working days of parental leave, the parental allowance
is 90% of earnings up to an annual amount of EUR 64 048, and 32.5% for the part of the
earning exceeding this amount.
Parents can also take child home care leave (hoitovapaa) after the end of parental leave
until the child is 3 years old. While on leave, parents may receive a child home care
allowance (kotihoidon tuki) as long as the child is not receiving childcare provided or
financed by the local authority. The amount of the allowance is not affected by the
family’s income and is paid separately for each eligible child, in a monthly amount of10:
• EUR 378 for a child under 3,
• EUR 113 for each additional child under 3,
• EUR 73 for each child over 3 years old but under school age.

The average child home care allowance per family was EUR 406 per month in 2021. The
parents of an adopted child are also entitled to child home care leave for the first 2 years
after adoption and until the child starts school.
Parents of children under 3 are also entitled to a “flexible care allowance” (joustava
hoitoraha) after parental leave if the parent works less than 80% of full-time, i.e. up to
30 hours a week. The allowance can only be claimed for one child at a time, even if there
are several eligible children in the family. However, both parents can claim it at the same
time if they care for the child at different times of the day or on different days of the
week. Parents can also get a flexible care allowance if the child attends a municipal day-
care centre. The flexible care allowance is EUR 179 per month if the working week does
not exceed 30 hours, i.e. 80% of the full working week, and EUR 269 per month if the
working week does not exceed 22.5 hours, i.e. 60% of the full working week.11
In Finland, there is a contribution to support childcare costs outside an institution, the
private day care allowance (yksityisen hoidon tuki) if the child is looked after by a carer
paid by the family or by a private provider. Such an allowance is payable after the end
of parental leave, at the earliest at the beginning of the month in which the child turns
9 months old. The amount of the allowance is not affected by the family’s income and is

10
https://www.kela.fi/child-home-care-allowance
11
https://www.kela.fi/flexible-care-allowance

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 Finland

EUR 192 per month for each eligible child. This allowance is not available if the child is
attending a local authority early childhood education centre.12
In addition, parents of young school children can receive a partial care allowance
(osittainen hoitoraha) if the parent works up to 30 hours a week while caring for the
child and the child is in first or second grade. The partial care allowance is only available
for one child, even if there are several eligible children in the family. The allowance is
EUR 108 per month, paid through the employer. The allowance is paid from 1 August of
the year the child starts school and is payable until the end of the child’s second year of
schooling (31 July).13

Child benefit14
The child benefit (lapsilisä) is paid to parents from the month following the birth of the
child until the child is 17 years old. Child benefit is normally paid to the mother or the
father or other adult responsible for the care of the child. If the child runs his or her own
household (and is aged 15 or over), it may also be paid to him or her by special agreement.
The child benefit is tax-free, is paid monthly, and the amount is not affected by the
family’s financial situation or income.
The amount of the child benefit per month is:
• EUR 95 for one child,
• EUR 105 for the second child,
• EUR 134 for the third child,
• EUR 173 for the fourth child,
• EUR 193 for the fifth and each additional child.

Single parents can get an additional allowance if they are unmarried and not living with
someone else. The supplementary allowance is EUR 73 per month from 1 January 2024.

Tax credits and other benefits

Family taxation
In Finland, there is no such benefit.

Housing
In Finland, people on low incomes can apply for a general housing allowance from the
Finnish Social Insurance Institution (Kela) to cover housing costs. This allowance is
available for rental housing, owner-occupied housing and shared housing. The housing

12
https://www.kela.fi/private-day-care-allowance
13
https://www.kela.fi/partial-care-allowance
14
https://www.kela.fi/child-benefit , https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1109&langId=en&intPageId=4515 and MISSOC

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allowance can cover up to 80% of housing costs. It can be paid towards the rent or
maintenance fees.
The amount of housing benefit depends on the income of all household members. When
someone moves into a rented property, they usually have to pay a deposit for a few months
or pay the rent in advance. Kela can help with the deposit in the form of a voucher, which
can be given to the landlord. The average rent for an apartment in 2022 was EUR 1,000.

II. Reconciling work and family life

Employment
The employment rate for mothers (aged 18-64) with children under 6 years was 70.4% in
2023, higher than the EU average of 66.4%. For men, the rate is 89.2%, which is almost
the EU average (89.6%). Compared to 2009, there is an increase of 8 percentage points for
women and 2 percentage points for men. Part-time employment among working women
(aged 15-64) in Finland in 2023 was 22.4%, below the EU average (28.5%); for men it
was 11.4%, above the EU average of 8.4%. Compared to 2009, there has been a slow but
steady increase.

Carer’s leave15
Parents of children under the age of 10 can take 4 days paid leave to care for dependents
(tilapäinen hoitovapaa) per illness. There is no limit on the number of times a year parents
can take carers’ leave.
A special care allowance (erityishoitoraha) can be claimed if the parent of a seriously
ill or disabled child under 16 years of age needs to be temporarily absent from work
without pay to attend to the treatment or rehabilitation of the child.16 The amount of the
allowance is the same as the amount paid during parental leave and can be claimed for up
to 60 days of hospital care followed by 60 days of home care, without entitlement to leave.

Flexible working arrangements17

Parents of children under 2 years of age can take parental leave flexibly, in several
instalments (working parents can take up to four instalments per calendar year, and more
than four if the employer agrees). They can also take part-time leave and partial parental
leave if they work up to 5 hours a day (see section on partial parental leave). The employer
must give written reasons for refusing part-time leave. In Finland, breastfeeding leave is
not considered necessary as parental leave lasts until the child is 10-13 months old.

15
Blum et al. Leave Policies 2023 and https://www.kela.fi/sickness-if-a-child-gets-ill
16
https://www.kela.fi/special-care-allowance
17
Blum et al. Leave Policies 2023 and https://www.pam.fi/en/working-life/guide-to-working-life/employment-relationships/holi-
day-and-leaves/family-leave/

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Parents can also work reduced hours (osittainen hoitovapaa) from the end of parental
leave until the end of the child’s second year at school. Workers are entitled to partial
child home care leave if they have worked for the same employer for at least 6 months
in the last 12 months. A reduction in working time to a maximum of 30 hours must
be requested by the worker’s employer, who may refuse to grant it only if the reduced
working time would be seriously disadvantageous to the employer. Both parents may
take partial parental leave in the same period, but not at the same hours of the day.
Entitlement to partial parental leave shall end at the end of July of the year in question.

Early childhood education and care18

Participation in early childhood education and care is a universal right in Finland for
all children aged 0-7 years. Care is mainly organised in nurseries and family day care
centres. After parental leave, when the child is usually 10-13 months old, parents have
three options: i) municipal ECEC services, ii) private ECEC services or childcare through
the use of private childcare subsidies, iii) childcare leave and childcare allowance until the
child is three years old. Municipalities have a legal obligation to provide ECEC services in
accordance with local needs.
The vast majority of children (81%) attend municipal kindergartens in 2021. Families pay
a fee for childcare, ranging from free to EUR 295 monthly for full-day care, depending
on the age of the child and the family’s income. Private nurseries generally charge
higher fees.
In 2023, 44% of children aged 0-3 attended nursery, higher than the EU average (37%),
being an increase compared to 2005 (24%). In 2023, 94% of children aged 3-6 were in
kindergarten, higher than the EU average (89%) and an increase compared to 79% in
2005. Four-fifths of children aged 0-6 attend public and one-fifth private institutions.

18
https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-education-systems/finland/early-childhood-education-and-care

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 France

KEY DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS

2001 2011 2016 2021 2022 2023

Population 60 979 315 64 978 721 66 638 391 67 728 568 67 957 053 68 172 977

Live birth (persons) 804 052 824 263 784 325 742 602 726 533 678 200*

Death (persons) 541 184 545 221 594 005 661 779 675 271 631 000*

Immigrant (persons) N/A 319 816 377 709 336 398 431 017 N/A

Emigrant (persons) N/A 291 594 313 622 177 028 249 355 N/A

Marriage (number) 295 882 236 975 232 865 218 946 241 831 242 000*

Divorce (number) 115 388 132 977 128 043 N/A N/A N/A

TFR 1.90 2.01 1.92 1.84 1.79 1.68*

Source: Eurostat (Download date: 29.07.2024.), * French Statistical Office (Download date: 12.08.2024)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

500 000 400 000 300 000 200 000 100 000 0 100 000 200 000 300 000 400 000 500 000

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 France

DEMOGRAPHICS
The population of France has been growing dynamically since 2001, by 2023 it has
increased by nearly 12%, from 61 million people to more than 68 million people. The
number of inhabitants of the country on 1 January 2023 was 68,172,977. France is
considered one of the most ethnically diverse countries in Europe, where the proportion
of immigrants has increased due to the migration policy of recent years. Apart from
the immigrants the historical ethnic groups living in the country (Germans from Alsace,
Occitans and Provencals) and the natives living in overseas territories (DOM-TOM) must
also be taken into account.1

The population pyramid of France shows the image of a balanced society, but the number
of age groups younger than 10 years old shows a continuous decrease.
In addition to the birth surplus, the growth of the French population was also facilitated
by immigration. However, in 2003 only 678,200 babies were born in France, which is
almost 7% less than in 2022 and 16% less than in 2001, according to the annual report of
the French National Institute for Statistics (INSEE).2

One of the reasons for population growth in France is that the number of live births
is relatively high, while the number of deaths is lower. Between 2001 and 2011, the
difference did not change significantly, but the number of deaths was 10% higher in
2016, 22% in 2021, and 17% higher in 2023 than in 2001. At the same time, the previous
260-280,000 difference between deaths and births was reduced to 50,000.
Compared to 2001, immigration has quadrupled by 2022, so in 2022 the balance of migration
amounted to 182,000 people,3 which significantly contributes to population growth.
By 2023, the number of marriages fell by 54,000, i.e. by 18% compared to 2001. The
number of divorces increased by 10% in 2016 compared to 2001, and the number of
marriages thus exceeded the number of divorces by only 100,000. Since 2016, no data on
divorce is available.
Among the 27 EU member states, France has the highest total fertility rate. In 2001, they
had the second highest fertility rate (1.9). The value of the indicator reached 2.03 in 2010,
at which time only Cyprus and Ireland surpassed it. Since 2015, the TFR has shown
a continuous downward trend, in 2022 it has already decreased to 1.79, which was still the
highest value in the union and significantly exceeded the EU average (1.46), but compared
to previous years, the decline was still serious. In 2023, there was a further decrease, and
as a result the French government announced its “demographic rearmament” program at
the beginning of 2024.

1
In France, in accordance with the constitutional principle of equality, the government is prohibited from collecting data on the racial,
ethnic, and religious background of citizens in any context. National census questions also do not cover race or ethnicity.
2
https://www.insee.fr/en/statistiques/7757334
3
https://www.statista.com/statistics/686137/net-migration-france/

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France

FAMILY POLICY
In France, family policy is part of the social security system. In the middle of the 20th
century, the Family Allowance Funds (Caisses des allocations familales - CAF) were
created to ensure the payment of family allowances. Although their original function was
the allocation of the family allowance, today they also pay out several benefits that are
based on a social basis, i.e. dependent on income, but at the same time they are not related
to marital status or the number of children.
One of the distinctive features of France is that the influence of family associations is
quite strong. The approximately 7,500 of these associations are united in a large central
association, the National Union of Family Associations (Union nationale des associations
familales - UNAF), which has been the only one entitled to represent the interests of
families to the state since 1945. It participates in the development of family policy, makes
proposals and comments on all political initiatives that may affect the quality of life of
families.

I. System of family support

Birth grant
In France, every mother is entitled to a maternity benefit of EUR 1,019 (prime à la
naissance ou à l’adoption de la Prestation d’accueil du jeune enfant), which is paid before
the last day of the month following the 6th month of pregnancy. Parents who adopt
a child under the age of 20 can also receive a lump sum benefit, amounting to EUR 2,039.

Maternity leave and benefit

Maternity leave (congé de maternité) is 16 weeks (34 weeks for twins, 46 weeks for
triplets), 26 weeks after the third and every subsequent child. Out of the 16 weeks, 6 can
be used before the birth, 10 after the birth, and 8 of the 26 weeks before the birth and 18
after the birth. In the case of a high-risk pregnancy, an additional 2 weeks of maternity
leave is available before and an additional 4 weeks after the birth.
It is obligatory for the mother to take at least 8 weeks of maternity leave, of which
6 weeks must be taken after giving birth. During this period, a mother is entitled to
maternity benefit if she had an income of at least 1,015 minimum hourly wages during
the 6 months before giving birth (or had an income of 2,030 minimum hourly wages
during the previous 12 months) or 150 hours of employment in the previous 3 months,
or 600 hours of employment in the previous 6 months.
The amount of the benefit depends on the income, but cannot be less, than EUR 11 per
day and more than EUR 100 per day. The benefit is subject to tax and contribution.

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 France

Paternity leave
Since 2013, the mother’s spouse or partner is entitled to paternity leave (congé de paternité
et d’accueil de l’enfant) even if he is not the father of the child. Since July 2021, the leave
is 28 days long (25 days covered by social security, 3 days by the employer), of which
7 days must be taken right after the birth of the child. The rest of the leave can be taken in
one or two instalments until the child is six months old. In the event of a multiple birth,
7 additional days of paternity leave are granted. If the child is hospitalized immediately
after birth, an additional 30 days of leave can be granted. The eligibility conditions and
amounts for the benefit during paternity leave are the same as those described for the
maternity leave.

Parental leave and benefit

The first pillar of support for families with children is early childhood support, which
has two forms. One is the maternity benefit and the other is a basic allowance. After the
birth (or adoption) of the child, the mother is entitled to basic care (allocation de base de
la prestation d’accueil du jeune enfant) until the month before the child’s 3rd birthday (or
for 3 years after the adoption, up to the child’s 20th birthday). The amount of this varies
between EUR 92 and EUR 185 per month.
The second pillar of the French family support system is the childcare allowance or
childrearing benefit (prestation partagée d’éducation de l’enfant). The benefit can be used
by families raising their own children under the age of 3 or adopted children under the
age of 20, where the parent does not work or works reduced hours due to raising the
child. The condition of the benefit is that for the first child, the parent has a continuous
employment for 2 years prior to the birth, for the second child, 4 years, and for the third
child, 5 years. The monthly amount of the pay is 429 EUR. If the parent works part-time
and the working time does not exceed 50% of the full working time, a partial benefit of
EUR 277 can be used. If the working time exceeds 50% of the total working time, but
does not exceed 80%, the amount of the benefit is EUR 160. This allowance is tax-free.
The period of payment of the benefit depends on the number of children:
• In the case of one child, parents can use it for 6 months each, until the child is 1 year
old. Single parents can use it for 12 months, also until the child is 1 year old. (Even in
the case of adoption, up to 12 months from the date of adoption.)
• In the case of two children, both parents can use it for 24 months, until the second
child is 3-years old (a single parent from the month after stopping work or reducing
working hours until the age of 3).
• In the case of three or more children, both parents can use the benefit for 48 months,
until the youngest child is 6 years old (single parent throughout, until the youngest
child is 6 years old).

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In the case of two or more children, the number of entitlement months is reduced by
the duration of the maternity leave. For parents who take a break from work and raise
at least three children, an increased amount of childrearing support can be granted for
a maximum of 8 months before the child turns one. The amount of the increased benefit
is EUR 701.

Child benefit
The child benefit (allocation familial) goes to families with at least two children who have
been living in France for at least three months, until the child is 20 years old.
The total monthly amount for two children is 142 EUR, for three children it is 324 EUR
and 182 EUR for each additional child. The benefit includes an age allowance, starting
with the second child and EUR 71 per month for each child older than 14 years.
Families with at least three children can receive an additional pay of EUR 90 per month
for a maximum of one year, until the oldest child is 20 years old.
The child benefit is an income-related allowance, and since 2022, families with two children
receive a reduced amount of pay above an annual income of EUR 74,966, with an annual
income of EUR 81,212 in the case of three children, and an annual income of EUR 87,458 in
the case of four children. Each additional child raises the threshold by EUR 5,932.
Parents raising their child alone or raising a chronically ill child are entitled to higher
amounts. The maintenance allowance (allocation de soutien familial/ ASF) is paid for
a child who does not receive support from one or both parents, or as a supplement to low
child maintenance. The amount is EUR 261 for each child who has lost both parents, EUR
196 for a child who has lost one parent or is being raised by one parent. In the case of
a disabled child, there is a special education allowance (allocation d’éducation de l’enfant
handicapé/ AEEH) which amounts to EUR 149 per month.4

Tax credits and other benefits5

Family taxation
An important part of the French family policy is the support through the tax system.6 The
support is primarily implemented through the so-called quotient familial system, with
the help of which the composition of families and the number of children are taken into
account when determining income tax. One of the goals of family taxation is to ensure

4
https://www.cleiss.fr/docs/regimes/regime_france/an_4.html
5
It should be noted that when reestablishing family taxation, the Hungarian government considered the most stable French
family taxation system, fundamentally unchanged since the Second World War, as an example.
6
Stefán-Makay Zsuzsanna: A franciaországi családpolitika and a magas termékenység összefüggése, Demográfia, 2009. 52. évf. 4.
szám 313–348. Ariane Pailhé, Clémentine Rossier, and Laurent Toulemon: French family policy: Long tradition and diversified
measures, Vienna Yearbook of Population Research 2008, pp. 149-164

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that the living standards of families with similar incomes do not differ significantly
because of the number of children, and to provide special support to families with three
or more children. To this end, for the same income, large families pay less tax than smaller
families or those without children. The other goal is to encourage families to have at least
three children, since families receive a greater discount after the birth of the third child
than after the birth of the first two children. In the context of family taxation, married
couples (or partners) submit a joint tax return and are counted as 2 units (so husband and
wife: 1-1). The first and second children count as 0.5 units each, the third child as 1 unit
and each additional child as 0.5 units. That is, after the birth of one child, the income of
the parents living together is divided 2.5 times, after two children, 3 times, after three
children, 4 times, after four children, 4.5 times, and so on. The amount of tax relief is
a maximum of EUR 1,759 for every 0.5 units.
Those whose children are pursuing secondary or higher education may receive additional
tax relief. The amount of the discount depends on the level of studies. The child may
not have an employment contract and may not receive remuneration other than the
remuneration for the professional internship completed as part of the basic education.
The child is considered a dependent until the age of 25. The maximum amount of the tax
credit is EUR 61 for high school students aged 11-15 (collége), EUR 153 for high school
students (lycée) aged 15-18, and EUR 183 for students in higher education.

Housing
Three types of financial support are available for housing, which cannot be combined:
• Social housing allowance (Allocation de Logement à caractère Social, ALS) is a benefit
paid directly to tenants. To be eligible, the tenant must live in the residence for at
least 8 months per year. This is the most common social benefit used by students.
• Personalized housing allowance (Aide Personnalisée au Logement, APL) is a benefit
paid directly to the landlord. The tenant pays the landlord only the difference between
the total amount of the rent and the APL. In order to use the APL, the landlord must
undertake to rent the apartment to low-income tenants, respecting a certain rent
threshold.
• Family housing allowance (Allocation de logement familiale, ALF) is a financial aid
whose purpose is to reduce the amount of rent for those raising children.

II. Reconciling work and family life

Employment
In 2023, the proportion of women aged 15-64 working part-time was 25.8%. This rate was
lower than the EU average (28.5%). For men, it was 7.7%, which was also lower than the
EU average (8.4%). Compared to 2009, an increase can be observed in the case of men:
the proportion of those employed part-time increased from 5.9% to 7.7%. However, there

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was a decrease for women from 31.0% to 25.8%. The employment rate of women aged
15-64 was 69.6% in 2023 (EU average: 66.4%), while in 2009 this value was 63.9%. The
proportion of men raising minor children was 89.3% in 2023 (EU average: 89.6%), and in
2009 it was 87.6%. For parents of children born after 2015, parental leave has been more
regular and the duration of the leave has been reduced. The benefit paid after the birth of
the first child is available to parents who take leave simultaneously or consecutively, or
they reduce their working time.

Carer’s leave
An employee is entitled to a maximum of 3-5 days of unpaid leave per year for the
purpose of caring for a sick child under the age of 16. From this the private sector may
differ, while in the public sector 14 days per year are available as unpaid leave.
In order to take care of a seriously ill child under the age of 20, a parent with at least one
year of employment can take up to three years of long-term care leave with part-time or
full leave. In the course of this, a maximum of 310 days of benefits will be paid to the
parent in the amount of EUR 44 per day if one of the parents stops working, or in the
amount of EUR 52 per day if a parent is taking care of the child alone. Similar care can
be requested if it is necessary to provide palliative care for the child (or a parent) living in
the same household as the employee.

Flexible working arrangements

All employees can request to work from home for part of their working time, typically
a combination of 1-2 days of telework and 3-4 days of office work is common in
office jobs.
Parents raising young children have the right to choose part-time employment after
parental leave.

Early childhood and education care

The ECEC system provides many forms of care, kindergarten (pre-primary schools) is
mandatory and free for all children from the age of 3 (écoles maternelles). Depending
on the available places, children can be admitted from the age of 2. There is no statutory
guarantee of day care for children under 3 years of age. Primary education starts
at the age of 6.
Different forms of childcare are available for children younger than 3 years old. The
Family Allocations Office (Caisse des allocations familiales) provides significant support
for child care solutions even before the age of 3. Parents, if they have a registered job, can
choose from 4 options:
• employment of a certified childcare worker in the family’s home: additional support
can be requested;
• family day care: additional support can be requested;

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• mini-crèches : care fee adjusted to income situation;

• crèches: care fee adjusted to income situation.

In 2023, 57% of children aged 0–3 received nursery services, which was higher than
the EU average (37%) and 32% in 2005. In 2023 97% of children aged 3–6 attended
kindergarten / pre-primary schools, thus exceeding the EU average (89%) and barely
changing compared to 2005 (96%).

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 Germany

KEY DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS

2001 2011 2016 2021 2022 2023

Population 82 259 540 80 222 065 82 175 684 83 155 031 83 237 124 84 358 845

Live birth (persons) 734 475 662 685 792 141 795 492 738 819 692 989 *

Death (persons) 828 541 852 328 910 902 1 023 687 1 066 321 1 028 200 *

Immigrant (persons) 879 217 489 422 1 029 852 874 367 2 071 690 N/A

Emigrant (persons) 606 494 249 045 533 762 543 162 533 485 N/A

Marriage (number) 389 591 377 816 410 426 357 785 390 743 360 979 *

Divorce (number) 197 498 187 640 162 397 142 751 137 353 * 129 008*

TFR 1.38 1.39 1.60 1.58 1.46 1.35*

Source: Eurostat, *German Statistical Office (Download date: 12.08.2024.)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

700 000 600 000 500 000 400 000 300 000 200 000 100 000 0 100 000 200 000 300 000 400 000 500 000 600 000 700 000

168
 Germany

DEMOGRAPHICS
After the turn of the millennium, the German state kept its population above 82 million for
nine years, which began to decline as of 2009, but even then it exceeded 80 million. In 2015,
the population started to grow again and reached 84,358,845 people on 1 January 2023.
Approximately 14 million foreigners lived in Germany at the end of 2023.1 According to
the Federal Statistical Office, one-third of the total foreign population comes from the
EU, while two-thirds comes from outside the EU. The three largest groups are the Turks
(1.5 million; 11%), the Ukrainians (1.2 million; 9%) and the Syrians (1 million; 9%). The
number of Polish and Romanian citizens is also approaching 1 million.

The population pyramid of Germany shows the picture of an aging society, with a slight
increase only in the age group around 30.
The number of live births increased by 61,000 between 2001 and 2021, and then decreased
by more than 100,000 by 2023, resulting in a 5.6% decrease between 2001 and 2023. The
number of deaths has increased gradually and has already exceeded 1 million in the last
three years. There was a significant increase between 2001 and 2023 (24.1%). The number
of deaths exceeded the number of births in all examined years, but while in 2001 there was
a natural decrease of 94 thousand people, it exceeded 335 thousand people by 2023.

The increase in the population of the country is due to the positive migration balance.
Immigration was extremely high during the migration crisis, the number of immigrants
almost doubled from 2014 to 2015. In 2014, 884,893 immigrants were registered, and in
2015, 1.571,047 foreign citizens arrived to the country. In 2022, the number of immigrants
exceeded the 2015 value and more than 2 million people arrived, increasing their number
by 135.6% between 2001 and 2022. The number of emigrants decreased first from 2008-
2009 and then increased again from 2013. From 2001 to 2022, 12% fewer people left
Germany overall.

There is a fluctuation in the number of marriages. There has been an increase since
2011, with almost 20,000 more marriages in 2016 than in 2001. Then the number of
marriages began to decrease. In 2022, following the coronavirus outbreak, the number
of marriages increased and 390,743 couples got married. By 2023, this did not last, with
almost 30,000 fewer people joining their lives than in 2022, and 7.3% fewer than in 2001.
In today’s Federal Republic, only during the First World War, between 1915 and 1918
were recorded fewer marriages.
The number of divorces has been declining steadily since 2011, except for 2019, where
there was a small increase compared to the previous year. In 2023, approximately 31%

1
https://www.destatis.de/EN/Themes/Society-Environment/Population/Migration-Integration/Tables/nowcast-foreigner-citizen-
ship-time-series.html

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Germany

fewer divorces were registered than in 2011. The number of divorces also decreased in
2023, and 34.7% fewer divorces were registered compared to 2001.
The fertility rate was 1.38 in 2001, which increased steadily from 2009 to 2016, when
it was 1.60. After 2016, its value fluctuated between 1.5 and 1.6. In 2022, it decreased
significantly (1.46), equal to the EU average. The decline continued in 2023 (1.35).

FAMILY POLICY

I. System of family support

Birth grant
In Germany, there is no such benefit.

Maternity leave and benefit

The length of maternity leave (Mutterschaftsurlaub/Mutterschutzfrist) is 14 weeks, of
which 6 weeks can be taken before childbirth and at least 8 weeks must be taken after
childbirth. In the case of premature or multiple births, this increases with 4 weeks and
can be taken up to 12 weeks after childbirth.2
The maternity benefit (Mutterschaftsgeld) is eligible during maternity leave for working
mothers who have health insurance. The monthly amount of the maternity benefit is
100% of the average wage for the 3 months preceding the birth, of which EUR 13 per day
is covered by the health insurance, while the excess is paid by the employer.
Uninsured mothers receive a one-time benefit of up to EUR 210 for the entire period of
maternity leave. Adoptive mothers are not entitled to maternity leave, but are entitled to
parental leave.

Paternity leave
There is no dedicated paternity leave in the country, fathers can take parental leave at
the birth of their child, of which 2 months are exclusively reserved for them. The Federal
Minister for Family Affairs has announced that fathers will be entitled to 2 weeks of paid
paternity leave by law in the course of 2024.

Parental leave and benefit

Parental leave (Elternzeit) can be taken up to the age of 3: the mother can use it after the
end of maternity leave, and the father can use it from the day of the child’s birth at the
earliest. Parents are free to decide when and for how long to take childcare leave, or to
divide it into two or three separate parts. Adoptive parents and foster parents are entitled

2
https://familienportal.de/familienportal/familienleistungen/familienleistungen-ueberblick

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 Germany

to parental leave under the same conditions as biological parents. In the case of adoption,
the entitlement is valid from the time the child enters the household until the age of 8.
The use of parental leave is independent of the parental allowance (Elterngeld), but the
benefit is basically paid until the child is 2 years old. During parental leave, there are three
forms of childcare benefit for parents that can be combined:
• parental support (Basiselterngeld);
• parental support plus (ElterngeldPlus);
• partner bonus (Partnerschaftsbonus).

Parental support (Basiselterngeld) is available up to 12 months of age of the child. Parents

are entitled to an extra payment of 2 months per so-called partner month if both parents
use the parental allowance and their income from earning activity decreases for at least
2 months (shared months) or if the parent raises their child alone. The amount of the
benefit is 65% of the previous year’s earnings, depending on income, EUR 300-1,800
per month. Unemployed parents are therefore entitled to EUR 300 per month. A parent
receiving parental support may engage in part-time gainful activity for up to 32 hours per
week if the parental support is combined with the parental support plus.
Parental support plus (Elterngeld Plus) can be used for a maximum of 24 (+4 bonus)
months until the child turns 2 years old. The additional amount of the parental support
plus is 65% of the difference between the earnings before the birth of the child and
the current earnings, depending on income, EUR 150-900 per month. Parental support
plus, as a rule, can be used until the child turns 2 years old, but if the other parent
also uses it (working 24–32 hours a week part-time), it will be paid as a partner bonus
(Partnerschaftsbonus) for 2-4 additional months. The amount of the partner bonus is
calculated in the same way as the parental support plus.
If the parent raises at least two children under the age of 3, or at least three children under
the age of 6, or a disabled sibling under the age of 14, the amount of the allowance will be
increased by 10%, by at least EUR 75 per month for the parental support and by EUR 37
for the parental support plus (Geschwisterbonus).

Child benefit
All taxpayers, persons residing in Germany are entitled to child benefit (Kindergeld)
for their own or adopted children or the children of their spouse. It can also be used
by grandparents, if they live in the same household with children. The benefit is due
until the child is 18 years old, or 21 years old if he/she has not yet had an employment
relationship and is registered as a job seeker, or 25 years old if he/she is in school or
vocational training, performs voluntary service, has a transition between courses of up to
4 months, cannot continue the internship due to the lack of internships or is permanently
ill or disabled. The monthly amount of the child benefit is EUR 250 per child, regardless
of age.

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The supplementary allowance (Kinderzuschlag) is paid in addition to the child benefit to

families with a gross income of at least 900 EUR or 600 EUR for single parents, where
the family cannot cover all its needs. For being eligible to it, it is a condition that an
unmarried child under the age of 25 shall live in the household and that the family can
make ends meet together with the supplementary allowance and the housing allowance.
The amount depends on the financial situation of the family and is up to EUR 209 per
child per month.
Families receiving supplementary allowance or housing allowance are entitled to an
education and participation package (Bildungs- und Teilhabepaket), in the framework of
which children can participate in excursions, receive a subsidy of EUR 156 per year for
school equipment, as well as free public transport tickets, school meals, tutoring support,
and sports and cultural program support up to EUR 15 per month.

Tax credits and other benefits

Family taxation
In the event that a family is better off with a child tax allowance (Kinderfreibetrag), it
may decide to use the tax allowance instead of the child benefit. (So it is worth using the
tax allowance for families with higher incomes.) The tax allowance is due until the child
is 18 years old (21 years old in the case of a job-seeking young person), in the amount of
EUR 6,384 per year in 2024, of which both parents are entitled to half. In addition, a tax
deduction of EUR 2,928 (EUR 1,464 per parent) is due, which can be applied in the field
of childcare, education or training.
In 2024, married couples do not have to pay any personal income tax up to the annual
income limit of EUR 23,208.3

Housing
Under the housing allowance (Wohngeld), approximately 2 million households are eligible
for housing maintenance support. The average amount of housing allowance paid is EUR
400 per household per month. The amount of the allowance is determined by the size of
the family, its income and the amount of the rent: the income threshold is EUR 1,450 per
month for singles, EUR 2,250 for couples without children, and EUR 3,270 for a family
with two children.

3
https://taxsummaries.pwc.com/germany/individual/taxes-on-personal-income

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 Germany

II. Reconciling work and family life

Employment
The employment rate of women and men aged 18-64 raising young children is quite high
in Germany: in 2023, this rate is 67.4% (EU average: 66.4%) for women raising children
under the age of 6, and 91.3% (EU average: 89.6%) for men, which increased compared to
2009, (male: 87.8%, female: 54.7%). Part-time employment among working women was
47.9% in 2023 and 11.5% for men. These values are also above the EU average (28.5% and
8.4%, respectively). Compared to 2009, the data has deteriorated, then 54.3% of women
and 12.4% of men worked part-time. In 2022, three-quarters of the parental support was
used by mothers and one-quarter by fathers. 38.7% of eligible mothers and 16.1% of
fathers chose parental support plus (paid for longer periods). The average duration of
parental leave planned by mothers in 2022 was 14.6 months.

Carer’s leave
In the case of sickness of a child (under the age of 12), working parents with public health
insurance (not parents with private health insurance) can take up to 30 days of leave per
child (60 days in the case of a single parent). Parents usually receive 90% of their net salary
during carer’s leave. In the case of three or more children, parents are entitled to a maximum
of 65 days of leave per person per year (130 days in the case of a single parent).
In the event of an unexpected illness of a person in need of care, his/her relative is entitled
to 10 days of leave, and otherwise 6 months of long-term care leave. Both entitlements
are unpaid.

Flexible working arrangements

Mothers are entitled to 60-90 minutes of paid breastfeeding break per day. Mothers
working from home should be paid an amount equal to the average hourly wage for
breastfeeding.
The Ministry of Family, Elderly, Women and Youth, together with employers and trade
unions, has developed the “Family is a Success Factor” “Erfolgsfaktor Familie” program,
which encourages employers to offer flexible working opportunities to employees.
Part-time employment is available during parental leave: Workers who have worked in
the same workplace for more than 6 months and have more than 15 employees in the
company can benefit from a reduction to part-time work (Teilzeit).
Temporary part-time work (Brückenteilzeit) is available to employees who have worked
for more than 6 months in the same workplace and where more than 45 employees
work for the company. They have the right to reduce their working time for a specified
period, which can be between 1 and 5 years, and then return to full-time work. Employers
may reject a worker’s request for such a temporary reduction of working time for
operational reasons.

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Germany

Early childhood education and care

In Germany, the day care of young children is provided by a wide range of institutions,
including nurseries, kindergartens, parent-child centers, family day care centers, childcare
centers and all-day schools. Since August 2013, every child has the right to attend
a children’s institution after the age of 1. In most cases, participation in the institution is
subject to the payment of a fee, which means a lower amount in public institutions. The
state reduces the fee for families with various discounts and vouchers.
Based on 2023 data, 23% of children aged 0–3 received nursery care, which is much lower
than the EU average (37%) and represents an increase compared to 16% in 2005. In 2023,
86% of children aged 3-6 went to kindergarten, which is below the EU average (89%) and
shows only a slight increase compared to 2005 (83%).4

4
https://www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/Gesellschaft-Umwelt/Soziales/Kindertagesbetreuung/Tabellen/betreuungsquote.html;jsessio-
nid=8E36F4B501E9CF037BA4360C38A14DC9.live741

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 Greece

KEY DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS

2001 2011 2016 2021 2022 2023

Population 10 835 989 11 123 392 10 783 748 10 678 632 10 459 782 10 413 982

Live birth (persons) 102 282 106 428 92 898 85 346 75 899 71 220

Death (persons) 102 559 111 099 118 788 143 923 139 921 127 183

Immigrant (persons) 98 471 60 089 116 867 57 120 96 662 N/A

Emigrant (persons) 45 909 92 404 106 535 79 596 80 307 N/A

Marriage (number) 58 491 55 099 49 632 40 759 43 355 N/A

Divorce (number) 11 184 12 705 11 013 13 921 14 477* N/A

TFR 1.25 1.40 1.38 1.43 1.32 N/A

Source: Eurostat, * Greek Statistical Office (Download date: 12.08.2024)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 000 75 000 50 000 25 000 0 25 000 50 000 75 000 100 000

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 Greece

DEMOGRAPHICS
Greece’s population grew steadily between 2000 and 2011, but this reversed in 2012 and
has been on a downward trend since then. From the turn of the millennium to 2011, the
number of inhabitants increased by 3%, while from 2011 to 2023 it fell by more than 6%.
On 1 January 2023, the population of Greece was 10,413,982. More than 90% of them are
Greeks, while there are also significant numbers of Turks, Macedonians, Albanians and
Bulgarians living in the country.

The population pyramid of the country shows the picture of an aging society, where the
number of people under the age of 40 is decreasing sharply. There was a slight increase
only in the case of the age group in their early 10s, but among those under 10 years the
decrease is significant again.

During the years following 2011, the number of live births, which was previously around
110,000, decreased significantly, first to 90,000, and then to less than 72,000 in 2023,
which is a 30% decrease compared to 2001. During the same period, the number of
deaths increased by 24%. While the number of live births and deaths was the same in
2001, in 2016, 26,000 more people died than were born, and in 2023 the number of deaths
exceeded the number of live births by 80%.

Since 2001, the rate of emigration has almost doubled. From 2012 to 2018, more than
100,000 people left the country every year, while in the period before 2010, the number
of emigrants was only around 40-60,000 per year. In 2001, immigration was still around
100,000 people, which dropped to 60-70,000 people, but in 2016 it increased again
significantly and in 2022, it was still high. The balance of migration has been positive
since 2016 - excluding the year 2021 affected by closures due to COVID-19 - while in
previous years 30,000 to 60,000 more people left than arrived in general.

The number of marriages shows a continuous decrease, compared to 2001, about 26%
fewer people got married in 2022. The number of divorces increased in the same period,
with nearly 30% more people getting divorced in 2022 than in 2001.
The total fertility rate rose from the early 2000s to 2009 (1.5), then fell back to 1.29 in
2013, and was between 1.3 and 1.43 since then. In 2022, its value was 1.32, which was
below the European Union average of 1.46.

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Greece

FAMILY POLICY

I. System of family support

Birth grant
Mothers residing legally and permanently in Greece receive a childbirth benefit (Επιδομα
Γεννησησ) after giving birth, provided that the family’s annual income does not exceed
EUR 40,000.1 The amount is EUR 2,000, which is paid in two equal instalments to the
mother: the first in the first month after birth, the second in the sixth month after birth.
For women who give birth outside of a hospital (legally and under controlled conditions),
there is a special lump-sum childbirth allowance (βοήθημα τοκετού;). This amounts to
EUR 900 for one child, EUR 1,200 for twins and EUR 1,600 for triplets.

Maternity leave and benefit

The Greek system of subsidies for the care of young children is basically based on three
forms of support: maternity benefit, supplementary maternity allowance and special
maternity protection allowance. The benefits are linked to the social security system and
are taxed.
In the 2 years before giving birth, you must have at least 200 days of certified employment
in order to use the maternity benefits (επίδομα κυοφορίας-λοχείας). The period of
maternity leave (αδεια μητροτητασ) is 119 days, of which 56 days can be used before the
expected date of birth and 63 days after. The amount of the benefit is 50% of the daily
wage estimated based on the insurance category, which is calculated from the average
earnings of the 30 days before the birth, as well as an additional 10% of this amount per
child. Its amount cannot be less than two-thirds of the previous earnings, the maximum
amount for one child is EUR 47 per day, and for four or more children the maximum
amount increases to EUR 66 per day.
Supplementary maternity allowance (συμπληρωματικεσ παροχεσ μητροτητασ) can be
used by the mother for an additional 119 days after the end of maternity leave, up to
a maximum of 6 months. Its amount covers the difference between the wage paid by the
employer and the maternity benefit (if any). Thus, it provides working but low-income
mothers with extra benefits.
The special maternity protection allowance (Ειδικη Παροχη Προστασιασ) can be used by
working mothers for a maximum of 9 months after maternity leave (of which 7 months
can be transferred to the father under certain conditions). It is paid by the employment
service, and the amount is the same as the minimum wage, which was EUR 713 in 2022.
The above benefits are also available for adoptive parents.

1
https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1112&intPageId=4560&langId=en

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 Greece

Paternity leave
In Greece, fathers are entitled to 14 days of paternity leave (Αδεια Πατροτητασ), for which
they are entitled to 100% of their previous earnings. Paternity leave can start 2 days
before the expected due date and can be used continuously or intermittently until the
child is one month old.

Parental leave and benefit

Under the parental leave (Γονική Άδεια), both parents are entitled to a maximum of
4 months of non-transferable leave, of which the first 2 months are paid, and this is payed
by the employment service. In the event of the birth of several children, the benefit is
extended for an additional 2 months, regardless of the number of children born together.
In special cases, when one parent is not present, the leave and benefits are doubled (i.e.
a maximum of 8 months of leave, of which the first 4 months are paid by the employment
service). Parental leave can be used until the child is 8 years old, its monthly amount is
the same as the minimum wage, in 2022 it was EUR 713 per child.2
In addition to the above, employees in the public sector are entitled to 5 years of parental
leave per parent, during which the amount due for general parental leave is paid for
4 months each, and the rest of the leave is unpaid.

Child benefit
All parents are entitled to child benefit (Επιδομα Παιδιου) who have lived in Greece for at
least 5 years (12 years is required for residents of a third country). It is paid until the child
is 18 years old, or until the age of 19 for secondary school studies, and until the age of 24
for higher education studies, in case of disability or orphanhood.
The amount of the child benefit depends on which income category the family falls into
based on total income and the number of children.
• In the range below EUR 6,000, the child benefit is EUR 70 for the first and second
child, EUR 140 for the third and all subsequent children.
• Between EUR 6,001 and EUR 10,000, EUR 42 for the first two children, then EUR 84
from the third child.

With an income between EUR 10,001 and EUR 15,000, families receive a benefit of EUR
28 for the first two children and EUR 56 for the third and subsequent children.
The child benefit is tax- and contribution-free and is paid every two months.

2
Blum et al. Leave Policies 2023

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Greece

Tax credits and other benefits

Family taxation
In Greece, there is no such benefit.

Benefit for families living in mountainous and disadvantaged areas3

The benefit granted to families living in mountainous and disadvantaged areas (Επίδομα
Ορεινον Και Μειονεκτικόν Περιοχών) is granted to families living in mountainous and/or
disadvantaged areas for at least 2 years before the application is submitted, whose family
income does not reach EUR 4,700.
The amount is:
• EUR 600 per year, if the family’s annual income does not exceed EUR 3,000;
• EUR 300 per year for annual family income between EUR 3,000.01 and EUR 4,700.

Housing
In Greece, there is no such benefit.

II. Reconciling work and family life

Employment
In Greece, the labor market participation of mothers with young children is low: in 2023
among families where the youngest child is under 6 years old, the employment rate of
mothers of age 18-64 was 54,5%, which was one of the lowest among EU member states
(EU average 66.4%). For fathers, this rate (90.0%) is close to the EU average (89.6%),
while in 2009 the Greek value was still well above the EU average (86.1% and 93.8%). The
scope of part-time work opportunities has expanded little over the past decade: in 2023,
11.7% of women aged 15-64 worked part-time (EU average 28.5%). For men, the same
rate is 4.0% (EU average 8.4%). In 2009, part-time employment for men was 2.9%, and
for women 10.7%, which values ​​were still below the EU average.

Carer’s leave
Greece has a very extensive carer’s leave system. A parent working in the private sector
is entitled to 6-10 days of paid sick leave per year, for the purpose of caring for a sick
child, to which both parents are entitled separately and receive at least 66% of their
salary. In addition, in case of long-term hospital care, the parent is entitled to 30 days of
unpaid leave. Every parent whose child (up to the age of 18) needs regular transfusions
or dialysis, has cancer, needs a transplant, is affected by Down’s syndrome or autism

3
https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1112&intPageId=4560&langId=en

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 Greece

is entitled to 10-10 days a year which is at least 66% paid. In addition to the above, the
employee is entitled to 5 days of unpaid leave per year for the purpose of taking care of
relatives, as well as 1 day twice a year in case of force majeure.
Parents working in the public sector are also entitled to 6-10 days of paid sick leave per
year for the purpose of caring for a sick child, to which both parents are entitled separately
and receive at least 66% of their salary. In addition, in case of long-term hospital care, the
parent is entitled to 30 days of unpaid leave. Every parent whose child (up to the age of
18) needs regular transfusions or dialysis, has cancer, needs a transplant, is affected by
Down’s syndrome or autism is entitled to 22-32 days of leave - which is at least 66% paid
- per year. A parent raising a child with cancer is entitled to 2 days per treatment which
is also at least 66% paid. In the case of a severely disabled child, the parent is entitled to
at least 6 days of 66% paid leave per year. In the case of a spouse affected by a certain
illness, the employee is entitled to 32 days of at least 66% paid leave per year. In the case
of a spouse with cancer, the employee is entitled to 2 days of unpaid leave per treatment.

Flexible working arrangements

In addition to parental leave, one parent is also entitled to additional childcare leave (αδεια
φροντιδασ τεκνου). You can choose from several options: you can reduce your working
time by 1 hour for 30 months, or 2 hours for 12 months and 1 hour for 6 months. If you
choose these options, you will receive your full salary from your employer. Eligibility
requires working in the private sector and at least 6 months of employment.
All working parents raising or caring for a child under the age of 12 are entitled to request
flexible working hours, telework or part-time employment for taking care of the child.
To benefit from such measures, the working parent or carer must have 6 months of
continuous employment or a consecutive fixed-term employment contract with the same
employer. In case of rejection, the employer must document the reason for the possible
rejection or postponement of the request.

Early childhood and education care

Greek children can attend early childcare centres (nurseries) from the age of 6 months to
4 years. Between the ages of 2.5 and 4, parents can apply for a place, while from the age of 4,
children can attend pre-school (weekly 25 hours program), which is compulsory for children
aged 5-6. Primary school education begins at the age of 6.4 Pre-school participation is free
in Greece, but the different ECEC institutions for children under age 4 may require fees on
a monthly basis, depending on the economic status of the family. In 2023, 30% of children
aged 0–3 attended nursery, which was better than the EU average (37%), thus increasing
significantly compared to 9% in 2007. In 2023, 80.587% of 3-6-year-olds went to kindergarten,
which was the same as the EU average (89%) and higher than 72% in 2007.

4
https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-education-systems/greece/early-childhood-education-and-care

181
 Hungary

KEY DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS

2001 2011 2016 2021 2022 2023

Population 10 200 298 9 985 722 9 830 485 9 730 772 9 689 010 9 599 744

Live birth (persons) 97 047 88 049 95 361 94 003 89 669 87 671

Death (persons) 132 183 128 795 127 098 156 131 136 823 128 176*

Immigrant (persons) 22 079 28 018 53 618 80 471 94 148 96 192*

Emigrant (persons) 2 591 15 100 39 889 67 999 58 408 71 369

Marriage (number) 43 583 35 812 51 805 72 030 63 967 50 139*

Divorce (number) 24 391 23 335 19 552 18 092* 17 695 16 791*

TFR 1.66 1.52 1.53 1.61 1.56 1.51*

Source: Eurostat, * Hungarian Central Statistical Office (Download date: 21.08.2024.)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

150 000 125 000 100 000 75 000 50 000 25 000 0 25 000 50 000 75 000 100 000 125 000 150 000

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 Hungary

DEMOGRAPHICS
The population of Hungary has been declining continuously since 1981 (10,712,781
people). In 2023, there were 9,599,744 people, 10.4% less than in 1981 and 4.8% less
than in January 2001. At the time of the 2022 official census, 84% of the population
declared themselves Hungarian, 2% Gypsy/Roma, 1% German, and 14% did not answer
the question.
The population pyramid of Hungary shows the picture of an aging society with a sharply
decreasing population between the ages of 30–40.

The number of live births decreased sharply from 2001 to 2011, and then the trend
reversed, and despite the continuous decrease in the number of women of childbearing
age, the number of births increased to over 90,000, and from 2022 the number of births
began to decrease again.

The death rate fluctuated, exceeding the number of live births by at least 30-40 thousand
throughout. The exception is the extremely high value due to the 2021 COVID epidemic,
when the difference was 62 thousand. In 2023, mortality fell to pre-pandemic levels and
decreased by 3% compared to 2001. The rate of immigration more than quadrupled
during the period under review (2001: 22,079 persons; 2023: 96,192 persons). The rate
of increase in emigration, similar to immigration, has increased significantly since the
middle of the 2010 decade, increasing by almost 79% between 2016 and 2023.

Between 2011 and 2021, the number of marriages more than doubled, decreasing in 2022
and 2023 compared to the peak in 2021. However, compared to 2001, 6.5 thousand (15%)
more people got married in 2023. The number of divorces decreased by 31.2% (7,600)
compared to 2001. Between 2019 and 2022, the balance of marriages is positive, that
is, more marriages were concluded in Hungary than were terminated by divorce or the
death of one of the parties.

The fertility rate increased by 30.9% from a low of 1.23 in 2011 to a peak of 1.61 in 2021,
and then decreased in 2022 and 2023. In 2011, Hungary was the country with the lowest
fertility within the European Union, but in 2022, it had the sixth highest value, above the
EU average (1.46).

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Hungary

FAMILY POLICY

I. System of family support1

Birth grant
Maternity allowance is a one-off benefit after childbirth, subject to the condition that
the pregnant woman participates in pregnancy care at least 4 times. Its amount is HUF
64,125 (EUR 160) in 2024 and HUF 85,500 (EUR 213) for twins per child. The adoptive
parent is also entitled to maternity allowance. Maternity allowance under the Umbilical
Cord program is also paid from 2018 for children of Hungarian citizenship or Hungarian
descent born abroad.

Baby Bond
The Baby Bond is a registered government bond that can be purchased until the child
is 18 years old. For all children born in Hungary and born abroad with Hungarian
citizenship or “Hungarian ID”, the state provides a life start allowance of HUF 42,500
(EUR 106), which is deposited in a deposit account in the Hungarian State Treasury. If
a Treasury Start Securities Account is subsequently opened for the child and the support
is transferred to it, it will continue to be remunerated as a Baby Bond, on which any
additional amounts can be paid into the account until the child is 18 years old. Currently,
the state pays an annual inflation plus an interest premium of 3% on the amount on the
account. The account can be accessed after the child has reached the age of 18, at the
earliest after the 3rd year following the opening of the account and at the expiry of the
Baby Bond.

Maternity leave and benefit

The mother is entitled to 24 weeks of maternity leave at the birth of her child, of which
she must take 2 weeks. Maternity leave must be granted in a way that does not exceed
4 weeks before the expected date of birth.
The infant care allowance (csed) is a monthly cash allowance for maternity leave, depending
on earnings, subject to prior employment or insurance coverage. The condition of its
disbursement is an insured status of at least 365 days within the 2 years preceding the
birth. It amounts to 100% of the previous income and is a personal income taxable benefit,
so its net amount is higher than the mother’s previous salary. Infant care fee is paid for
a period equal to the duration of the maternity leave, i.e. up to 24 weeks, but not more than
168 days after the birth of the child. Infant care fee is not paid if the mother is engaged
in earning activities.

1
In terms of benefits, we calculated with a HUF-EUR exchange rate of HUF 400

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Paternity leave
The paid leave available to fathers in the case of the birth of a child (also in the case of
twins) is 10 working days. It can be used until the end of the 2nd month after birth at the
latest and can be taken in not more than two parts. The employee is entitled to absentee
pay (i.e. 100% of his earnings) for the first 5 working days and 40% of the absentee pay for
the remaining period.

Parental leave and benefit

Parental leave, after the end of maternity leave, is an additional leave that can be taken
for the purpose of caring for the child, which can be taken by the mother or father at
the choice of the family until the child reaches the age of 3. This period is considered an
insured relationship and the claiming parent is entitled to termination protection. For
this period, several types of benefits can be requested depending on the age of the child,
the number of siblings and the insured status of the parents.
The child care fee (gyed) is a monthly cash allowance depending on earnings, subject to
prior work. The condition of its use is that the parent raising the child in his/her own
household is insured for 365 days within 2 years before the birth of the child (this does
not have to be continuous). Its amount is 70% of the average of the calendar day of the
eligible income, up to a maximum of 70% of the double of the current minimum wage
per child, which is HUF 373,520 (EUR 933) gross per month in 2024. If a parent would
be entitled to gyed for more than one child at the same time, the maximum amount is
to be calculated per child. Simultaneous with the disbursement of child care fee, earning
activities can be carried out, personal income tax and pension contributions are deducted
from this benefit.
Child care fee is payable from the day after the expiry of the infant care fee until the child
reaches the age of 2, even if the parent is working and even if the child has a sibling (Gyed
Extra), after whom the parent is also entitled to the same age-appropriate benefit. In the case
of twins, the disbursement is extended for another 1 year, that is, until the children reach the
age of 3.

Child care fee for graduates

A higher education student can receive a so-called child care fee for graduates if she meets
all of the following conditions:
• had an active higher education status for at least 2 semesters within 2 years before
the birth of the child,
• at the time of birth of the child, no more than 1 year has elapsed since the suspension
or termination of the student status,
• raises the child in her own household,
• is a citizen of Hungary or an EEA Member State,

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• had a place of residence in Hungary at the time of birth of her child.

The father may also be entitled to child care fee for graduates if he meets the conditions,
while the mother does not. Child care fee for graduates is disbursed from the birth of the
child until the child reaches the age of 2. In 2024, its daily amount is one-thirtieth part of
70% of the minimum wage (in 2024: HUF 266,800 (EUR 667), HUF 6,225 (EUR 15) per day)
valid on the start date of eligibility for students participating in higher education, vocational
education or vocational training. For students enrolled in a master’s, single, split or doctoral
programme, it amounts to one-thirtieth part of 70% of the guaranteed minimum wage valid
on the start date of eligibility (in 2024: HUF 326,000 (EUR 815)), HUF 7,607 (EUR 19). It is
possible to carry out earning activities from the 169th day of receiving the allowance.

Child care fee for grandparents

As of January 1, 2020, non-retired grandparents can also become entitled to child care
fee (gyed) if they undertake to participate in the care and upbringing of their grandchild
while the parents are at work. In addition, it is a condition that the grandparent is insured
for 365 days within 2 years before the birth, the parents of the child engage in gainful
activity and raise the child themselves. Grandparents’ child care is paid until the child is
2 years old, or until the child is 3 years old for twins. Its amount must be determined on
the basis of the rules applicable to general child care fee. A grandparent can only pursue
other earning activities at home.

Child care allowance

The child care allowance (gyes) is a monthly cash allowance for the parent raising the
child in his/her own household, from the birth of the child until the age of 3 (up to 6 years
in the case of twins, up to 10 years in the case of a permanently ill child). It cannot be
disbursed in addition to infant care fee and child care fee. Its monthly amount is equal
to the current pension minimum of HUF 28,500 (EUR 70) and is due per child for twins.
A grandparent is also entitled to child care allowance if the child is over 1 year old, is
raised by the parents, and there is no other child in the parent’s household receiving child
care allowance. From the age of 3, the grandparent can engage in occupational activities
for a maximum of 30 hours a week or full-time if he/she does so at home.

Child raising support

Families with three or more children are entitled to child raising support (gyet), the
monthly amount of which – regardless of the number of children – is the current pension
minimum, i.e. HUF 28,500 (EUR 71). The support is paid from the age of 3 to the age of
8 of the youngest child. Eligibility ceases if the number of children under the age of 18
falls below three. In addition to child raising support, earning activities can be carried
out for a maximum of 30 hours a week, or without a time limit if the work is carried out
at home.

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Child benefit
In Hungary, family allowance (child raising allowance until the beginning of the
compulsory school age, then called educational allowance) is granted on a universal
basis for a child living in the household until the age of 18. This can be extended to the
age of 20 if the child is studying in a public education institution or vocational training
institution, and to the age of 23 in the case of a disabled child. A condition of disbursing
the allowance is that the child fulfills his/her obligation to attend kindergarten or school.
The person entitled to the allowance is the biological or adoptive parent, as well as the
spouse/partner living with the parent, guardian or the head of the institution where the
child is placed. A person over the age of 18, or who is permanently ill or severely disabled
and is no longer entitled to educational allowance may apply for child raising allowance
in his/her own right. The amount of family allowance per month in 2024:
in a two-parent family:
• HUF 12,200 (EUR 30) for 1 child;
• HUF 13,300 (EUR 33) for 2 children (per child);
• HUF 16,000 (EUR 40) for 3 or more children (per child);
• HUF 23,300 (EUR 58) for a permanently ill, disabled child (per child);
in a single-parent family:
• HUF 13,700 (EUR 34) for 1 child;
• HUF 14,800 (EUR 37) for 2 children (per child);
• HUF 17,000 (EUR 42) for 3 or more children (per child);
• HUF 25,900 (EUR 64) for a permanently ill, disabled child;
• HUF 20,300 (EUR 50) for an adult, disabled child (per child).

Family tax credits and benefits

In Hungary, the family policy system provides several types of tax benefits, which can
be used side by side, depending on income. Tax credits are considered in the following
order: 1. Tax credit for mothers of four or more children, 2. Tax credit for young people
under the age of 25, 3. Tax credit for mothers under the age of 30, 4. Personal benefit, 5.
Tax benefit for newly married couples, 6. Family tax credit and 7. Family contribution
credit.

Family tax and contribution benefit

Family-type taxation has been in force in Hungary since 2011, in which the tax and
contribution payment obligation of parents raising children is reduced on the basis of
the number of children. A spouse who is entitled to family allowance or lives with such
a person in the same household, as well as a pregnant woman and her spouse, may
benefit from personal income tax and contribution allowance, even jointly or shared. The
condition for the discount is the declared employment or other gainful occupation.

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The family tax and contribution allowance can be applied from the age of 91 days of the
foetus. The net monthly amount per child increases with the number of children in the
family: HUF 10,000 for a family with one child, HUF 20,000 per child for a family with
two children, and HUF 33,000 per child for large families (3 or more children).
This means that in 2024, the tax base can be reduced per child by HUF 66,670 (EUR 166)
for one child, by HUF 133,300 (EUR 333) for two children, and by HUF 220,000 (EUR
550) for three or more children, which can also be applied from personal income tax
(family tax credit) and social security contributions (family contribution benefit).
It means that every month in 2024, the net income of the family
• with one child, is higher with HUF 10,000 (EUR 25),
• with two children, HUF 40,000 (EUR 100),
• with three children, HUF 99,000 (EUR 247).

Tax credit for mothers of four or more children

From 1 January 2020, all mothers with four or more children are exempt from paying
personal income tax (currently 15%).

Tax credit for young people under the age of 25

From 1 January 2022, young people under the age of 25 do not have to pay personal
income tax if their monthly income does not exceed the average wage (HUF 576,601, that
is, EUR 1,441 in 2024). In 2024, the discount means a maximum tax saving of HUF 86,490
(EUR 216) per month, which is how much more young people can receive. If their wage
is more than that, they have to pay tax on the amount above HUF 576,601. It can be used
for the last time in the month in which the beneficiary reaches the age of 25.

Tax credit for mothers under the age of 30

From 1 January 2023, women who have children before the age of 30 will be exempt from
personal income tax up to the amount of the average wage tax until their age of 30. In
2024, the discount is provided up to HUF 576,601 (EUR 1,441) per month and can mean
a maximum tax saving of HUF 86,490 (EUR 216) per month. If their wage is more than
that, they have to pay tax on the amount above HUF 576,601. This tax credit and the tax
credit for young people under the age of 25 cannot be applied at the same time.

Tax credit for first married couples

If at least one of the spouses has had their first marriage, their income may increase by
HUF 5,000 (EUR 12) per month for 2 years after conclusion of the marriage.

Baby expecting subsidy

Between 1 July 2019 and 31 December 2023, any married couple - where the wife is
between the ages of 18 and 41 - could apply for an interest-free loan of HUF 10 million

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(EUR 25,000). After 2024, the baby expecting subsidy is available for married couples
where the wife is between the ages of 18 and 30 and at least one of them has 3 years of
insurance. The loan amount will be a maximum of HUF 11 million (EUR 27,500) from
2024. If the wife is aged over 30 but under 41 and can prove that she is at least 12 weeks
pregnant, the couple will still be entitled to the subsidy.
The loan repayment installment is a maximum of HUF 51,000 (EUR 127) per month,
with a maturity of 5-20 years. If a child is born in the family within 5 years after the loan
application is submitted, they do not have to pay the installment for 3 years and become
entitled to interest-free repayment for the entire term, in the case of twin children, the
repayment suspension is 5 years. If the second child is born, the repayment will be
suspended for another 3 years and 30% of the debt will be released. If the third child
arrives, the entire remaining debt will be waived. Only children born or adopted after
submitting the credit application count.
If no child is born, the interest subsidy received so far must be repaid and the remaining
capital will be repaid at an interest rate similar to the market. There is a possibility of
fairness when there is no need to repay the penalty interest or the couple may be exempted
from the obligation to repay the interest subsidy, for example, if they can prove that they
have unsuccessfully participated in a reproduction procedure on several occasions, or it
was found during the treatment that the couple cannot have a child.

Discounts related to student loans

From 1 January 2023, mothers under the age of 30, if they gave birth to or adopted a child
during their higher education or within 2 years after their successful completion, the
full amount of their student loan debt will be waived (waiving the student loan debt of
mothers under the age of 30).
In the case of the birth (adoption) of their second child, the mothers with student loans
are released from half of the student loan debt, and in the case of the birth (adoption) of
a third or more child, the entire outstanding debt (waiver of student loan debt).
Women with a student loan can request the suspension of their repayment obligation
from the 91st day of pregnancy for 3 years, during which their student loan debt will not
increase, as the interest payment is taken over by the state (student loan interest subsidy
and suspension of repayment).
For the duration of the infant care fee/child care fee/child care allowance, it is also
possible to request the suspension of the repayment obligation and the interest subsidy,
this discount can be used by any eligible parent (even the father) (student loan interest
subsidy and suspension of repayment).

Free textbooks
In Hungary, all students participating in public education receive their textbooks free of
charge. Textbook support is provided on a universal basis from the first grade, that is,
from the age of 6 until the end of high school, usually until the age of 18 of the children.

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Housing

CSOK Plus
Since 2016, the Family Housing Subsidy (CSOK), which is a non-refundable state subsidy
and the related preferential CSOK loan, has been helping families with children to buy
their own homes that are more suitable for them. Thanks to CSOK, every fourth Hungarian
family has been able to move to a better and more modern home in the past eight years.
The rules of CSOK were amended and CSOK Plus was introduced as of 1 January 2024.
CSOK Plus can be used by married couples where the wife has not yet reached the age
of 41 and who are planning to have children. Based on the number of children, it can
be applied for up to HUF 15, 30 or 50 million (EUR 37,500, EUR 75,000, EUR 125,000),
with a maximum interest rate of 3%. Upon the arrival of the first child, the repayment
of the loan is suspended for up to 1 year, and the capital debt of the loan is reduced by
HUF 10-10 million (EUR 25,000 – 25,000) for the second and each additional baby. In the
first year after the loan is taken out – if no child arrives yet – only the interest part of the
installment shall be paid, not the principal part.
1 future child 2 future children 3 future children

HUF 30 million
(EUR 75,000)
A loan of HUF 15 million
loan, birth of the first
(EUR 37,500)
child: a one-year
and
0 existing moratorium
a one-year
children birth of
moratorium
a second child:
at the birth
HUF 10 million HUF 50 million
of the child
(EUR 25,000) release (EUR 125,000)
from the capital loan, birth of the first
child: a one-year
HUF 30 million moratorium,
(EUR 75,000) birth of a second child:
loan and HUF 10 million (EUR
1 existing HUF 50 million
a one-year 25,000) release from
child (EUR 125,000)
moratorium the capital
at the birth loan, birth of the first birth of a third child:
of the child child: a one-year HUF 10 million
moratorium, (EUR 25,000) release
birth of from the capital
HUF 50 million a second child:
2 existing (EUR 125,000) HUF 10 million
children loan and (EUR 25,000) release
a one-year from the capital
moratorium
at the birth
3 or more
of the child
existing
children

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An additional condition for the application is the social security relationship and the
absence of public debt for at least 2 years. The state sets a deadline for the birth of
children: 4 years for one child, 8 years for two children and 10 years for three children. If
the couple wishes to have children by adoption, the deadline for having children may be
extended by 2 years. The purpose of CSOK Plus is to support realistic housing purposes,
so when acquiring the first common home, the price of the apartment should not exceed
HUF 80,000,000 (EUR 200,000), and in other cases HUF 150,000,000 (EUR 375,000).
CSOK Plus can also be applied for together with the Village CSOK. For homes purchased
with CSOK Plus, families are exempt from paying the 4% on-cost transfer duty.

Village CSOK
As of 1 July 2019, the Village Home Subsidy is available, which can be applied for in
settlements with a population decreasing more than average. Within the framework of
the Hungarian Village Program, it can be used in more than 2,600 settlements, up to 5,000
people, for the purchase, expansion, modernization, expansion, modernization of existing
second-hand apartments, or the purchase or construction of new single-dwelling residential
buildings.
The amount of the Village CSOK subsidy:
for the purchase of a second-hand apartment with expansion and/or modernization, as
well as in the case of the purchase or construction of a new single-dwelling residential
building:
• one child (existing or future): HUF 1,000,000 (EUR 2,500);
• two children (existing or future): HUF 4,000,000 (EUR 10,000);
• three or more children (existing or future): HUF 15,000,000 (EUR 37,000).

A maximum of 50% of the amount can be spent on the purchase of a second-hand

apartment, on the remaining expansion and modernization.
In case of modernization/expansion of an existing apartment:
• one child: HUF 600,000 (EUR 1,500);
• two children: HUF 2,000,000 (EUR 5,000);
• in the case of three or more children: HUF 7 500 000 (EUR 18 750).

In addition to the non-refundable state support, an interest-supported home loan can be

taken out, both when buying used and new property: up to HUF 10 million (EUR 25,000)
for two children and up to HUF 15 million (EUR 37,500) for three or more children.
For residential properties purchased with Village CSOK, families are exempt from paying
the 4% transfer duty.

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Mortgage waiver
The residential mortgage debt taken out before the birth or adoption of the child may be
reduced by HUF 1 million for families with a second child, HUF 4 million for those with
a third or more children, and HUF 1 million for each additional child.

II. Reconciling work and family life

Employment
In Hungary, the employment rate of mothers with young children (age group 18-64)
was 71.1% and that of fathers was 92.3% in 2023. The employment rate of parents with
young children increased for both men and women: in 2006, the employment rate of
children under the age of 6 was half of the 2023 data for women, 34.1%, and 79.2% for
men. Part-time work is less common than the EU average: in 2023, 5.9% of women and
2.4% of men worked less than 40 hours per week. Compared to men and women in 2009,
there is a decrease of 1.2 percentage points for men and 0.6 percentage points for women.

Carer’s leave
In Hungary, an employee who cares for a relative with a serious medical condition or
someone living in his/her household is entitled to 5 days of unpaid leave per year.
Both parents are entitled to extra leave for their children under the age of 16: 2 working
days for one child, 4 working days for two children, 7 working days for three or more
children, during which the employee is entitled to an absentee pay equal to 100% of his/
her earnings. Extra leave increases by 2 working days per disabled child.

Child home care allowance

Child care sick pay is due to the working parent during the illness of a child under the age
of 12. Its duration depends on the age of the child: no time limit under 1 year; up to 84
days for a child aged 12-35 months; 42 days for a child aged 36-71 months; and 14 days
per year for a child aged 6-12 years. Single parents are entitled to double leave. Leave is
family entitlement and sick pay is 50 or 60% of actual earnings up to a certain amount.
The maximum daily amount of sick-pay that can be paid is one-thirtieth of twice the
minimum wage, in 2024 HUF 17,787 (EUR 44) gross per day.

A parent (including an adoptive parent) caring for a child who is permanently ill (foreseen
to be cared for for more than 3 months) or severely disabled and unable to care for
himself/herself is entitled to financial support. In 2024, the amount is HUF 266,800 (EUR
667), of which 10% pension contribution is deducted. Those raising two sick children will
receive one and a half times this amount, HUF 400,200 (EUR 1,000). Besides receiving
this subsidy, earning activities outside the home can be carried out for up to 4 hours
a day, and the duration of working from home is not limited.

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Flexible working arrangements

Breastfeeding mothers are entitled to 2 x 1 hour per day (2 x 2 hours for twins) for the
first 6 months and 1 hour per day (2 hours for twins) for the next 3 months.
Parents returning from parental leave are entitled to flexible working arrangements,
if requested by the parent, then the employer is obliged to employ the child part-time
instead of full-time until the age of 4. Parents with large families can request flexible
working conditions until the youngest child is 6 years old.

Early childhood education and care

Nurseries welcome children from 20 weeks to 3 years of age. Since the restructuring of
the nursery system in 2017, parents can choose from several types of nursery, in addition
to traditional institutional nursery schools, mini, family and workplace nurseries have
also appeared. In all settlements where more than 40 children under the age of 3 live,
nursery care must be organized, which can be done by the municipalities independently,
by agreement and by association. Nursery care in institutional nurseries run by
municipalities is mostly free of charge, parents usually only pay for the catering for
children, but it is also free for children from families with three or more children, as well
as for children who are permanently ill or disabled. From September 2024, the Hungarian
State Treasury will provide a monthly subsidy of HUF 50,000 to rural working parents
whose children attend nurseries, which can be used for nursery care and/or meal fees.
A parent raising their child alone, as well as a parent with a child of special educational
needs, eligible for early development, permanently ill or disabled, may be provided with
a monthly allowance of up to HUF 65,000 per child.

In Hungary, the kindergarten is compulsory and free of charge from the age of 3 to
6, where children can eat free of charge depending on the family’s income and other
considerations (e.g. the number of children raised in the family). Approximately three-
quarters of children are entitled to free meals. Primary education can be started at the
age of 6.

In 2023, 20% of children aged 0-3 received nursery care (including private childcare),
which is a threefold increase compared to 2005, when this figure was only 7%. By 2024,
every third Hungarian settlement has a nursery, and nursery care is available in all
districts with national coverage.
100% of those aged 3-6 went to kindergarten in 2023, which shows an increase of 15
percentage points compared to 2005, when the participation rate was 85%.

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KEY DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS

2001 2011 2016 2021 2022 2023

Population 3 832 783 4 570 881 4 726 286 5 006 324 5 060 004 5 271 395

Live birth (persons) 57 854 74 033 63 841 60 553 54 411 54 686

Death (persons) 30 212 28 456 30 667 34 292 35 000 35 156

Immigrant (persons) 64 925 57 292 85 185 80 732 157 537 N/A

Emigrant (persons) 25 750 83 049 62 056 52 429 61 133 N/A

Marriage (number) 19 246 19 855 22 626 17 217 23 061* 20 513*

Divorce (number) 2 838 2 819 3 197 5 856 N/A N/A

TFR 1.94 2.03 1.81 1.78 1.54 N/A

Source: Eurostat, *Irish Statistical Office (Download date: 09.08.2024.)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

50 000 40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000 0 10 000 20 000 30 000 40 000 50 000

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 Ireland

DEMOGRAPHICS
The population of Ireland on 1 January 2023 was 5,271,395, an increase of nearly 1.44
million - some 38% - compared to 2001. More than 80% of the population is Irish, but
there are also ethnic groups from neighbouring countries, the Scots and the Welsh.
Ireland’s largest immigrant groups include the British, Croats, Poles, Americans,
Lithuanians, Latvians and Germans.

Ireland’s population pyramid shows a balanced society, with a decline in the 20-30 age
group and an increase in the teenage population.

Ireland has one of the highest rates of live births in the European Union, ranking second
in 2023. There are probably cultural reasons for this, but it has also long had one of the
strictest abortion laws. The number of live births increased in the first decade of the
millennium but has been on a steady decline since 2011. In 2023, there were around 26%
fewer births than in 2011. The number of deaths has been around 30-35,000 per year over
the period under review, with an upward trend due to the impact of pandemic COVID-19.
Ireland has one of the lowest death rates in 2023. As births are almost twice as high as
deaths, the population has increased by 20-35 thousand per year due to natural increase.
Births to Irish citizen mothers accounted for more than three quarters (76%) of births in
2022. In 2022, the average age of mothers having their first child was 31.5 years and the
average age at childbearing was 33.2 years1, making Ireland the country with the highest
average age at childbearing, two years higher than the EU average (31.1).

In 2001, 25,570 people left Ireland, and between 2011 and 2013, emigration surged,
resulting in a negative migration balance. Since then, the number of emigrants has been
steadily declining, with 61,133 people leaving the country in 2022 compared to 83,049 in
2011. But this is still almost two and a half times higher than in 2001. At the same time,
the number of immigrants has also increased significantly, from 64,925 in 2001 to 57,292
in 2011. Almost two and a half times the number of immigrants in 2001, 157,537 people
were moving to Ireland in 2022, the highest number in almost two decades.

The number of marriages has been around 20,000 per year, but presumably because
of the epidemic it was very low in 2021, and then peaked in 2022 due to postponed
marriages. Compared to 2001, the number of marriages has increased by 6.6% by 2023.
Due to the country’s traditionalism, the number of divorces was very low, around 3,000
per year, but has increased in recent years. In 2001, there were 2,838 divorces in Ireland,
20 years later, in 2021, the number of divorces more than doubled, with 5,856 couples
dissolving their marriages.

1
https://www.irishtimes.com/ireland/social-affairs/2023/05/26/irish-birth-rate-declined-by-20-in-the-last-decade-cso-figures-
show/

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Ireland

Although the number of births has also fallen in recent years, the fertility rate is still
higher than the EU average. It peaked between 2007 and 2011, when it exceeded 2.0,
and was the country with the highest fertility rate in the EU during this period. After
2011 (2.03), it started to decline and in 2022 it was only 1.54. This is a significant drop
compared to 1.78 in 2021 and is now only the ninth highest among the Member States.

FAMILY POLICY

I. System of family support

Birth grant
In Ireland, the Health Service Executive (HSE) directly pays a one-off maternity cash
grant of EUR 10 to mothers with full eligibility and health card.

Maternity leave and benefit

Maternity leave is 42 weeks, of which at least 2 weeks must be taken before and at least
4 weeks after the birth. Paid maternity leave for the care of young children is subject to
employment and requires at least 39 weeks of social insurance in the year before the
birth. The maternity benefit is paid for a total of 26 weeks (156 days) and was EUR 262
per week in 2023.2 The benefit is taxable, but no contributions are deducted. No benefit is
payable for the additional 16 weeks of maternity leave. In the case of adoption, 40 weeks
of leave are granted, of which 24 weeks are paid and 16 unpaid.

Paternity leave
The father is entitled to 10 days’ paid leave in the first 6 months after the birth or adoption
of the child. The amount of the benefit was EUR 262 per week in 2023.

Parental leave and benefit

Both parents are entitled to 9 weeks of paid parent’s leave, which can be taken within
the first two years following the birth or adoption of a child. The amount of benefit was
EUR 262 per week in 2023. Parent’s leave can be taken after maternity or paternity leave.3

In addition, Ireland allows 26 weeks of unpaid parental leave for both parents. The leave
can be taken up to the age of 12 of the child, in stages of at least 6 weeks.4

2
https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1115&langId=en&intPageId=4602
3
https://www.citizensinformation.ie/en/employment/employment-rights-and-conditions/leave-and-holidays/leave-for-parents/
4
Blum et al. Leave Policies 2023

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 Ireland

Child benefit5
In Ireland, child benefit is provided on a universal basis and tax-free for children up
to the age of 16 or 17 if they are in full-time education or have a severe disability. The
amount was EUR 140 per child in 2024, paid monthly. For twins, the amount is increased
by one and a half times, and for triplets or multiple twins by two times for each child.

A single-parent family with at least one child under 7 years can get a supplementary
allowance (one-parent family payment, OFP) if the household income is low. The default
amount in 2023 was EUR 220 per week, with a supplement of EUR 42 per child aged 12
and under and EUR 50 for older children if they have more than one child. The allowance
is taxable.

Low-income families also receive an additional regular tax-free weekly cash benefit (working
family payment, WFP). The minimum conditions to qualify for this benefit are a 38-hour
working week6 (self-employment does not count) and at least one child under 18 (under 22
if pursuing full-time education) living with the parents. The amount of the benefit is 60%
of the difference between the net family income and the income threshold for the family
size in question, but at least EUR 20. In 2023, the benefit was payable for one child if the
family’s weekly income does not exceed EUR 591, for two children EUR 692, for three
children EUR 793, with each additional child increasing the limit by EUR 101.

Tax credits and other benefits

Family taxation7
A general family tax allowance is available for those whose dependent child earns less
than EUR 16,156 per year. The tax credit amounts to EUR 245 per year. In addition,
single-parent families benefit from an annual tax credit of EUR 1,750 in 2024.8

Housing
The rent supplement is a means-tested payment, and the tenant must work no more than
30 hours a week to qualify. Tax relief is available to landlords who have tenants in receipt
of rent supplement. In addition to the rent supplement, they will still have to contribute
to the rent. The minimum contribution is EUR 30 per week for a single person and EUR
40 per week for couples. The average rent for a flat in 2022 was EUR 1,482.

5
https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1115&langId=en&intPageId=4603
6
In Ireland, biweekly payment of wages is common, which explains why the condition is not given as a monthly working time.
7
https://www.revenue.ie/en/personal-tax-credits-reliefs-and-exemptions/health-and-age/dependant-relative-tax-credit/index.aspx
8
https://www.citizensinformation.ie/en/money-and-tax/tax/income-tax-credits-and-reliefs/single-person-child-carer-tax-credit/

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Ireland

II. Reconciling work and family life

Employment
In Ireland in 2023, the employment rate for mothers with young children aged 18-64
was 71.4% (EU average: 66.4%) and for fathers aged 18-64 92.3% (EU average: 89.6%).
Employment rates for parents with young children have increased for both men and
women. In 2009, the employment rate for women aged 18-64 with children under 6 was
55.8%, compared with 79.8% for men aged 18-64 with young children. Part-time work is
more prevalent than the EU average: in 2023, 30.3% of women aged 15-64 (EU average:
28.5%) and 11.2% of men aged 15-64 (EU average: 8.4%) worked less than 40 hours per
week. Compared with 2009, there was an increase for men and a decrease for women,
when 10.9% of men and 33.4% of women working part-time in Ireland.

Carer’s leave
Parents are entitled to 3-3 working days per year each to care for their sick child, during
which time they are entitled to an absence allowance equal to their previous earnings. In
the case of caring for another sick relative, the worker may be entitled to unpaid leave or
paid leave of between EUR 237 and EUR 355 per week for up to 2 years, depending on
the number of dependants and the degree of kinship.

Flexible working arrangements

Parents returning from parental leave are entitled to flexible working conditions, with
the possibility to reduce the number of working hours for 6 months. From July 2023,
breastfeeding mothers returning to work are entitled to a daily break of 1x60 or 2x30
minutes until their child is 2 years old, whereas previously this was only available until
the child was 6 months old.

From November 2023, 5 days paid leave per year will be granted to workers who have
been victims of relationship violence and are absent from work as a result.9

Early childhood education and care

There are free and paid options for combining family life and work in Ireland. Childcare
facilities and au-pairs are also available. Childcare for children under 3 years is not free,
but children between 6 months and 3 years receive an average of EUR 80 per month if
they spend 40 hours a week in registered childcare. In the public institutional system,
kindergarten care is free of charge for children between 3 (but at least 2 years 8 months)
and 6 years, typically for 3 hours a day, 5 days a week, and 38 weeks a year. For longer

9
https://www.citizensinformation.ie/en/employment/employment-rights-and-conditions/leave-and-holidays/domes-
tic-violence-leave/

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 Ireland

stays, the institution may charge the family a fee. Children aged 2 to 4 are enrolled in pre-
school programme. Children become compulsory-school-age at 6.10

In 2023, 22% of 0–3-year-old children were attending nursery or receiving a similar

service, lower than the EU average (37%) and slight increase from 2005 (15%). In 2023,
94% of 3-6-year-old children attended kindergarten, higher than the EU average (89%)
and an increase compared to 80% in 2005.

10
https://www.citizensinformation.ie/en/education/pre-school-education-and-childcare/early-childhood-ca-
re-and-education-scheme/

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 Italy

KEY DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS

2001 2011 2016 2021 2022 2023

Population 56 960 692 59 364 690 60 665 551 59 236 213 59 030 133 58 997 201

Live birth (persons) 535 282 546 606 473 438 400 249 393 333 379 000*

Death (persons) 556 892 593 404 615 261 701 346 713 499 661 000*

Immigrant (persons) 208 252 385 793 300 823 318 366 410 985 N/A

Emigrant (persons) 56 077 82 461 157 065 158 312 150 189 N/A

Marriage (number) 264 026 204 830 203 258 180 416 189 140 N/A

Divorce (number) 40 051 53 806 99 071 83 192 82 596 N/A

TFR 1.25 1.44 1.34 1.25 1.24 1.20*

Source: Eurostat, * Italian Statistical Office (Download date: 12/08/2024)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

500 000 400 000 300 000 200 000 100 000 0 100 000 200 000 300 000 400 000 500 000

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 Italy

DEMOGRAPHICS
Italy’s population has shown a long-term upward trend, but has been declining since
its peak in 2014 (60.8 million people). The population of the country was 58,997,201 in
January 2023, which is still a population increase of 2 million (3.6%) compared to 2001.
Almost 93% of the country’s population is Italian, and 7% is made up of other ethnic
groups such as Romanians, North Africans, Albanians, Chinese.

The Italian Bureau of Statistics (ISTAT)1 estimates that Italy could lose nearly a fifth of
its population, with the population falling to 54.2 million by 2050 and 47.7 million by
2070 in the baseline scenario. In its most recent report, ISTAT drew attention to the fact
that every fourth resident of Italy is over 65 years old, and the number of centenarians
has tripled and increased to 22,000 in the last 20 years. In 39 of Italy’s 107 counties, the
number of pensioners over the age of 65 is already higher than that of those in active age.
The population pyramid of Italy shows the picture of a continuously aging society, where
the number of people under the age of 55 is decreasing sharply.

While in 2001 535,282 children were born, in 2023 there were only 379,000, which
means a 29.2% decrease. In parallel, the number of deaths has increased, from 556,892
deaths registered in 2001 to 661,000 in 2023, an increase of 18.7%. The impact of the
coronavirus epidemic is that the number of deaths was 17% higher in 2020 compared to
the previous year, and only in 2023 it fell again below 700,000 people. At the beginning of
the 2000s, the number of births and deaths in the country was almost the same (-21,610
people in 2001), but since 2012, natural decrease has been increasing: in recent years, it
has been continuously around 300,000 people.

The previous increase in the population of the country and its current stagnation are
due to the permanently positive migration balance: thanks to this, the population of the
country increased by almost half a million in the middle of the 2000s. In recent years, the
value of the migration balance has slightly decreased, but there are still 150-260 thousand
more immigrants per year than those who left the country. Between 2001 and 2022,
the number of immigrants almost doubled (97.3%). Emigration has been increasing
continuously since the beginning of the millennium, and by 2022 it has increased almost
three times (from 56,000 to 150,000) as at the beginning of the century, but still less than
half the rate of immigration.

From 2001 to 2021, the number of marriages decreased continuously from 264 thousand
to 180 thousand. In 2022, it increased slightly, by almost 9,000, but still 28.4% fewer
people connected their lives than in 2001. The number of divorces increased year by year

1
https://www.istat.it/en/archivio/288492

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Italy

from 2001 (40 thousand) to 2016, when it approached 100,000. Since then, apart from the
value of 66 thousand in 2020, the decrease has been continuous. By 2022, the number of
divorces had doubled compared to 2001.
The fertility rate was 1.25 in 2001, below the EU average (1.43), then increased until 2008
(1.44), and after a short stagnation, the desire to have children decreased continuously
from 2010 onwards. The highest value was reached between 2008 and 2010 with 1.44,
which fell to 1.24 by 2022, which is the third lowest indicator in the European Union. In
2023, fertility continued to decline (1.20).

FAMILY POLICY

I. System of family support

Birth grant
In Italy, there is no such benefit.

Maternity leave and benefit

5 months maternity leave (congedo di maternitá) paid at 80% is due to the insured mother:
1–2 months before childbirth and 3–4 months after childbirth. For up to 3 months after giving
birth, the father can also claim “maternity” leave if the mother does not wish to take it. In the
case of twins or premature birth, the period of paid leave is extended by 12 weeks.

Paternity leave
Fathers with an insured status are obliged to take 10 days (20 days in the case of the
birth of twins) of 100% paid leave (congedo papá), which can be started 2 months before
the expected birth of the child and can be used up until 5 months of age of the child. In
addition to the mandatory paid leave, one additional unpaid day is available. The same
rules apply to adoption.

Parental leave and benefit

After the end of the compulsory maternity leave, parents can apply for 9 months of paid
childcare leave (congedo parentale facoltativo/congedo di paternità alternativo). 3 months
are exclusively for the mother, 3 months are exclusively for the father, and 3 months
can be shared between the parents until the child is 12 years old. For the first 9 months
of parental leave, all employees are entitled to benefits, and if the father takes 3 months
of leave, he receives an additional 1 month of parental leave (i.e. the family entitlement
increases to 10 months).
For the first month of parental leave, the benefit is 80% of the previous earnings, for the
second month it is 60% of the previous earnings, if they take leave before the child turns
6 years old. For the remaining 7 months it is 30% of the previous earnings. After that, the

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benefit can be claimed for a further maximum of 2 months until the child reaches the age
of 12. In such cases, cash benefits can only be paid if the salary of the claiming parent does
not exceed two and a half times the pension minimum (EUR 515 per month in 2021). Those
working in the public sector are entitled to 100% of their previous earnings for the first
month of childcare leave. A single parent is entitled to 11 months of childcare leave.

Child benefit
The uniform and general support for dependent children (Assegnounico e universale per i figli
a carico) was introduced in the country in March 2022. The allowance is a monthly financial
support paid to households each year on the basis of a specific economic situation indicator
(Indicatoredella Situazione Economica Equivalente, ISEE). The benefit is a differentiated
allowance based on the number of children, income situation or other aspects.
All dependent minor children and foetuses from the 7th month of pregnancy are entitled
to the benefit. In the case of dependent adult children, the allowance is paid until the age
of 21, if the child participates in school, vocational training or professional practice or
works and has a total annual income of less than 8,000 EUR. There is no upper age limit
for dependent children with disabilities.
The monthly amount of the allowance is between EUR 50 and EUR 175 per child under
the age of 18 (regardless of the submission of the family income certificate ISEE, or in
case the ISEE value exceeds EUR 40,000 per year). The specific amount also depends on
the number of children and the composition of the family, as follows:
• EUR 50-175 for 1 child;
• EUR 100-350 for 2 children;
• EUR 165-610 for 3 children;
• In the case of 4 or more children, the monthly amount of the child benefit is EUR
430-970.

The amount of the allowance determined on the basis of ISEE is also increased by:
• An additional EUR 105 per month per dependent with a disability who is not able to
provide for himself/herself, to be reduced to EUR 95 per child with a severe disability
or EUR 85 per child with a mild disability.
• Monthly plus EUR 50 for each disabled child between the ages of 18-21.
• Monthly plus EUR 22 for each minor child if the mother is under 21 years old.
• Monthly plus EUR 33 for each minor child if both parents have an income.
• Monthly plus EUR 100 for families with four or more children.

The new benefit has replaced a number of other so-called ‘baby bonuses’ and combined
different subsidies aimed at supporting families. It is also called “universal” because it
applies to all families with dependent children residing in Italy. Unification of family

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Italy

support was requested by the European Commission. The bonus for kindergarten costs
(bonus asilo) remained in place.

Tax credits and other benefits

Family taxation
Family tax relief is granted to taxpayers who have a dependent spouse, children and
other relatives living with the taxpayer, provided that the annual income of each
dependent does not exceed EUR 2,841 (EUR 4,000 for children aged 21-24). In the case of
a dependent spouse, a maximum of EUR 800 per year can be claimed, which decreases
with the increase in taxable income and is not provided above an income of EUR 80,000.
In the case of a dependent child aged 21-24, a maximum of EUR 950 per year can be
claimed, which decreases with the increase in taxable income and is not provided above
an income of EUR 95,000.2
In its budget for 2024, the government stated that mothers with two or more children
will be granted a special tax allowance, but the detailed rules have not yet been published.

Housing
Assistance for the acquisition of the first apartment (Bonus prima casa)
The general discount for the purchase of a first home is the registration tax being reduced
to 2%, which applies to everyone, regardless of age and income. In addition, if the young
person buys a property from a company, such as a newly built apartment directly from
the contractor, the VAT payable will decrease from 10% to 4% of the apartment price.

Home improvement
In Italy, a special kind of state aid is available to help with energy renovations and seismic
protection of buildings, the so-called super bonus. Supported works include thermal
insulation, modernization of air conditioning, installation of solar panels, power storage
devices, fast electric chargers for electric cars. Previously, the total cost was reimbursed,
from January 2024 only 70% of the amount will be reimbursed, and from 2025 it will be
reduced to 65%.

Other benefits
Free prenatal care and free laboratory tests for pregnant women, and until the child is
6 years old and under 36,152 EUR per year of family income.
Children over the age of 18 receive a one-time lump sum amount of EUR 500, called the
culture voucher (Bonus cultura), if the annual income of the family does not exceed EUR
35,000 per year.

2
https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1116&langId=en&intPageId=4617

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 Italy

II. Reconciling work and family life

Employment
In Italy, the employment rate of women with children under the age of 6 in 2023 was
54.1%, which was significantly below the EU average (69.6%). A lower value was only
measured in the Czech Republic and Romania. For men, this value is 89.0%, which is
close to the average of the Member States (89.6%). In 2023, part-time employment in the
country did not differ significantly from the EU average (8.4% of men, 28.5% of women):
7.4% of men and 31.4% of women worked in this form.
In the case of women, childbearing is taken into account in retirement in a limited way:
for each mother, the retirement age is reduced by 1 year per child, but no more than
2 children are included.

Carer’s leave
Unpaid carer’s leave is available to care for a sick child: unlimited for a child under
3 years of age, 5 days per parent for a child between 3 and 8 years of age. During their
entire career, employees are entitled to a total of 2 years of long-term carer’s leave for the
purpose of caring for a permanently ill relative, during which period they are entitled to
100% of their previous salary up to a limit of EUR 47,351 per year.
Home care support for children (Forme di supporto presso la propria abitazione): families
raising children under the age of 3 with an income below EUR 25,000 may apply for EUR
3,000 per year if the child is unable to attend kindergarten due to a serious chronic illness.

Flexible working arrangements

The paid breastfeeding/feeding working time allowance (Permesso per allattamento) is
a daily 1-2-hour breastfeeding/feeding working time allowance for the mother or father
of the child: in the case of part-time or full-time work, until the child is 1 year old, with
full pay.
Flexible working conditions may be required for workers under the age of 6 and for
workers raising children who are minors but have a disability.

Early childhood education and care

Early childhood education and care (nursery, kindergarten) is part of the Italian
education system, but participation is not mandatory. Nursery care is organized by the
regions, according to uniform regional rules. Supply should be provided at the municipal
level, so there is a wide difference between them, there is no uniform solution, and it
largely depends on the budgetary opportunities of the municipalities. Both nursery and
kindergarten care are subject to the payment of a reimbursement fee.

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Italy

The city or region provides free or subsidized childcare facilities for low-income families.
In the budget for 2024, it was stated that the nursery place will be provided free of charge
from the second child, but the detailed rules have not yet been published.
Kindergarten support (Bonus asilo nido) is available to working mothers who are not
exempt from the kindergarten reimbursement fee. Its amount is EUR 3,000 per year if
the annual income of the household does not exceed EUR 25,000, EUR 2,500 per year if
the annual income of the household is between EUR 25,001 and EUR 40,000, and EUR
1,500 per year if the annual income of the household exceeds EUR 40,000. In order to
use the maximum amount, the receiving parent must live in the same household with
his child, otherwise only EUR 1,500 per year can be disbursed. In families where at least
one child under the age of 10 is raised and a new child is born, the minimum amount of
kindergarten support is EUR 2,100, while the maximum amount increases to EUR 3,600
with the same income limits.3
In 2023, 35% of children aged 0–3 in Italy received some form of nursery care, which
is just below the EU average (37%) and represents a slight increase compared to 24%
in 2005. In 2023, 95% of Italian children aged 3-6 went to kindergarten, above the EU
average (89%), which represents a slight increase compared to 2005 (93%).

3
https://siulp.it/bonus-asilo-nido-da-3600-euro-novita-2024/

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 Latvia

KEY DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS

2001 2011 2016 2021 2022 2023

Population 2 353 384 2 074 605 1 968 957 1 893 223 1 875 757 1 883 008

Live birth (persons) 19 726 18 825 21 968 17 420 15 954 14 490

Death (persons) 32 991 28 540 28 580 34 600 30 731 28 031

Immigrant (persons) N/A 10 234 8 345 12 689 38 708 18 710*

Emigrant (persons) 24 539 30 311 20 574 12 975 16 680 16 295*

Marriage (number) 9 258 10 760 13 002 11 228 11 848 10 549*

Divorce (number) 5 740 8 302 6 061 4 643 5 407 5 312*

TFR 1.36 1.33 1.74 1.57 1.47 1.36*

Source: Eurostat, *Latvian Statistical Office (Download date: 09.08.2024)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

25 000 20 000 15 000 10 000 5 000 0 5 000 10 000 15 000 20 000 25 000

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 Latvia

DEMOGRAPHICS
Latvia’s population has been in steady decline since the 2000s. While in 2001, the
population was 2,353,384, by 1 January 2023 it had fallen to 1,883,0081, a decrease of
20% compared to 2001.
The country’s population pyramid shows a basically ageing society, with a shrinking
youth population, with the age group of 25 years and older being the lowest, and the
younger age groups showing some increase.

Latvia’s population peaked in 1990 at 2.7 million, but has been falling steadily since the
1990s, partly because of natural decrease (deaths have doubled the number of births in
recent years) and partly because of a negative migration balance. It is important to note,
however, that in 2022 the number of immigrants increased sharply due to the Russian-
Ukrainian conflict.
Since 2017, the number of births has been steadily decreasing. In 2023, 14,490 children
were born, 9.1% fewer than in 2022 and a decrease of 26.5% compared to 2001. This
is the lowest rate in the last 100 years. Since 2021, twice as many deaths as births have
occurred each year. 2023 was no exception, with deaths exceeding births by 13,541. The
number of deaths fell by 15% between 2001 and 2023. The largest difference between
births and deaths - 17,180 - was recorded in 2021.

Immigration data from 2001 is not available, but the number of immigrants nearly doubled
between 2011 and 2023, with a significant increase in 2022 due to the Russian-Ukrainian
conflict. While in 2021, 12,689 people arrived, in 2022 the number tripled and 38,708
people arrived in Latvia. The largest share of immigrants came from Ukraine (16,801).
Emigration decreased steadily from 2011 to 2021, then increased by almost 4,000, from
30,000 people leaving the country annually in 2011 to 16,295 in 2023, of whom 8,670 were
Latvian citizens. Compared to 2001, 33.6% fewer people emigrated in 2023.

In 2023, there were 10,549 marriages, an increase of 14% compared to 2001. In 2023,
there were 5,312 divorces, a decrease of 7.5% compared to 2001. Among the EU Member
States, Hungary (6.9 marriages per 1000 inhabitants) and Latvia (5.6) had the highest
number of marriages as a percentage of the population. However, unlike Hungary, Latvia
also leads in divorces, with 2.7 divorces per 1000 inhabitants, compared to an EU average
of 1.6 in 2022.
Latvia’s fertility rate was at its lowest in 2001, at only 1.22. It rose steadily over the
following seven years until 2008, then, presumably due to the economic crisis, it fell until
2011. It rose to 1.74 in 2016 and has since fallen again. While in 2021 it was 1.57, in 2022
it was only 1.47, just above the EU average (1.46). In 2023 it fell further to 1.36.

1
https://stat.gov.lv/en/statistics-themes/population/population/247-population-and-population-change?themeCode=IR - Popu-
lation on 1 January 2023.

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Latvia

FAMILY POLICY

I. System of family support

Birth grant
The maternity allowance (bērna piedzimšanas pabalsts) is a one-off benefit of EUR 421 in
2023. It is paid to one parent per child and is of universal basis.2
A compensation for adoption (atlīdzība par adopciju) is granted to the person who has
adopted a child, after the court decision approving the adoption has come into force. The
lump sum of the compensation is EUR 1,423 per child.

Maternity leave and benefit3

Paid maternity leave (grūtniecības un dzemdību atvaļinājums) is granted for 112 days, of
which 56 days are taken before the birth (pregnancy leave) and 56 days after the birth
(maternity leave). It is compulsory to take 2 weeks before and 2 weeks after childbirth.
In the event of a threatened pregnancy, the leave can be extended by a further 14 (paid)
days.

The amount of the benefit (maternitātes pabalsts) for maternity leave is 80% of the
average earnings for the previous 12 months.

Paternity leave4
After the birth of a child, fathers are entitled to 10 days’ paid leave (atvaļinājums bērna
tēvam). From 2022, paternity leave is 10 working days instead of 10 calendar days. Leave
can be taken up to 6 months after the birth. The amount of the benefit (paternitātes
pabalsts) is 80% of the previous 12 months’ average earnings. The average amount of
paternity benefit in 2023 was EUR 602.

Parental leave and benefit

Parental leave is a maximum of 18 months, which can be used until the child is 8 years
old at the latest and is granted to socially insured parents. The parents can share the
leave between them. Parents are entitled to two different allowances for the duration
of the leave:
• Child raising allowance (bērna kopšanas pabalsts) is available to all parents raising
small children and if they have a permanent address in Latvia. The mother is entitled
to this benefit even if she is on maternity leave and is no longer employed. The

2
MISSOC and https://www.vsaa.gov.lv/en/services/childbirth-allowance?utm_source=https%3A%2F%2Fec.europa.eu%2F
3
https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1117&langId=en&intPageId=4631
4
https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1117&langId=en&intPageId=4631

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 Latvia

allowance is paid until the child is 2 years old. The amount of the allowance in 2023
was EUR 171 per month for a child younger than 18 months, and EUR 43 for a child
aged 19-24 months. If several children are born during the 2 years of payment, the
benefit can be used for each child.5
• Parental benefit (vecāku pabalsts) is paid to families in which one of the parents
previously had an insured relationship. This benefit is provided to one parent until
the child is 13 or 19 months old (mostly used by mothers). Parents can choose the
duration of the benefit by themselves. If they request the benefit for 13 months, the
amount is 60% of their previous earnings, if for 19 months, then 43.75%. Previously,
it was possible to apply for this benefit for 1 or 1.5 years, but as of January 1, 2023,
the period of parental benefit became 1 month longer. In addition to the benefit,
employment is allowed, but in this case, they only receive half of the benefit amount.6
If the parental leave expires, the parent can continue to receive child raising allowance
until the child is 2 years old.

Adoptive parents are also entitled to paternity and parental leave. Benefits are financed
on the same basis as for biological parents. In addition, in the case of a family adopting
a child under the age of 18, one of the adopters must also be granted 10 (calendar) days
of leave.

Child benefit
The child benefit (gimenes valsts pabalsts) is the right of every parent with a permanent
address in Latvia, the amount of which depends on the number of raised children. The
payment period is minimum of 1 year and maximum of 16 years. If the child is studying
in secondary school, the age limit for payment is 20 years, while in the case of a disabled
child it is 18 years old.
The monthly amount of family state benefit depends on the number of raised children:
• EUR 25 for one child;
• EUR 100 for two children (EUR 50 per child);
• EUR 225 for three children (EUR 75 per child);
• EUR 100 per child for four or more children.

Single parents do not receive an increased amount of benefit. Parents raising a child with
a disability receive EUR 107 per month until the child turns 18. In the case of a multiply
disadvantaged family, the amount may increase to EUR 213.

5
MISSOC
6
MISSOC

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Tax credits and other benefits

Since 2013, large families (with three or more children) have benefited from property
and vehicle tax exemptions, from 2017 they are entitled to travel concessions on regional
train and bus services, and from March 2018 they can benefit from additional family
allowances.

Family taxation
Since 2022, employees receive a tax allowance of EUR 250 per month for each child.
A non-working spouse caring for a minor child may also receive spousal allowance under
certain conditions.7

Housing
In June 2020, the Latvian government adopted the Subsidy Balsts (“Support”) programme,
modelled on the Hungarian CSOK, which allows families with three or more children to
receive non-refundable one-time state support for buying a home or building a house.
A family with three children can receive EUR 8,000 to buy a home, or EUR 10,000 if the
family buys a home that meets energy-efficient requirements (zero energy demand). The
grant for a family with four or more children is EUR 10,000 and EUR 12,000 respectively.
The price of the property cannot exceed EUR 250,000 and the annual gross income per
family member cannot exceed EUR 17,000. Beneficiaries must be tax resident in Latvia
(at least in the previous 12 months). The grant cannot be more than 50% of the total
transaction value.8

II. Reconciling work and family life

Employment
In 2023, 75.7% of women aged 18-64 with children under 6 years and 87.7% of men were
in work, well above the EU average for women (66.4%) and just below for men (89.6%) .
Employment of parents with young children, especially mothers, increased between 2009
and 2023. In 2009, 57.2% of women with children under 6 years of age worked, compared
to 73.9% of men. Part-time employment is low in the country: in both 2022 and 2023,
only 8.9% of women aged 15-64 worked part-time. This is well below the EU average of
28.5% in 2023. For men in Latvia, the figure was 4.2% in 2022 and 4.7% in 2023, also
below the EU average of 8.4% in 2023.

7
https://www.fm.gov.lv/en/media/9952/download
8
https://www.altum.lv/en/services/individuals/subsidy-balsts/

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 Latvia

Carer’s leave
Parents with social insurance are entitled to sick leave and benefit for a child up to 14
years of age. Parents are entitled to 14 days off per sickness; if the child needs home care
or is hospitalised, 21 days; if the child has an injury caused by bone fracture, 30 days.
Parents whose child has been diagnosed with a severe illness, or parents who receive the
allowance for the care of a disabled child, are entitled to up to 26 weeks’ sick pay if their
child needs long-term hospital treatment. Grandparents, foster parents and guardians
may also be entitled to sickness benefit. Sickness benefit is taxable and calculated in the
same way as maternity and paternity benefit.
An employer may grant leave if the employee’s spouse, parent, child or other close family
member or a person living in the same household with the employee needs to be cared
for due to a serious health reason. Such leave may be granted for a period of 5 working
days within one year.

Flexible working arrangements

Parents (both mothers and fathers) with a child up to 18 months of age are entitled to
a paid additional break for (breast)feeding their child – at least 30 minutes every three
hours (or at least 60 minutes every three hours, if a parent has more than one child up
to 18 months of age). Upon request, parents are entitled to combine these breaks, thus
prolonging a lunch break or shortening their working day.
Pregnant women and mothers a child up to 14 years of age (or up to 18 years if a child
has a disability) are entitled to part-time work.
An employee who has a child under the age of 8 (or who has to care personally for a spouse,
parent, child or other close family member or person living in the same household) is
entitled to ask his or her employer for flexible working.

Early childhood education and care

The maximum duration of maternity and parental leave is 38 months, but just over half
of this is paid leave, so many parents return to work when their child turns 18 months
old. According to the Education Act, the municipality/local authority is responsible for
ensuring that children over 18 months of age registered in its territory receive early
childhood education and care in the institution nearest to their place of residence. In
principle, therefore, when a parent returns to work from paid parental leave, the
institutional care of his/her child is guaranteed. In public nurseries, attendance is free of
charge. In practice, however, municipalities are not able to provide places in municipal
institutions for all the children in their area. For example, in October 2022, around 7,000
children aged between 1.5 and 6 years were left without a place. Municipalities therefore
provide financial support to pay the fees of private institutions if there is no place for
a child in municipal institutions after the age of 18 months.

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Latvia

Education in kindergarten is provided by state, by municipalities, as well as by private

facilities. Public kindergartens are free, but parents pay extra for meals and other school
supplies. The pre-school programme is compulsory and free for children aged 5 and 6.9
In 2023, 35% of children aged 0-3 attended nursery services (including private childcare),
an increase of 25 percentage points compared to 2005, when the figure was 10%. 95% of
children aged 3-6 years attended nursery school in 2023, an increase compared to 2005
when the participation rate was 70%.

9
https://www.liveriga.com/en/12264-the-education-system-in-latvia

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 Lithuania

KEY DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS

2001 2011 2016 2021 2022 2023

Population 3 486 998 3 052 588 2 888 558 2 795 680 2 805 998 2 857 279

Live birth (persons) 31 185 30 268 30 623 23 330 22 068 20 623

Death (persons) 40 399 41 037 41 106 47 746 42 884 37 005

Immigrant (persons) 4 694 15 685 20 162 44 858 87 367 66 682 *

Emigrant (persons) 27 841 53 863 50 333 25 205 15 270 21 688*

Marriage (number) 15 764 19 221 21 347 16 795 16 016 13 997*

Divorce (number) 11 024 10 341 8 879 7 822 7 395 7 231*

TFR 1.29 1.55 1.69 1.36 1.27 1.18*

Source: Eurostat, * Lithuanian Statistical Office (Download date: 08. 09. 2024)

100

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 Lithuania

DEMOGRAPHICS
Lithuania’s population has been on a steady downward trend since the 2000s. In 2001,
the population of the country was 3,486,998, which decreased to 2,857,279 people by
1 January 2023, which meant a population loss of nearly 630,000 people - 18% - over the
last two decades. More than 84% of the population is Lithuanian and the proportion of
Polish, Russian and Belarusian minorities is around 13.3%.

The country’s population pyramid basically shows an aging society and a declining youth
due to a significant decrease in those under the age of 30.

Until 2018, the number of live births varied around 30,000 per year, and since then there
has been a significant decrease: from 2001 to 2023, the number of live births decreased
by 33.9%. The number of deaths increased until 2021. After the 2021 peak (pandemic-
related), the decline started and decreased by 2023 by 8.4% compared to 2001. While the
country experienced a negative natural increase of 9,000 people in 2001, it increased to
16,000 people by 2023.

The number of immigrants has increased significantly since 2011, which has increased
further in recent years, to a total of 9 and a half times between 2001 and 2021. And from
2021 to 2022, presumably due to the war in Ukraine, their number doubled but decreased
by a quarter (23.7%) by 2023. There is also a fluctuation in the rate of emigration in
Lithuania. While the population decreased by 30 thousand in 2016 due to international
migration, the migration balance has been clearly positive in recent years. Compared
to 2001, the rate of immigration increased by 14 times, while the number of emigrants
decreased by 22.1%.

The number of marriages increased until 2016, but has decreased since then, with 11.2%
fewer marriages in 2023 compared to 2001. The number of divorces has been declining
steadily since 2011, by about a third in total compared to 2001.

Among the Lithuanian population, the desire to have children increased from 2001 to
2016: from 1.29 to 1.63, the latter already above the EU average. However, the trend has
reversed in the recent period and dropped to 1.27 in 2022, which is even lower than the
previous negative record of 2001. In 2022, the EU average was 1.46 and Lithuania had the
fourth lowest indicator, which continued to deteriorate in 2023.

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Lithuania

FAMILY POLICY

I. System of family support

Birth grant
Every newborn or adopted child is entitled to a lump sum child benefit (vienkartinė
išmoka vaikui) equal to 11 times the basic social benefit (EUR 605 in 2024). Lump sum
child benefit is payable to one of the child’s parents, single parent, adoptive parents, or
guardian.1

Maternity leave and benefit

In order to take maternity leave, the mother has to have maternity social insurance record
of at least 12 of the previous 24 months. The maternity benefit (motinystės išmoka) is paid
for 126 days, starts 70 days before the expected date of birth, and is paid until the child is
56 days old. For the period of maternity leave (motinystės atostogos), a maternity benefit
of 78% of the previous earnings is due, the amount of which cannot be lower than EUR
294. Lithuania is one of the few countries where there is no mandatory maternity leave.
In case of multiple births or complications, eligibility is extended by 14 days.2

A pregnant woman who is not eligible for maternity benefit is entitled to a lump sum
benefit for pregnant women (vienkartinė išmoka nėščiai moteriai) equal to 6.43 times the
basis social benefit (EUR 354 in 2024)3 70 days before the scheduled childbirth date.4

Paternity leave
Fathers are also entitled to paid paternity leave (tėvystės atostogos), if they have been in
employment for at least 6 months in the 2 years prior to the birth of the child. The leave
is 30 calendar days, which can be split into two parts until the child is one year old. The
amount of the paternity benefit is 77.58% of the previous earnings and cannot be lower
than EUR 294.

Parental leave and benefit5

Parental leave (vaiko priežiūrosatostogos) in Lithuania lasts until the child is 3 years old. For
the duration of the leave, the parent receives a childcare benefit (vaikopriežiūros išmoka),
which is conditional on social insurance and can be granted until the child is 2 years old.

1
https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1119&langId=en&intPageId=4659
2
Blum et al. Leave Policies 2023
3
https://socmin.lrv.lt/en/activities/family-and-children/social-assistance-to-families-and-children/assistance-to-pregnant-wo-
men-and-families-raising-children
4
https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1119&langId=en&intPageId=4660
5
https://socmin.lrv.lt/en/activities/social-insurance-1/social-insurance-benefits/childcare-benefit

218
 Lithuania

The condition of eligibility is that the claimant has at least 12 months of insurance in the
24 months before the birth of the child. Since January 2023, both mother and father are
entitled to a non-transferable period of 2 months, during which they receive 78% of their
previous salary. The duration of the transferable part of the parental leave can be chosen
by the (grand)parent, the shorter the stay at home, the higher the amount of the benefit.
If someone insured chooses to receive the benefit up until the child is 18 months old, it
amounts to 60% of their earnings. Where someone chooses to receive the benefit up until
the child is 2 years old, it amounts to 45% of earnings for the first year, and 30% for the
second year. Twins are also entitled to the full amount in the second year. The amount
of the benefit cannot be lower than six times the basic social benefit (EUR 294). If more
than one child is born at the same time, an additional EUR 220 per child will be added to
the childcare benefit. The benefit is paid monthly, from birth until the child is 2 years old.
There is no childcare benefit disbursed during parental leave between the ages of 2 and
3 of the child. If a sibling is born during parental leave, the parent is entitled to benefits
for both children, provided that the total amount of benefits cannot exceed 78% of his/
her previous salary.

Special rules apply to work during the payment of the childcare benefit. If the parents
are engaged in gainful activity during the non-transferable leave period, the benefit is
reduced by the amount of income. It is also possible to engage in gainful activity during
transferable parental leave period, but the amount of the benefit and the wage together
cannot exceed the salary from which the benefit is calculated. For parents receiving
the minimum childcare benefit amount, the benefit will not be reduced if the childcare
benefit and other additional income do not exceed the monthly minimum wage.

In the absence of an employment relationship, a childcare benefit for persons in training

or education (Išmoka besimokančio ar studijuojančio asmens vaikopriežiūrai) is due to the
biological parent or adoptive parent with a student status until the age of 2 of the child, if
no childcare benefit is paid to the other parent. It amounts to EUR 330 per month in 2024
during studies and for 12 months after completion of studies.

Child benefit6
The child benefit (išmoka vaikui) consists of two subsidies. Both are due until the child
is 18 years old or 23 years old if they continue their education. The basic child benefit is
provided to every family, regardless of family income, while the additional child benefit
is dependent on the income and the number of children.
The amount of the basic child benefit in 2024 is 1.75 times the minimum allowance, EUR
96 per month for each child. Entitlement to the supplementary child benefit depends on
the number of children and the family’s per capita income. The amount is EUR 57 EUR

6
https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1119&langId=en&intPageId=4659

219
Lithuania

per month, which is paid in addition to the basic child benefit. Eligibility is conditional
for families with one or two children, provided that the per capita income does not exceed
EUR 352. Income is not assessed for families with three or more children or children with
disabilities.

In families where one parent performs compulsory military service, an additional amount
of EUR 83 per month is paid for each child for the duration of the service.

Tax credits and other benefits

Family taxation
In Lithuania, there is no family tax credit.

Municipalities pay families EUR 96 per month for each child up to the age of 18 or 21 for
full-time study.7 Additional child benefit is also available for certain low-income families,
families with three or more children, etc.

Housing
In Lithuania, there is no such benefit.

II. Reconciling work and family life

Employment
According to the 2022 data of the Lithuanian Social Insurance Fund Directorate (SODRA),
75.6% of those taking parental leave were mothers and 24.4% were fathers.

The employment rate among women with children under the age of 6 (age group: 18-
64) was 75.4% in 2023, exceeding the EU average of 66.4%. For men, the indicator was
90.2%, also above the EU average (89.6%). In 2009, these values were lower, 76.0% for
men and 63.9% for women. In 2023, the part-time employment rate for women aged 15–
64 was 7.7% and 4% for men, both much lower than the EU average (28.5% and 8.4%,
respectively). A decrease can be observed for both genders, as in 2009, 9.1% of women
worked part-time and 6.7% of men.

Carer’s leave
Both parents are entitled to 2 weeks of childcare leave per year to care for their sick child
under the age of 14.

7
https://taxsummaries.pwc.com/lithuania/individual/deductions

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 Lithuania

The provisions of the Work-Life Balance directive on carers’ leave have not yet been
transposed in Lithuania.8

Flexible working arrangements

The conditions for flexible working have been created since 2017. It became possible
to conclude individual agreements, to work according to a flexible work plan, to work
overtime or to combine working hours.

In addition to the general rest periods to be held at least every 3 hours, breastfeeding
mothers may be provided with a half-hour breastfeeding break during which the worker
is entitled to her average wage.9 At the request of the mother, breastfeeding breaks may
be combined and used to shorten the working day.

Early childhood education and care

The early childhood education and care institutional system is available until the beginning
of pre-school education, that is, until the age of 5-6 years, but is not compulsory. Since the
length of parental leave is typically 1-2 years, children rarely attend an institution before
the age of 1.5. The vast majority of facilities welcome children from the age of 2.

Care for children under 3 years varies by region, it is not free but subsidised. Education in
kindergarten between 3 and 6 years of age is free in public institutions. Parents pay extra
for meals and other services. Children must start pre-school in the calendar year in which
they turn 6. Primary education begins at the age of 7.

In 2023, 20% of children aged 0–3 in Lithuania received nursery care, which is well below
the EU average (37%) and represents an increase compared to 2005 (11.1%). In 2023,
92% of children aged 3–6 went to kindergarten, above the EU average (89%), which is
a significant increase compared to 2005 (62.1%).

8
Executive summary | Integrating Services for Older People in Lithuania | OECD iLibrary (oecd-ilibrary.org)
9
Blum et al. Leave Policies 2023

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 Luxembourg

KEY DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS

2001 2011 2016 2021 2022 2023

Population 439 000 511 840 576 249 634 730 645 397 672 050

Live birth (persons) 5 459 5 639 6 050 6 690 6 495 6 320

Death (persons) 3 719 3 819 3 967 4 489 4 449 4 431

Immigrant (persons) 12 135 20 268 22 888 25 335 31 433 26 964 *

Emigrant (persons) 8 824 9 264 13 442 15 959 17 227 16 588*

Marriage (number) 1 983 1 714 1 884 1 945 2 475 2 539*

Divorce (number) 1 028 1 218 1 241 1 400 1 243 1 359*

TFR 1.66 1.52 1.41 1.38 1.31 1.25*

Source: Eurostat, * Lithuanian Statistical Office (Download date: 08. 09. 2024)

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 Luxembourg

DEMOGRAPHICS
The population of Luxembourg has been growing steadily over the last two decades. In
2001, the country was inhabited by 439,000 people, and by January 2023, the population
had risen to 672,050, meaning an increase of 53%. Half of the population of Luxembourg
(52%) is Luxembourgish, with the largest number of minorities coming from EU
countries, including Portuguese, French, Belgian and Italian.

The population pyramid of Luxembourg depicts an ageing society where the number of
young people has decreased significantly, while the age group of 30 is the largest.

Both births and deaths increased over the period examined: the number of live births
increased by 15.8% and the number of deaths increased by 19.1% between 2001 and 2023.
The number of births significantly exceeds the number of deaths, and the population
increases by about 2,000 per year due to natural increase.

The rate of immigration has steadily increased over the past 20 years, and apart from the
year 2022, which was marked by the war, the number of immigrants more than doubled
between 2001 and 2023, increasing by 122.2%. In parallel, emigration almost doubled,
from 8,824 to 16,588, meaning an 88% increase. The country’s migration balance has
been positive since 2001: while the population of the country increased by 3,300 in 2001,
it approached 10,000 by 2021 and exceeded 14,000 in 2022.

The desire to marry basically stagnated from 2001 to 2021, during this period slightly less
than 2,000 marriages were contracted annually. From 2022, this number has increased to
over 2,000, reaching 2,539 in 2023. Thus, it increased by 28% between 2001 and 2023. At
the same time, the number of divorces also increased by 32.2% from 2001 to 2023.

Despite the growing population, the desire to have children is constantly decreasing. Its
value decreased from 1.66 in 2001 to 1.31 in 2022, which is below the EU average (1.46).
In 2023, the desire to have children decreased further to 1.25.

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Luxembourg

FAMILY POLICY

I. System of family support

Birth grant
In Luxembourg, birth grant (allocation de naissance) is granted to women who have
undergone all mandatory medical examinations. The birth grant amounts to EUR 1,740
and is paid in three equal instalments (EUR 580) during pregnancy after 5 examinations,
after childbirth and when the child is 2 years old.1

Maternity leave and benefit

Mothers who have worked for at least 6 months in the year before giving birth are entitled
to maternity allowance (prestations en espèces de maternité) from the 8th week before
the expected birth of the child to the 12th week after giving birth. It amounts to 100% of
the previous income, which cannot be lower than the Luxembourg minimum wage (EUR
2,571 in 2023) and cannot be higher than five times the minimum wage (EUR 12,855 in
2023). The benefit is subject to tax and contribution. The adoptive parents are entitled to
12 weeks of leave after the adoption.

Paternity leave
The duration of paid paternity leave (pappecongé) is 10 days, for the first 2 days of which
the employer pays 100% of the earnings. For the remaining 8 days, the state pays the full
salary, but up to an amount equal to five times the social wage minimum, which is EUR
12,541 per month in 2022. Paternity leave can be taken in several instalments, but only
until the child is 2 months old.

Parental leave and benefit

The condition for taking parental leave is that the parent can prove at least 1 year of
employment in Luxembourg. The duration of paid parental leave, depending on the
weekly working time, is 4-20 months for each parent separately. This paid leave must
be commenced by one of the parents immediately after the maternity leave. The other
parent can use his/her part at any time until the child is 6 years old. Since both parents
have their own entitlements, it cannot be shared or transferred, but it is possible for the
parents to use it at the same time.

The benefit for this period is the parent’s previous salary but cannot be less than the
minimum wage and more than 5/3 of the minimum wage, that is, between EUR 2,508

1
https://cae.public.lu/en/allocations/primes-de-naissance.html

224
 Luxembourg

and EUR 4,180.2 During parental leave, at least 10 hours of work per week is mandatory.
In the case of part-time work, the leave period increases proportionally while reducing
the amount. In addition, it is also possible for the parent to suspend work for 1 month at
a time for 20 months.

Child benefit
In Luxembourg, the child is entitled to “allowance for the children’s future” regardless
of the family’s income (allocation pour l’avenir des enfants or allocation familiale). It is
granted to all children, who have their legal domicile in Luxembourg aged under 18, or
25 if they are still pursuing secondary studies or affected with disability. State financial
assistance is provided for university studies instead of a family allowance.

Its amount increases with age. In 2023, the basic amount was EUR 300.3 For children
aged 6–11, this amount is increased by EUR 23 per month and for children over 12, by
EUR 57 per month. Children under 25 who have a permanent reduced mental or physical
capacity of at least 50% receive an additional monthly amount of EUR 200.

An “allowance payable at the beginning of the school year” (allocation de rentrée scolaire)
is paid once a year to compensate for financial costs related to the new school year, such
as the purchase of school supplies, clothing, etc.4 The amount is EUR 115 for children
aged 6–11 and EUR 235 for those over 12.

Tax credits and other benefits

Family taxation
The amount of the tax relief for children (bonification d’impôt pour enfant) is EUR 923
per child, provided that the income of taxpayer parents does not exceed EUR 76,600. If
6 or more children live in the parent’s household, the income threshold of EUR 76,600
is not considered.5 Single people are entitled to a higher amount of child tax relief (EUR
1,500) if their income is less than EUR 35,000. For incomes between EUR 35,000 and EUR
105,000, this gradually decreases to EUR 750. Above EUR 105,000 the tax allowance is
EUR 750.6

2
Blum et al. Leave Policies 2023
3
https://cae.public.lu/en/allocations/allocation-pour-lavenir-des-enfants/montants.html
4
https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1120&langId=en&intPageId=4675
5
https://guichet.public.lu/en/citoyens/fiscalite/declaration-impot-decompte/pension/changement-situation-personelle/en-
fant-bonification-impot.html
6
https://www.fiduciaire-lpg.lu/en/publications/personal-taxation/dependent-children-and-tax-benefits

225
Luxembourg

Housing
There are several types of support available in the country:7
• Rent subsidy: the most disadvantaged households can benefit from it if the rent
exceeds 25% of their monthly income. A single person earning a maximum of EUR
3,127 will receive a grant of EUR 200, a couple earning EUR 4,800 will receive EUR
360, and a family with three or more children may receive up to EUR 400 per month,
depending on income.
• State aid to finance a security deposit: it helps tenants who are unable to pay the
deposit required at the time of signing the rental agreement, which can amount to
up to 3 months of rent.
• Subsidized housing rental: some housing is reserved by the state for low-income
households. These homes can be requested from the Housing Fund or the Social
Office of the municipalities.

The WeConnect platform connects seniors with sublet-seeking students to ensure

intergenerational coexistence. On the one hand, it provides companionship and assistance
for the elderly, as well as additional income, and on the other hand, it provides affordable
housing for students. The average rent for an apartment in 2022 was EUR 1,479.

II. Reconciling work and family life

Employment
In Luxembourg, the employment rate of those raising children under the age of 6 (age
group 18-64) was higher than the EU average (66.4% for women and 89.6% for men),
with 78.4% of women and 91.1% of men being active on the labour market in 2023.
In 2009, this value was still 63.9% for women, that is, the employment rate of women
with children under the age of 6 increased by almost 25% compared to 2023. Among
men, there was no significant change over the period. In 2009, 91.6% of men with small
children worked. The proportion of part-time employment among 15–64-year-olds is
similar to the EU average: 29.4% for women and 8.4% for men in 2023. (The EU average
is 28.5% for women and 8.4% for men.) In 2009, 34.9% of women worked part-time and
4.5% of men.

Since 2016, parental leave has become increasingly attractive to fathers. While 3,557
women and 1,163 men used it in December 2016, the number of female and male
beneficiaries equalized by December 2018. By December 2022, the number of male
beneficiaries had already exceeded the number of women (7,169 men took parental leave,
compared to 5,529 women). In 2022, about 68% of mothers took the full-time version

7
https://guichet.public.lu/en/citoyens/aides/logement-construction/aides-logement.html

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 Luxembourg

of leave, about 21% chose the part-time version, and only 11% took leave in several
instalments. For fathers, the pattern is very different; 30% used the full-time version of
parental leave, 22% used the part-time option, and 48% took leave in several instalments.

Carer’s leave
Up to 18 days per child per year (depending on the age of the child) of at least 66% paid
carer’s leave or, in the case of disability or serious illness, up to 52 weeks of carer’s leave
is available per parent (this latter can be taken in 2 years). In addition, as carer’s leave for
family members a maximum of 5 days per relative can be taken, paid at 50%.8

Flexible working arrangements

Mothers who breastfeed their children are entitled to a 2x45 minute or 1x90 minute
break per day, for which they are entitled to their salary.

After returning from parental leave, civil servants may require flexible working
arrangements until the child is 4 years old, while private sector workers may require
flexible working arrangements until the child is 1 year old.

Early childhood education and care

The multilingual education programme introduced in Luxembourg enables children from
1 to 4 years of age to receive 20 hours of free day care per week (for 46 weeks per year),
which is available only to children attending institutions (i.e. not to children raised by
nannies). The nursery may charge families a fee if they spend more than 20 hours a week
in the institutions. In practice, entitlement to early childhood care begins at the age of 3 and
the compulsory school system begins from the age of 4. Through the system of childcare
vouchers, the state provides support for the use of childcare services up to the child’s age
of12.9 The provision of childcare also includes a number of specialized care networks: the
Maison Relais (MRS – a day-care centre controlled by the local authority), nurseries, foster
homes, and parental assistants. For families with more than 4 children, parents do not have
to pay for childcare services. The financial contribution is limited to 60 hours per week and
EUR 6 per hour (in the case of parental assistance EUR 4 per hour.).

In 2023, 60% of children aged 0–3 in Luxembourg received nursery care, which is higher
than the EU average (37%) and represents a significant increase compared to 2005 (22%).
In 2023, 85% of children aged 3–4 went to kindergarten, which is slightly below the EU
average (89%), and a slight increase compared to 2005 (74%).

8
https://guichet.public.lu/en/entreprises/ressources-humaines/conges/situation-perso.html
9
https://luxtoday.lu/en/knowledge/childcare-service-vouchers-csa-in-luxembourg

227
 Malta

KEY DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS

2001 2011 2016 2021 2022 2023

Population 391 415 414 989 450 415 516 100 520 971 542 051

Live birth (persons) 3 957 4 165 4 476 4 395 4 309 4 374

Death (persons) 2 935 3 267 3 342 4 163 4 182 4 164

Immigrant (persons) N/A 5 465 17 051 18 148 34 964 42 239*

Emigrant (persons) N/A 3 806 8 303 13 509 13 166 21 279*

Marriage (number) 2 194 2 562 3 034 2 276 2 546 2 036*

Divorce (number) * 42 371 320 502 501*

TFR 1.48 1.45 1.37 1.13 1.08 N/A

Source: Eurostat, * Maltese Statistical Office (Download date: 12.08.2024.)

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 Malta

DEMOGRAPHICS
Malta’s population has been growing steadily since the 2000s, reaching 542,051 on
1 January 2023, a significant increase of 38.5% compared to 2001. According to official
statistics, Malta is not considered to have a diverse ethnicity, although there are African
communities living on the island.
The country’s age pyramid shows a picture of an ageing society, with a steep decline in
the number of people under 30.

The number of live births increased by 10.5% and deaths by 41.9% between 2001 and
2023, with a rather upward trend until 2016, then fluctuating and stabilising around
4,300-4,400 from 2020. The number of deaths increased significantly after 2016, but
has stagnated in the last three years. Although the gap between births and deaths has
narrowed in the last years of the period under review, the country is still characterised
by natural increase.

From 2011 onwards, both immigration and emigration have increased in Malta. Between
2011 and 2023, the number of immigrants increased from 5,465 to 42,000, an increase
of more than seven and a half times. The increase is smaller for emigration, but from
2011 to 2023, the number of emigrants has more than five and a half times increased.
The country has a positive net migration balance, which has allowed the population
to grow steadily.

The number of marriages jumped sharply from 2001 to 2016, then fell from 2017 onwards,
and fell further in 2020, presumably due to restrictions imposed by Covid. However, even
after the restrictions were lifted, marriage rates did not return to their previous levels,
although they rose in 2022, but still fell by 7.2% overall between 2001 and 2023.

Divorce was not possible in Malta until 2011 (42 divorces were registered in that year),
however, after the authorization, the number of divorces increased almost eightfold
from 2011 to 2021. The sudden increase in 2022 (502 divorces) may also be linked to the
amendment of the legislation in 2020, which reduced the previously required 4 years of
separation to 6 months. In 2023, the number of divorces did not increase further, 501
divorces were registered, which is twelve times the number in 2011.

The fertility rate in Malta shows that the desire to have children decreased significantly
between 2001 and 2022. In 2001, the rate of 1.48 exceeded the EU average (1.43). By 2022,
this had dropped significantly, and the number of 1.08 was the lowest in the European
Union, far below the EU average (1.46). Since 2017, Malta has been the country with the
lowest fertility in the EU.

229
Malta

FAMILY POLICY

I. System of family support

Birth grant1
The Child Birth or Adoption Bonus (Bonus Għal Twelid ta’ Tarbija jew Addozzjoni),
introduced from 1 January 2020, is paid to the mother of a newborn child or the adopter of
a newborn child if they have been resident in Malta for 10 years prior to the child’s arrival.
The amount is a one-off payment of EUR 400. If the mother gives birth to or adopts more
than one child, the bonus is paid for each newborn or adopted child.

Maternity leave and benefit2

For working or self-employed mothers, the total maternity leave is 18 weeks, of which 10
weeks must be taken after the birth and 8 weeks can be taken freely, before or after the birth.
The maternity benefit (Benefiċċju tal-Maternità) for the first 14 weeks is paid by the employer
and is 100% of the mother’s earnings, with no upper limit. For the remaining 4 weeks of
maternity leave, the Maltese government provides a maternity leave benefit (Beneficcju dwar
Liv tal-Maternitá), which is equal to the statutory minimum wage, and was EUR 193 per
week in 2023. Adoptive parents are also entitled to this benefit. For unemployed mothers,
maternity leave is 14 weeks, for which they receive a benefit of EUR 101 per week.

Paternity leave3
The father is entitled to 10 working days’ paid leave, during which he receives his full
salary, with no upper limit. The leave must be taken in one go within 15 days after the
birth or adoption of the child.

Parental leave and benefit4

Parental leave is an unpaid entitlement in Malta that requires at least 12 months of
continuous employment. For private sector workers, both parents are entitled to 4 months
(for a total of 8 months), while public sector workers are entitled to 12 months. The leave
can be taken up until the child is 8 years old, in several instalments (4, 6 or 9 consecutive
months) and can be shared between the parents, if both are public servants. In the private
sector, the 4 months can be broken down into one-one-month periods and can be taken
up until the child is 10 years old - full-time or part-time, in phases or on a time credit basis.
Parents cannot be on parental leave at the same time.

1
https://socialsecurity.gov.mt/en/information-and-applications-for-benefits-and-services/family-benefits/child-birth-and-adoption-
bonus/
2
https://dier.gov.mt/en/Employment-Conditions/Leave/Pages/Maternity-Leave.aspx
3
https://dier.gov.mt/en/Employment-Conditions/Leave/Pages/Birth-Leave.aspx
4
https://dier.gov.mt/en/Employment-Conditions/Leave/Pages/Parental-Leave.aspx

230
 Malta

Public administration employees may also take a single 5-year career break in Malta
until the child reaches the age of 10. This is unpaid but is considered a social security
entitlement (so-called credit) for parents and legal guardians caring for a child under
6 years of age. The credits are paid for the first three children, even if the parent does
not return to work. The 5 years must be completed in one continuous period, but can be
reduced by multiples of 3 months (e.g. 36, 39, 42 months). If the 5 years are not used in
full, unused leave may be taken for subsequent periods to care for another child/children.
The career break can be taken by both parents at the same time, if they are both public
sector employees. In the private sector, this option is at the discretion of the employer.5

Child benefit
The child benefit (Allowance tat-Tfal) is an income-related benefit that is paid until the
child reaches the age of 16, or 21 if the child is in further education. It is usually paid to
the mother.
Its minimum amount is EUR 450 per child per year, its maximum amount per month is,
depending on the number of children:6
• One child: EUR 104;
• Two children: EUR 209;
• Three children: EUR 313;
• Four children: EUR 417;
• Each additional child: EUR 104.

If the total annual income of the two parents is below EUR 27,006, they subtract their
income from the EUR 27,006 and receive 6.5% of the difference for each child. Above
the income threshold of EUR 27,006, families receive an annual payment of EUR 450
per child.
In addition to the above, families with an income above the threshold of EUR 27,006
will also receive a lump sum of EUR 390 per year and families with an income below the
threshold will receive EUR 410.
In addition to the family allowance, single parents are also entitled to social assistance
(Ghajnuna Soċjali) if they are unemployed or on a low income. The amount of social
assistance is EUR 111 per person per week, plus EUR 8 per week for each additional
member of the household.
A parent caring for a disabled child receives an additional benefit of EUR 30 per week,
regardless of the parents’ income. This benefit (Allowance għal tfal b’Diżabilità) is paid
to all families with children with a physical or mental disability who do not receive any
other social security benefit for the same disability.

5
Blum et al. Leave Policies 2023
6
https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1121&langId=en&intPageId=4690

231
Malta

Tax credits and other benefits

Family taxation7
In Malta, the personal income tax rate is a flat rate of 35% for annual income above EUR
60,000 and 0-15-25% below EUR 60,000, depending on income. Parents with children
under 18 (and with an annual income of up to EUR 3,400 in their own right) can benefit
from the lower tax rate up to a higher income threshold. Married taxpayers also benefit
from a more favourable tax treatment than the rates for parents, and in certain cases
single parents or widows may also be eligible.

Housing
In Malta, there is no such benefit.

II. Reconciling work and family life

Employment
In 2023, the employment rate of women aged 15-64 was 70.7% (EU average: 65.7%), and
that of men was 84.5% (EU average: 75.1%). Between 2009 and 2023, employment in
Malta increased significantly. In 2009, only 38% of women and 71.9% of men worked. The
employment rate of women with young children (18-64-year-olds raising children under
6) was 73.7% in 2023 (EU average: 66.4%); for men, the same was 95.2% (EU average:
89.6%). Compared to 2009, the proportion of working mothers with young children has
increased significantly (2009: 38.2%, 2023: 73.7%). An increase is also visible in the case
of men, but not as significant as in the case of women (2009: 90.5%, 2023: 95.2%). In
2023, the proportion of women aged 15-64 working part-time was 18%, and for men the
same was 5.5%, which in both cases is below the EU average (28.5% and 8.4%). Between
2009 and 2023, the proportion of women working part-time decreased (from 23.4% to
18.0%), while this proportion increased somewhat for men (from 4.6% to 5.5%).

Carer’s leave
All employees are entitled to 5 working days per year of unpaid carers’ leave to care
for a relative or a person living in the same household as the worker for serious health
reasons. The employee must provide a medical proof stating that the relative or person
living in the same household as the worker is ill and needs care.8

7
https://taxsummaries.pwc.com/malta/individual/taxes-on-personal-income
8
https://dier.gov.mt/en/Employment-Conditions/Leave/Pages/Carers-Leave.aspx

232
 Malta

Public administration workers who have completed their probationary period may
request up to one year of unpaid leave to care for dependent elderly parents, children,
spouse or partner (renewable every year).

Flexible working arrangements

Women are entitled to up to one hour of paid leave per working day for breastfeeding,
which can be taken either 1x60 minutes, 2x30 minutes or 3x20 minutes per day.
Parents are not required to work overtime for 12 months after the birth of their child.
Employees with at least 3 months’ service in the public administration may request
flexible working time for up to 12 months. Public administration employees can also
work reduced hours (i.e. between 20 and 35 hours per week) until their child reaches the
age of 16. In addition, from 2023, public administration workers will be able to work up to
20% of their weekly working time remotely during normal working hours. According to
2019 data, part-time working in public administration has decreased, while teleworking
has increased by almost 5%.
In Malta, 100 hours (60 hours for the person undergoing treatment, 40 hours for the
partner) of fully paid IVF leave are granted to people undergoing reproductive procedures.
Both parents can use it at the same time and up to 3 assisted reproductive procedures are
allowed, for a total of 300 hours.9
During 12 months, 3 months of unpaid leave are possible for any reason, including
creation of work-life balance.
Workers are entitled to paid marriage leave, which is regulated by the sector in which
they are employed. This means a minimum of 2 working days after the marriage.10

Early childhood education and care

Early childhood education and care in Malta consists of three phases: childcare (for
children aged 0-3), pre-school (for children aged 3-5) and the first 2 years of compulsory
primary education (for children aged 5-7). The first two are optional. Since 2017, nursery
(for children aged 0-3) is free of charge for children whose parents work or study, but
they have to pay for meals. Optional kindergarten care and the first 2 years of compulsory
primary education are free for all children, but meals have to be paid for.
In 2023, 51% of Maltese children aged 0-3 years received nursery care, higher than the EU
average (37%) and a significant increase compared to 2005 (5%). In the same year, 93%
of Maltese children aged 3-6 years attended kindergarten, higher than the EU average
(89%) and a significant increase compared to 2005 (65%).

9
https://dier.gov.mt/en/Employment-Conditions/Leave/Pages/IVF-Leave.aspx
10
https://dier.gov.mt/en/Employment-Conditions/Leave/Pages/Marraige-Leave.aspx

233
 Netherlands

KEY DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS

2001 2011 2016 2021 2022 2023

Population 15 987 075 16 655 799 16 979 120 17 475 415 17 590 672 17 811 291

Live birth (persons) 202 603 180 060 172 520 179 441 167 504 164 487

Death (persons) 140 337 135 741 148 997 170 972 170 112 169 521

Immigrant (persons) 133 404 130 118 189 232 252 528 403 108 336 900*

Emigrant (persons) 63 318 104 201 111 477 110 342 109 616 192 500*

Marriage (number) 79 677 71 572 65 249 56 419 70 608 67 959*

Divorce (number) 37 104 33 755 33 414 25 962 23 603 24 310*

TFR 1.71 1.76 1.66 1.62 1.49 1.43*

Source: Eurostat, * Statistics Netherlands (Download date: 09.08.2024.)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

150 000 125 000 100 000 75 000 50 000 25 000 0 25 000 50 000 75 000 100 000 125 000 150 000

234
 Netherlands

DEMOGRAPHICS
The population of the Netherlands has been growing steadily since 2001, increasing
by around 2 million people - 11% - in twenty years, reaching 17,811,291 on 1 January
2023.1 Dutch people make up 79% of the Dutch population, 6% of the population is
from other European nations, 5% is of South-East Asian origin and 2-3% is of Turkish
and Moroccan origin.
The population pyramid of the Netherlands shows a picture of a slowly ageing society,
with a slight population increase in a wave for those under 50.

The number of live births has decreased slightly: in the first half of the 2010s, it was around
180-170,000 per year, while in recent years it has been slightly less than 170,000. Compared
to 2001, the change is more striking, with live births falling by 18.8%. The trend in the
number of deaths is similarly intense, with a 20% increase by 2023 compared to 2001. In
the early 2000s, there were 50,000 more births per year than deaths, which fell to 18,000 in
2019, and in recent years has turned into a natural decrease (-5,000 in 2023).

The number of immigrants to the country has been rising steadily, from 130,118 in 2011 to
252,528 in 2021 and 336,900 in 2023. Between 2001 and 2023, the number of immigrants
has increased more than two and a half times. The number of emigrants has been around
110,000 people per year since 2012, but in 2023, 192,500 people emigrated from the
country, more than three times as many as in 2001 and almost twice as many as in 2011.
The migration balance was negative until 2007, reaching an increase of 55,000 in 2015,
since when it has been increasing population by more than 100,000 people per year. In
2023, the number of immigrants fell from the high numbers in 2022, but still remained
relatively high (336,900), while the emigration rate (192,500 in 2023) soared.

In the Netherlands, the number of marriages has been around 65,000 per year since 2013,
declining in the years 2020-2021, however this decline was made up in 2023, as 67,959
marriages took place that year. The Netherlands had the highest number (2,411) of same-
sex marriages in 2001, the year when it was authorized. In 2023, the number was 1,626,
accounting for 2.4% of all marriages.

During the period under review, the number of divorces has steadily decreased: from more
than 33,000 in 2013 to 23,603 in 2022, which means a decrease of about 30%. From 2001
(37,104 divorces) to 2023 (24,310 divorces), we can see a decrease of almost 35%.
By 2022, the total fertility rate had fallen back almost to the EU average (1.46) and was only
1.49. In 2023, it fell further to 1.43, despite having been around 1.7 until 2014.

1
https://www.cbs.nl/en-gb/visualisations/dashboard-population/population-dynamics/population-growth

235
Netherlands

FAMILY POLICY

I. System of family support

Birth grant
In the Netherlands, there is no such benefit.

Maternity leave and benefit

Pregnancy and maternity leave (zwangerschaps- en bevallingsverlof) is a 16-week paid
leave for mothers, of which 4-6 weeks are to be taken before and 10-12 weeks after the
birth. If the child is born before the due date, the leave is added to the postnatal period,
and if the birth is after the due date, the extra days are not deducted from the postnatal
period.
The amount of the maternity benefit (zwangerschaps- en bevallingsverlofuitkering) for
this period is 100% of the mother’s previous average wage, but cannot be higher than
EUR 257 per day.2 The payment of the benefit should start at the latest in the 34th week of
pregnancy. If the child is premature, the first day of funding is the day of the child’s birth.
In the case of adoption or foster care, both parents are entitled to a 6-week paid leave.

Paternity leave
Fathers are entitled to 5 days of 100% paid paternity leave and a further 5 weeks of 70%
paid paternity leave, up to a maximum of EUR 178 per day. The benefit is paid by the
employer, who can increase the benefit to 100% for the 5-week period.

Parental leave and benefit

Working parents are entitled to 26-26 weeks of parental leave (partnerverlof) per child
until the child is 8 years old. From 2022, the first 9 weeks of the 26 weeks are to be paid
at 70% of the salary, but employers can increase this amount. The paid part of parental
leave must be taken until the child reaches the age of 1 and is a maximum of EUR 178
per day.

Child benefit
There are two forms of child benefit: the general child benefit and the supplementary
child benefit.
The general child benefit (kindersbijslag) is paid for all children under 18 years of age.
Its amount increases with age and depends on the place of residence of the child. A child
over 16 years of age who is working is entitled if he or she either lives at home with his
or her parents and earns up to EUR 1 266 per quarter or does not live at home and earns
2
https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1122&langId=en&intPageId=4987

236
 Netherlands

less than EUR 1 721. If the child is under 16, he or she will always get the child benefit,
regardless of the child’s income. It is paid quarterly and is conditional on being insured.
The amount of the general child benefit paid quarterly per child from January 2024:
• EUR 279 for children under 5 years;
• EUR 339 for children aged 6-11 years;
• EUR 399 for children aged 12-17 years.3

The amount is doubled if the child does not live with his or her parents because he or she
is a student, disabled or invalid, or if the child with a severe disability is cared for at home.
In addition to the standard child benefit, a supplementary benefit, called child budget
(kindgebonden budget) is paid to families earning below a certain income level and
with low savings, which is higher than the standard child benefit, the exact amount
depending on the number of children, their age, the number of working adults and the
family’s financial situation.

Tax credits and other benefits

Family taxation
Working parents with young children can claim a combined tax credit at the rate of their
income from the Tax and Customs Board. The tax credit means that parents pay less
income tax and social security contributions. The income-related combined tax credit
is for parents living and working in the Netherlands who are caring for a child under
12 years of age and have an annual income of between EUR 5,548 and EUR 29,076.
The amount of the credit is linked to the parent with the lowest income, with a rate of
11.45% of the part of the income above EUR 5,548. This is the Dutch government’s way
of encouraging parents to take up paid work.4 Those earning above the income ceiling
can claim a tax credit of up to EUR 2,694 per year.5

Housing
After 2017, parents could gift up to EUR 100,000 (tax-free) to their children to help them
buy a home in the Netherlands. However, the government has changed the rules for the
tax-free gift known as “jubelton”; from 1 January 2023. The maximum amount that could
be gifted was reduced to EUR 27,231, and later abolished completely (from January 2024).

3
https://www.svb.nl/nl/kinderbijslag/bedragen-betaaldagen/bedragen-kinderbijslag
4
https://www.government.nl/topics/income-related-combination-tax-credit
5
https://www.government.nl/topics/income-related-combination-tax-credit és https://taxsavers.nl/dutch-tax-system/tax-credits/
income-related-combination-tax-credit/

237
Netherlands

II. Reconciling work and family life

Employment
The Netherlands is a leader for part-time employment, which makes it easier to reconcile
work and private life, with 62.9% of women aged 15-64 and 23.6% of men working part-
time in 2023. Both numbers are several times higher than the EU average of 28.5% for
women and 8.4% for men. In the Netherlands, the employment rate for women aged 18-
64 with children under 6 is one of the highest in the EU at 81.8% (EU average: 66.4%),
while the employment rate for men aged 18-64 with young children is 95.2% (EU average:
89.6%). This is one of the highest averages for men in the EU (apart from Malta).
In 2021, 90% of eligible fathers took paternity leave right after the birth of the child and
almost all fathers took at least 4 days. One third of fathers took 5 weeks or more of leave.
In 2021, 18% of female workers with a child aged 8 or undertook parental leave. For male
workers, the rate was 17%. The gap between men and women has narrowed in recent
years, compared to 21% of women and 15% of men taking parental leave in 2015.

Carer’s leave
To care for a sick child or a relative, a worker can take 5 days carer’s leave twice a year,
for which 70% of his/her previous earnings are paid. In addition, if a relative needs long-
term care, the employee is entitled to 30 days of unpaid leave per year.

Flexible working arrangements

Up to 25% of the working time can be taken as breastfeeding leave until the baby is
9 months old, for which time the mother is compensated.
Employers are obliged to offer flexible working conditions and the possibility to work
from home to employees who have been employed for at least 6 months, if they have
more than 10 employees and the work schedule allows it.

Early childhood and education care

Up to the age of 4, Dutch children can receive full-day, centrally regulated private care
or regulated family day care. In addition to the private sector, children aged 2 to 4 years
can attend state-subsidised playgroups, which provide mostly half-day care. For children
in the last two years before school (ages 5 to 6), day care is available as pre-school and is
compulsory from age 5. Primary education starts at the age of 6, but children generally
attend these institutions from the age of 4. Parents do pay a parental contribution
(depending on income).
Parents who place their children in institutional care receive a childcare benefit
(kinderopvangtoeslag) in addition to the child benefit, which is intended to cover part of
the cost of day care (nursery, kindergarten, family day care). The childcare benefit is paid
on the basis of the family’s income and the mother’s employment status. In 2024, the

238
 Netherlands

maximum amount of the benefit per hour of day nursery/day care is EUR10 and can be
claimed for up to 230 hours per month.6
In 2023, 73% of children aged 0-3 years received nursery care, higher than the EU average
(37%) and an increase compared to the Dutch figure for 2005 (60%). In 2023, 97% of
children aged 3-6 years in the Netherlands attended kindergarten/school, higher than the
EU average (89%) and an increase compared to 92% in 2005.

6
https://www.rijksoverheid.nl/onderwerpen/kinderopvangtoeslag/bedragen-kinderopvangtoeslag-2024

239
 Poland

KEY DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS

2001 2011 2016 2021 2022 2023

Population 38 253 955 38 062 718 37 967 209 37 840 001 37 654 247 36 753 736

Live birth (persons) 368 205 388 416 382 257 331 511 305 132 272 451

Death (persons) 363 220 375 501 388 009 519 517 448 448 409 036

Immigrant (persons) 6 625 157 059 208 302 241 116 275 515 N/A

Emigrant (persons) 23 368 265 798 236 441 201 595 228 006 N/A

Marriage (number) 195 122 206 471 193 455 168 324 155 817 145 898*

Divorce (number) 45 308 64 594 63 497 60 687 60 162 56 892*

TFR 1.31 1.33 1.39 1.33 1.29 1.16*

Source: Eurostat, *Polish Statistical Office (Download date: 09.08.2024)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

350 000 300 000 250 000 200 000 150 000 100 000 50 000 0 50 000 100 000 150 000 200 000 250 000 300 000 350 000

240
 Poland

DEMOGRAPHICS
Poland’s population declined between 2000 and 2008, slightly improved and stagnated
since 2010, so on 1 January 2023 it was 36,753,736, and has fallen by 1.5 million (4%)
since 2001. 96% of the population is Polish, with the main nationalities being Silesian,
German, Belarusian and Ukrainian.
The country’s population pyramid shows the picture of an ageing society, with a high
number of 30-40-year-olds today followed by a steep decline in the younger age groups,
with only a slight increase in the teenage population.

Births and deaths were relatively evenly balanced until 2017, but in recent years natural
decrease has spiked, reducing the country’s population by around 150,000 people a year.
In 2023, there were 272,451 births and 409,036 deaths, reducing Poland’s population by
136,585. Live births fell by 26% between 2001 and 2023, while deaths rose by almost 13%
over the same period.

The migration balance was negative until 2017, but this trend has been reversed in recent
years, with a migration surplus of 40-60,000 people, in which, in addition to the Russian-
Ukrainian war, the number of Poles returning to their country because of Brexit and
formerly working in Great Britain is thought to play a decisive role. Immigration and
emigration, which was negligible in 2001, has skyrocketed, with immigration rising 41-
fold and emigration nearly 10-fold by 2022.
Between 2001 and 2011, the number of marriages increased by 5.8%, but then fell below
200,000 by 2016, and the pandemic further reduced the number of marriages, with
around 29.3% fewer marriages in 2023 than in 2011 and 25.2% fewer than in 2001. The
number of divorces increased steadily from 2001 to 2011, by 42.6%, and has since fallen,
by 11.9% between 2011 and 2023, still 25.6% higher than in 2001.

Poland’s fertility rate is low, rising from 1.29 in 2013 to 1.48 in 2017, but falling steadily
over the last five years, returning to 1.29 in 2022, well below the EU average (1.46 in
2022). Compared to 2010, Poland is the only country in the Visegrad Four to have a lower
TFR, and fertility rate in 2023 is the lowest in a quarter of a century.

241
Poland

FAMILY POLICY

I. System of family support

Birth grant
The Polish maternity grant (dodatek z tytułu urodzenia dzieck) is PLN 1,000 (EUR 220),
paid in one lump sum to the mother immediately after the birth of the child. Introduced
in 2006, the childbirth grant is income-related (since 2013), available to families with
a net monthly per capita income of less than PLN 1,922 (EUR 452).

A so-called “For Life” lump sum benefit can be granted to a parent for the birth of a child
diagnosed with a severe and irreversible disability or an untreatable life-threatening
illness, which originated in the period of prenatal development of the child or during
labour. The benefit is PLN 4,000 (EUR 880).1

Maternity leave and benefit

An insured mother is entitled to 20 weeks (31-37 weeks for multiple birth, depending on
the number of children) of maternity leave (urlop macierzyński), with a minimum of 14
weeks for the mother after childbirth and up to 6 weeks may be allocated to the father.
6 weeks of the maternity leave may be taken before the birth.

Maternity benefit (zasiłek macierzyński) is payable to the insured mother during

maternity leave as follows:
• 100% of average earnings during the previous 12 months for maternity leave and
the first 6 weeks of parental leave (8 weeks for twins) and 70% for the remaining 35
weeks of parental leave;
• or 81.5% of salary during both maternity and parental leave.

For mothers/fathers on low incomes, if the maternity benefit would be less than PLN
1 000 (EUR 220) per month, the difference is made up by the state.2

Paternity leave
Paternity leave was introduced in 2008 and has been 1 week of paid leave since 2010.
Since 2022, fathers with insurance have been entitled to 2 weeks of paid paternity leave
(urlop ojcowski), which can be taken in one or two instalments up to the age of one year.
During the leave, 100% of the salary is paid. 3

1
https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1124&langId=en&intPageId=4718 and https://www.gov.pl/web/uw-podlaski/jedno-
razowa-zapomoga-z-tytulu-urodzenia-sie-dziecka
2
https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1124&langId=en&intPageId=4719
3
https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1124&langId=en&intPageId=4719 and https://www.gov.pl/web/rodzina/
urlop-ojcowski

242
 Poland

Parental leave and benefit4

From January 2023, the mother and father will be entitled to a total of 41 weeks (43 weeks
for twins) of parental leave (urlop rodzicielski) after the end of maternity leave, of which
9 weeks are non-transferable. The amount paid for the period of leave depends on the
option chosen by the mother taking maternity leave:
• if the mother chooses to receive a payment equivalent to 100% of earnings during
maternity leave, 70% of her average earnings for the 12 months preceding the birth
is paid for the period of parental leave, with no upper limit on pay;
• if the mother opts for a payment of 81.5% of earnings during maternity leave, the
parental leave benefit is paid at the same level.

The father is paid 70% of previous earnings.

Parental leave can be shared, taken concurrently or consecutively, and parents can work
part-time while receiving the benefit, in which case parental leave can be extended to
a maximum of 64 weeks. Parental leave may be taken in instalments, up to a maximum
of five periods.

Irrespective of parental leave, low-income parents who have worked for at least 6 months
before taking parental leave are entitled to a maximum of 36 months of childcare leave
(urlop wychowawczy), of which 1 month each is non-transferable. It may be taken until
the end of the calendar year in which the child reaches the age of 6. Childcare allowance
is PLN 400 (EUR 88) per month for 24 months (36 months for twins and 72 months for
disabled children) if the family’s net monthly per capita income does not exceed PLN 674
(EUR 150) or PLN 764 (EUR 170) for disabled children.

Parental benefit (Świadczenie rodzicielskie) is paid to parents who do not have insurance.
They can receive this benefit for 52 weeks (65-71 weeks for twins, depending on the
number of children) at a monthly rate of PLN 1,000 (EUR 223). The mother is entitled to
the first 14 weeks of this benefit.

Child benefit5
The child benefit (zasiłek rodzinny) is an income-related benefit linked to the number of children.
It is normally paid until the age of 18, until the age of 21 if the child is in further education, and
until the age of 24 if the child is disabled. It is available to families with a monthly per capita
income of less than PLN 674 (EUR 148), or PLN 764 (EUR 168) for a disabled child.
The monthly amount varies depending on the age of the child:
• up to 5 years: PLN 95 (EUR 21);
• 5-18 years: PLN 124 (EUR 27);
• 18-24 years: PLN 135 (EUR 30).

4
https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1124&langId=en&intPageId=4719
5
https://www.gov.pl/web/uw-podlaski/zasilek-rodzinny

243
Poland

Since 2016, families whose income is slightly over the income limit (up to the amount
of the benefit exceeding the income limit) can also receive family allowances, in which
case the amount over the income limit is deducted from the total amount of the benefit
(including supplements).
In addition to the family allowance, a supplement of PLN 95 (EUR 22) per month can
be paid to families with three or more children for the third and subsequent children
(dodatek z tytułu wychowywania dziecka w rodzinie wielodzietnej), if the family’s per capita
income entitles them to the basic family allowance. Single parents receive a supplement
(dodatek z tytułu samotnego wychowywania dziecka) of PLN 193 (EUR 42) per child (up to
a maximum of PLN 386 (EUR 85) for all children), and a family allowance supplement of
PLN 90-110 (EUR 20-24) per child for the education and rehabilitation of disabled children
(dodatek z tytułu kształcenia i rehabilitacji dziecka niepełnosprawnego). If a single parent
raises a disabled child, the supplement is PLN 273 (EUR 63) per child, up to a maximum
of PLN 546 (EUR 126) for all children.
Since 2016, the “500 Plus” (Świadczenie wychowawcze, 500 Plus) scheme has included
an additional family allowance, which is a monthly allowance paid for children under
18. It amounted to PLN 500 (EUR 110) per child per month, until 2019 from the second
child onwards, and only for the first child depending on income (PLN 800 (EUR 164)
per month net per capita income) or if the child was disabled. As of April 2019, the
scheme was extended to first-born children and the income threshold was abolished. As
of January 2024, the monthly financial support for children was significantly increased
from PLN 500 to PLN 800.
The Family Care Capital Act came into force on 1 January 2022. Under the new law,
parents of young children can receive up to PLN 12,000 (EUR 2 775) in additional cash
support - PLN 1,000 (EUR 230) per month for 1 year or PLN 500 (EUR 115) per month for
2 years. The allowance is tax-free and independent of the family’s income. It is paid from
every second child for children aged 12-35 months. The family care capital is designed to
help families reconcile work and childcare.6

Tax credits and other benefits

Schooling aid
Under the “Good Start” (Dobry Start) scheme, launched in 2018, parents can receive
PLN 300 (EUR 69) for their children attending primary, secondary, higher and other
educational institutions, regardless of income, to buy textbooks, exercise books and
equipment for pupils. The benefit is paid once a year until the child reaches the age of 20
or until the age of 24 for a disabled child attending school.7

6
https://www.gov.pl/web/family/family-care-capital-step-by-step
7
https://www.gov.pl/web/rodzina/dobry-start

244
 Poland

Family taxation
In Poland, the annual personal income tax allowance depends on the number of children.
For one child, the amount is PLN 1,112 (EUR 244) per year, if the taxpayer’s annual
income is less than PLN 112,000 (EUR 24,645). For the second child, the amount is also
PLN 1,112 (EUR 244) per year, but without any income limit. The annual amount of the
tax allowance is PLN 2,000 (EUR 440) for the third child and PLN 2,700 (EUR 594) for the
fourth or more children. Introduced in 2007, the tax credit was increased for third and
children from 2013.8

From 2022, those with at least four children, if their annual income does not exceed PLN
85,528 per person, will benefit from an income tax exemption. If both parents benefit
from the tax relief, their combined tax-free income will amount to PLN 171,056 (EUR
39,617). The fourth child born on the last day (31 December) of the tax year also qualifies
for the tax credit for that tax year.

Tax exemption for young people under 26

As of 1 August 2019, workers under 26 years of age are exempt from personal income
tax if their annual income does not exceed PLN 85,528 (EUR 19,808). From 2021, young
people under 26 who earn income through practical training during their university
studies will also be exempt from personal income tax. 9

Large family card

The Large Family Card (karta dużej rodziny) was introduced in 2014 for families with at
least three children, regardless of income. Benefits are provided by public institutions
and private companies that have joined the scheme.10

Housing
The Polish government provides support for buying a home through so-called “housing
vouchers”. Housing vouchers are granted in an amount calculated on the basis of the number
of members in the household, with a special focus on children and people with disabilities.
Two types of housing vouchers are available: social and family vouchers. The social housing
voucher is for people who do not own their own home and whose income limits their ability
to borrow a loan. Under the family voucher, single households receive PLN 5 000 (EUR 1,161),
couples without children PLN 10,000 (EUR 2,322), couples with one child PLN 25,000 (EUR
5,804) and couples with two children PLN 40,000 (EUR 9,287) support.

The average rent for an apartment in 2022 was EUR 600.

8
https://taxsummaries.pwc.com/poland/individual/other-tax-credits-and-incentives
9
https://studio.pwc.pl/aktualnosci/preferencje-w-pit/eng/relief-for-young-people-2023
10
https://www.gov.pl/web/gov/uzyskaj-karte-duzej-rodziny

245
Poland

The state guaranteed housing loan

The guaranteed housing loan introduced by the Polish Deal programme is available up
to 100% of the purchase price of a dwelling or the construction cost of a single-family
house. The loan is available from the end of May 2022. A state guarantee is available for
part of the mortgage loan taken out for the purchase of a dwelling. This part cannot be
less than 10% and no more than 20% of the value of the property, up to a maximum of
PLN 100,000 (EUR 23,160). The guarantee replaces the requirement of a down payment.
The guaranteed housing loan may be reduced if a second or additional child is born in the
household during the repayment period of the loan. BGK Development Bank will repay
part of the guaranteed housing loan once the child is born. The amount of repayment
assumed by the bank:
• PLN 20,000 (EUR 4,632) upon the birth of a second child,
• PLN 60,000 (EUR 13,896) for the birth of a third or subsequent child.

The loan must be granted for a minimum term of 15 years and can only be granted in
Polish currency to exclude exchange rate risk.11

II. Reconciling work and family life

Employment
In 2023, the employment rate for women aged 18-64 with young children was 70.7%,
while the rate for men aged 18-64 with children under 6 was 93.3%, both above the
EU average (66.4% and 89.6% respectively). Compared to 2009, both genders show an
increase, with only 54.4% of women working with a child under 6 in 2009 compared to
85.7% of men. Part-time employment is low in the country, with 8.4% of women and
3.4% of men working part-time in 2023, compared to the EU average of 28.5% and 8.4%
respectively. In 2009, the share of part-time workers was higher than in 2023: 10.9% for
women and 5.0% for men.

Carer’s leave
Parents are entitled to 14-14 days of 80% paid leave per year, plus 5-5 days of unpaid
leave per year to care for a sick child or a family member living in the same household.
Workers with a child under 14 years of age are entitled to 2 days’ paid leave per year. In
the event of the unforeseen closure of educational establishments, parents with children
under 8 years of age may take up to 60 days’ leave per year and are entitled to a salary
equivalent to 80% of their salary.

11
https://www.gov.pl/web/development-technology/housing-without-own-contribution--sejm-adopted-another-bill-
of-the-polish-deal

246
 Poland

Flexible working arrangements

Mothers are entitled to a breastfeeding break of 2x30 minutes per day, during which time
they receive 100% of their earnings.

Flexible working conditions are available if the child has a disability or serious illness.

Early childhood education and care

There are four forms of day care for children under 3 years in Poland, of which the state
nursery is free of charge:
1. nursery (from 20 weeks of age, public or private, open 10 hours a day),
2. day nursery (from 1 year of age, up to 30 children, open 10 hours a day, private or
public),
3. family day care (from 20 weeks of age, up to 8 children), and
4. a nanny working for the family (may look after the baby from 20 weeks of age).

Kindergarten is free for children aged 3-6 for five hours a day; additional hours may
be subject to a fee. Parents pay an additional fee for meals. In 2014, the age limit for
compulsory education was lowered to 6 years, and as a result of subsequent debates, it
was raised again to 7 years in 2016. The compulsory pre-school age was then set at 6 years.

To stimulate the development of institutional places, the Polish government launched

in 2022 the so-called “Maluch+” program, which aims to encourage local authorities to
create new nursery and playschool places and private individuals to create family day
care centres. In 2013, to alleviate the shortage of places, requirements for the provision of
early childhood care were relaxed, public spending on the construction and maintenance
of nurseries was increased and a cap on nursery fees was introduced.12

In 2023, 13% of 0–3-year-old children in Poland received some form of nursery care, well
below the EU average (37%) and only a slight increase compared to the first available
Polish figure in 2011 (11%). In 2023, 75% of 3–6-year-old children attended kindergarten,
well below the EU average (89%), but a significant increase compared to 52% in 2011.

12
https://www.sgi-network.org/docs/2015/country/SGI2015_Poland.pdf

247
 Portugal

KEY DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS

2001 2011 2016 2021 2022 2023

Population 10 330 774 10 572 721 10 341 330 10 298 252 10 352 042 10 516 621

Live birth (persons) 112 774 96 856 87 126 79 582 83 671 85 699*

Death (persons) 105 092 102 848 110 573 124 802 124 311 118 295*

Immigrant (persons) 61 609 19 667 29 925 50 721 117 843 N/A

Emigrant (persons) 5 396 43 998 38 273 25 079 30 954 N/A

Marriage (number) 58 390 36 035 32 399 29 057 36 952 36 980*

Divorce (number) 18 851 26 750 22 340 17 279 18 464 N/A

TFR 1.45 1.35 1.36 1.35 1.43 1.44*

Source: Eurostat, *Portugal Statistical Office (Download date: 12.08.2024)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 000 75 000 50 000 25 000 0 25 000 50 000 75 000 100 000

248
 Portugal

DEMOGRAPHICS
Portugal’s population was 10.3 million in the early 2000s, rising to over 10.5 million in
2010. In the following decade, the population declined steadily, but in recent years it has
started to increase again. On 1 January 2023, the country’s population was 10,516,621.
Compared to 2001, the Portuguese population has increased by 186,000 (almost 1.8%).
Portugal’s population is one of the most homogeneous within the European Union, with
99% of the population being Portuguese, with a minority of gypsies (around 40,000),
Brazilians and black African groups.
Portugal’s population pyramid shows a picture of an ageing society, with a steady decline
in the under-40 age group.

The number of live births decreased by about 30% between 2001 and 2021, but following
the COVID-19 epidemic, the number of births increased in 2022 and 2023, so the decrease
between 2001 and 2023 was 24%. The number of deaths showed a fluctuating trend over
the period, with an increase of 12.6% in deaths in 2023 compared to 2001. Although in
2001 there were still more births than deaths, the latter has consistently outnumbered
the former over the last 15 years, reducing the country’s population by around 20-40
thousand people per year.

Immigration has started to rise from its low point in 2012, increasing by a factor of
two and a half between 2011 and 2021, and more than doubling by 2022 compared to
the previous year. Emigration increased almost six-fold by 2022 compared to 2001. The
country’s migration balance was negative until 2016, but since then more people arrive
than leave the country each year. Portugal’s population growth is due to this positive
net migration.

The number of marriages decreased significantly until 2020, reaching a historic low
of 18,902, no doubt due to the COVID-19 epidemic, but since 2021 there has been an
increase. The number of marriages fell by 36.7% compared to 2001.
The number of divorces has followed a more fluctuating trend, with the highest number of
divorces in 2010, when the number of divorces reached nearly 28,000, but then declining
until 2021. By 2022, it had risen slightly, reaching 18,464, thus compared with 2001, the
number of divorces fell only minimally, by 387.

The fertility rate was over 1.4 until 2005. Between 2010 and 2013, the rate dropped
significantly from 1.39 to 1.21, and then rose to 1.43 by 2019, after which it fell below
1.42 (1.35) only in 2021. At the same time, in 2022, the desire to have children increased
only in Portugal in the European Union. By 2023, it reached a value of 1.44, which is
almost exactly the same as the fertility rate measured in 2001 (1.45).

249
Portugal

FAMILY POLICY

I. System of family support

Birth grant1
In Portugal, a pregnant woman can claim a prenatal family allowance (abono de família
pré-natal) if her annual income is up to EUR 11,404. The allowance is equal to the family
allowance for a one-year-old child (35% higher for single parents). The prenatal family
allowance is paid for 6 months, from the 13th week of pregnancy until the date of birth.
Insured pregnant women are entitled to up to three “dental vouchers” (cheques-dentista),
issued by their general practitioner, which they can use for 60 days after childbirth.2

Maternity leave and benefit3

The length of the so-called initial parental leave (licença parental inicial) is either 120 or
150 consecutive days, depending on the amount of the benefit, and is granted to both
parents. After childbirth, the mother is obliged to take 42 days, plus a maximum of 30
days before the birth (licença parental inicial exclusivo da mãe/ initial parental leave
reserved for the mother); fathers must take 21 calendar days within 42 days of childbirth.
The remaining period can be divided by mutual agreement between the parents.
Parents who have worked for at least 6 months before the birth are entitled to an initial
parental leave benefit (subsídio parental inicial). The amount of the benefit depends on
the length of the payment: they can receive 100% of previous earnings for 120 days or
80% of previous earnings for 150 days, depending on their request. There is no upper
limit to the benefit.
Parents can get an additional 1 month of paid leave if both parents take parental leave.
In this case, 100% of previous earnings is being disbursed for 5 months or 83% for
6 months. If the father takes at least 60 consecutive days off or two consecutive 30-day
periods after the mother returns to work, the payment is increased to 90% of earnings. In
the case of twins, an extra 30 days per child is paid.
Adoptive parents, if the child is under 15 years old, are entitled to adoption leave (licença
para avaliação), which can be extended by 120 or 150 consecutive days, as with parental
leave, or by an additional 1 month.4

1
https://www.seg-social.pt/abono-de-familia-pre-natal2 and https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1125&langId=en&int-
PageId=4734
2
https://www2.gov.pt/en/guias/ter-uma-crianca/acompanhamento-na-gravidez
3
Blum et al. Leave Policies 2023 és https://eportugal.gov.pt/en/guias/ter-uma-crianca/licenca-parental
4
https://eportugal.gov.pt/en/guias/ter-uma-crianca/adocao-em-portugal

250
 Portugal

A working grandparent is entitled to a grandchild care allowance (subsídio para assistência

a neto) after the birth of a grandchild, which is a leave of 30 consecutive days if the parent
is a teenager (i.e. under 16) and still lives with his/her parents. This leave can be shared
between grandparents. The grandchild care allowance is equivalent to 100% of earnings.5

Paternity leave6
Fathers are entitled to a total of 28 days of leave (licença parental inicial exclusivo do
pai), which can be taken consecutively or in stages. Of these, at least 7 days must be
taken after the birth of the child and a further 21 days must be taken up to the age of
6 weeks, in minimum periods of 7 days. For this period, the benefit (subsídio parental
inicial exclusivo do pai) is 100% of the previous salary. These 28 days are part of the 120-
150 days of parental leave. In the case of multiple births, fathers receive an additional
2 days per child from the second child on. In addition to the 28 paid days, fathers are
entitled to an additional 7 days of unpaid leave.

Parental leave and benefit7

After the end of parental leave, and directly linked to it, parents are entitled to an
additional 3-3 months of paid extended parental leave (licença parental alargada), which
can be taken until the child is 6 years old. Extended parental benefit (subsídio parental
alargado) is payable for this period if taken immediately after the initial parental leave,
amounting to 40% of the previous average wage.
After the extended parental leave, and only if this leave has already been taken, one
parent may take up to 2 years of full-time unpaid childcare leave (licença para assistência
a filho), which may be extended to 3 years for a third or additional child. Unlike extended
parental leave, this special leave can only be taken by one parent and requires proof that
the other parent is working or unable to work.

Child benefit
The child benefit (abono de família para crianças e jovens) is paid until the child
reaches the age of 16, or 24 if he or she is in higher education. The monthly amount
depends on the family’s annual income (there are 5 income levels), the age and
number of children:8

5
https://eportugal.gov.pt/en/guias/ter-uma-crianca/licenca-parental
6
Blum et al. Leave Policies 2023, https://eportugal.gov.pt/en/guias/ter-uma-crianca/licenca-parental#
7
Blum et al. Leave Policies 2023
8
MISSOC

251
Portugal

0–36-month-old 36–72-month-old Child older than

child child 72 months

EUR 0 – 3,564 EUR 183 EUR 72 EUR 72

EUR 3,565 – EUR 7,129 EUR 155 EUR 72 EUR 72

EUR 7,130 – EUR 12,120 EUR 127 EUR 57 EUR 52

EUR 12,121 – EUR 17,824 EUR 85 EUR 43 -

EUR 17,824 EUR – - - -

There is no family allowance for annual income above EUR 17,824. Single parents receive
a 50% higher amount at the 1st income level, while the 2nd, 3rd and 4th income levels
receive a 42.5% higher amount.
Parents of children with disabilities also receive an additional monthly amount
(bonificação do abono de família para crianças e jovens com deficiencia) depending on
the age of the child, as follows:9
• between 0-14 years old: EUR 71;
• between the ages of 14 and 18: EUR 104;
• between the ages of 18-24: EUR 139.

Needy families living in extreme poverty receive an additional benefit of EUR 100 per
month. The measure affects around 123,000 children.

Tax credits and other benefits

Family taxation10
In Portugal, the amount of the family tax allowance for children living in the household
is EUR 600 per child and EUR 525 for grandparents living there, provided that they do
not earn more than the pension minimum. The rate of the discount is EUR 126 higher for
all children under 3 years of age. If there is more than one dependent in the household,
the amount of the discount increases by EUR 300 for the second and subsequent children
up to 6 years of age.
In the case of caring for a disabled family member, depending on the level of disability
and the family’s income, an inclusivity allowance (prestação social para a inclusão) is paid
in the amount of up to EUR 275 per month, in addition, there is also a special education
subsidy (subsídio de educação especial) for a disabled family member under the age of 24.

9
https://eportugal.gov.pt/servicos/requerer-a-bonificacao-por-deficiencia-do-abono-de-familia-para-criancas-e-jovens
10
https://eportugal.gov.pt/en/guias/ter-uma-crianca/apoios-financeiros-e-deducoes-nos-impostos and https://taxsummaries.
pwc.com/portugal/individual/other-tax-credits-and-incentives

252
 Portugal

Housing11
Young people between the ages of 18 and 35 who have difficulty paying their rent can
count on rent subsidies in Portugal from June 1, 2023, if certain conditions are met.
Within the framework of the so-called “Mais Habitação” (“More housing”) program,
a maximum of EUR 200 monthly rent subsidy can be obtained per family.

II. Reconciling work and family life

Employment
The full-time employment rate of mothers raising small children in Portugal is very high.
In 2023, 79.8% of women raising children under the age of 6 were active in the labor
market, thus exceeding the EU average of 66.4%. For men, the value of the indicator
is 88.7% (EU average 89.6%). Part-time work is not widespread: in 2023, the part-time
employment rate for women aged 15-64 was 9.8% and for men 4.6%, both figures are
much lower than the EU average (which is 28.5%, respectively 8.4%).

Carer’s leave 12
As a parent, you can take a maximum of 30 days of carer’s leave per year to care for a sick
child, if the child is under 12 years, and a maximum of 15 days per year, if the child is
over 12 years. Leave increases by 1 day for each additional child. In the case of children
over the age of 18, they are only entitled, if they live in the beneficiary’s household. If
a child under the age of 12 needs hospital care, the entitlement lasts as long as the child
is in hospital.
For the duration of the carer’s leave, the parent is entitled to 100% of the net earnings, but
no more than 65% of the gross earnings, which applies if the other parent does not take
the same leave at the same time.
If there is a disabled or chronically ill child living in the household, including adopted
or stepchildren, one parent is entitled to 6 months of long-term care leave, which can be
extended to 4 years or 6 years if the need is supported by a medical certificate. Only one
parent can take this leave, and 65% of the salary is paid for the duration of the leave.
There is a maximum of 15 days of unpaid leave per year for the purpose of caring for
a spouse or close relative (parents, grandparents, siblings - even if they do not live in the
same household). For this period, public sector employees are entitled to a benefit equal
to 65% of their daily earnings, and to an additional 15 days of unpaid leave per year to
care for a disabled or chronically ill spouse.

11
https://www.portugal.gov.pt/pt/gc23/comunicacao/noticia?i=programa-mais-habitacao-perguntas-e-respostas
12
Blum et al. Leave Policies 2023

253
Portugal

Leave due to pregnancy loss (licença por luto gestacional): If the pregnancy ends in
miscarriage, the employee is entitled to a maximum of 3 consecutive days of absence.
The father can also use this leave.

Flexible working arrangements13

In Portugal, parents working part-time or on flexible working arrangements cannot be
disadvantaged in terms of assessment and professional advancement.
In the first year after the birth of their child, parents are entitled to daily 2 hours of nursing
leave, without a reduction in earnings. This leave is called breastfeeding or feeding leave
(dispensa para amamentação e aleitação), since the working time allowance can be used by
the mother, the father or both (in this case, both parents can take 1 hour each). The employer
pays the leave and must authorize it. This 2-hour of breastfeeding leave can be a family
entitlement if mothers do not breastfeed their children. If the mother is breastfeeding her
child, the 2-hour working time discount lasts as long as she is breastfeeding the child.
Parents raising children under the age of 3 (there is no age limit in the case of a chronically
ill or disabled child) are entitled to telework (work from home). The possibility of remote
work can be extended until the child’s 8th birthday in the case of families where the
parent is raising the child alone, or where both parents share telework or where only the
work of one parent meets telework conditions.
A parent raising a child under the age of 12 (there is no age limit in the case of a chronically
ill or disabled child) is entitled to part-time employment after taking additional parental
leave. Part-time work can be used in the following ways: 5 days a week part-time or 3 days
a week full-time.
Parents are entitled to 4 hours of absence per school year to attend school meetings and
events until the child reaches the age of 18. Adoptive parents have the right to be away
from work to participate in adoption discussions.

Early childhood education and care

Early childhood education and care in Portugal is divided into two phases, with different
services for younger children (0-3 years) and older children (3-6 years). Care for children
under 3 years focuses on nurseries, while kindergarten education is considered the first
phase of primary education. From 2024, all children enrolled in nursery are entitled to
free nursery care, regardless of the type of provider. For children aged 3 to 6, 25 hours of
kindergarten education per week are free of charge, with the fee for the remaining hours
being proportionate to the parents’ earnings.
In 2023, 56% of children aged 0-3 years in Portugal received some form of nursery care,
higher than the EU average (37%) and a significant increase compared to 30% in 2005.
In 2023, 88% of Portuguese children aged 3-6 years attended kindergarten, just below the
EU average (89%), also a significant increase compared to 2005 (46%).

13
Blum et al. Leave Policies 2023

254
 Romania

KEY DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS

2001 2011 2016 2021 2022 2023

Population 22 430 457 20 199 059 19 760 585 19 201 662 19 042 455 19 054 548

Live birth (persons) N/A 196 242 205 773 193 191 178 233 153 397

Death (persons) 259 603 251 439 258 404 335 527 272 953 242 918

Immigrant (persons) N/A 147 685 137 455 194 642 293 024 N/A

Emigrant (persons) N/A 195 551 207 578 210 861 202 311 N/A

Marriage (number) 129 930 105 599 133 183 114 207 118 300 111 122*

Divorce (number) 31 135 35 780 30 497 27 024 23 289 22 715*

TFR 1.3 1.47 1.69 1.81 1.71 N/A

Source: Eurostat, * Romanian Statistical Office (Download date: 12.08.2024.)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

200 000 150 000 100 000 50 000 0 50 000 100 000 150 000 200 000

256
 Romania

DEMOGRAPHICS
The population of Romania was 19,054,548 on 1 January 2023, a decrease of 15.1%
compared to 2001.
The country’s population pyramid shows an ageing society. The surge in the number of
people aged 54 is a consequence of the abortion ban that was introduced in 1966. In the
younger age groups several small waves of slight increases can be seen.

In the 2010s, around 200,000 children were born each year, rising to 210,000 in 2017.
Since then, there has been a steady decline, with the number of births reaching a historic
low in 2023 (153,397), a 21.8% drop compared to 2011. Following the spike in deaths
due to COVID, the number of deaths fell back to the level of previous years, with 6.4%
fewer deaths in 2023 compared to 2001. The number of deaths has exceeded the number
of births since the 1990s. In recent years, the natural decrease in the population has been
around 90,000, compared with 50-60,000 in the past.

Immigration is also on the rise in Romania, with twice as many people arriving in 2022
than in 2011. Emigration was at its lowest in 2013, when the number of emigrants fell
below 162,000, but four years later more than 242,000 people left the country. Since
the fall of the communist regime in 1989, nearly a quarter of Romania’s population has
moved to Western Europe.1 This trend accelerated after the country’s accession to the
EU in 2007, with Italy receiving 1,137,000, Spain 1,087,000 and the United Kingdom
950,000 Romanians. Since the change of regime, the country has had a negative migration
balance: in the period around the EU accession, the country’s population decreased by
100-150 thousand people per year, but later declined to 15-40 thousand people per year.
In 2022, however, the situation was reversed, as the number of immigrants exceeded the
number of emigrants by 90,000.

The number of marriages rose steadily between 2011 and 2018, then fell by around 11%
in 2019 compared to the previous year, and continued to do so in 2020, with a 37% drop
in the number of marriages compared to 2019. After a low point in 2020, there was
an increase, and overall in 2023 there were 14.5% fewer marriages than in 2001. The
number of divorces rose between 2001 and 2011, then fell, so that by 2023 there were
around 27% fewer divorces than in 2001.
After a low of 1.27 in 2001, Romania’s fertility rate started to rise rapidly, reaching 1.66
in 2009, above the EU average of 1.56. After a decline in the next few years, the fertility
rate rose to 1.81 in 2021, before falling slightly to 1.71 in 2022, the second highest in the
EU after France.

1
https://www.lemonde.fr/en/economy/article/2023/08/28/romania-s-demographic-decline-is-crippling-its-eco-
nomy_6111720_19.html

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Romania

FAMILY POLICY

I. System of family support

Birth grant
In Romania, there is no such benefit.

Maternity leave and benefit

The total length of maternity leave is 126 days, of which a maximum of 63 days can
be taken before and a minimum of 42 days after childbirth. The monthly benefit for
maternity leave (indemnizaţie pentru concediu de maternitate) is equal to 85% of the
average gross earnings in the 6 months preceding the birth, but cannot be more than
12 times the gross minimum wage. In the case of stillbirth or death of the child during
maternity leave, the benefit is payable for the entire period of the leave.
Pregnant women or mothers whose employer cannot guarantee working conditions
that do not endanger their health or the health of their child may claim a maternal risk
allowance (indemnizaţie de risc maternal), which may be granted before or after maternity
leave for a maximum of 120 days in total. The monthly amount of the risk allowance is
equal to 75% of the average gross earnings in the preceding 6 months, but may not be
more than 12 times the gross minimum wage.

Paternity leave
Fathers are entitled to 10 working days of paternity leave. Fathers who have completed
a childcare course are entitled to 5 extra working days of paternity leave (15 days).

The paternity leave can be taken at any time up to the child’s 8th week of age and the
amount of the benefit is equal to the father’s previous earnings.

Parental leave and benefit

All parents (including adoptive and foster parents, guardians) are entitled to childcare
leave and benefits (concediul pentru creșterea copiilor) up to the age of 2, or 3 in the
case of a disabled child. Parental leave is a family entitlement if both parents meet the
conditions, with at least 2 months reserved for the other parent. This means that if the
mother takes parental leave, the father’s sole entitlement is 2 months. While receiving
the benefit, the parent can earn a maximum taxable income of RON 11,968 (EUR 2,406)
per year.

The childcare benefit for the entire period of leave is 85% of the average net monthly
income earned in the 12 months preceding the birth.

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 Romania

In the case of twins, each child will receive an additional 2.5 x RSI (Social Reference
Indicator (Indicatorul Social de Referință), RSI = RON 598 (EUR 120) in 2024)), i.e. around
RON 1,250 (EUR 250) per person.

The minimum benefit is RON 1,495 (EUR 302) per month and the maximum is RON
8,500 (EUR 1,746) per month.

Parents who take parental leave and return to work are entitled to a bonus of:
• RON 1,795 (EUR 360) per month if the parent returns to work before the child is
6 months old (1 year old if the child is disabled) - the allowance is paid until the child
is 2 years old, or 3 years old if the child is disabled,
• RON 777 (EUR 156) per month if the parent returns to work after the child is 6 months
old (after the age of 1 in the case of a disabled child) - the allowance is paid until the
child is 2 years old, or 3 years old in the case of a disabled child,
• RON 777 (EUR 156) per month if the parent returns to work after the child reaches
the age of 2 (i.e. after the child’s parental leave has been fully used) (after the child
reaches the age of 3 in the case of a disabled child) - in such cases, the allowance is
paid until the child reaches the age of 3, or 4 in the case of a disabled child.

Child benefit
In Romania, the child benefit consist of two benefits, the child-raising benefit (alocație
de stat pentru copii) and the family support benefit (alocatie pentru sustinerea familiei).
Benefits are available for children raised in the same household up to the age of 18 or
until the end of secondary education (up to the age of 26 for children with disabilities).
To be eligible, the child must also be attending some form of education, have a minimum
number of unexcused absences and a minimum behaviour score of 8 out of 10.2

The monthly amount of child-raising benefit paid to parents (including adoptive and
foster parents and guardians) varies according to the age of the child:
• RON 719 (EUR 144) if the child is younger than 2 years old (in the case of a disabled
child);
• RON 292 (EUR 58) if the child is between 2 and 18 years old (or until graduation);
• RON 719 (EUR 144) if the disabled child is between 3 and 18 years old.3

The monthly amount of family support benefit varies according to the income, the number
of children and the social reference index (RSI) (RSI = 598 RON (EUR 120) in 2024)

2
https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1126&langId=en&intPageId=4749
3
https://www.edupedu.ro/alocatiile-de-stat-pentru-copii-in-2024-292-de-lei-pentru-cei-peste-2-ani-pana-la-doi-ani-sau-cei-cu-
dizabilitati-vor-primi-719-lei-in-februarie/

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1. If the average monthly net income per family member is 0.40 x RSI or less, the amount
of the benefit is monthly:
Number of children Amount of support

1 0.1640 x RSI (approx. EUR 19)

2 0.3280 x RSI (approx. EUR 39)

3 0.4920 x RSI (approx. EUR 59)

4+ 0.6560 x RSI (approx. EUR 78)

2. If the average monthly net income per family member is between 0.4 x RSI and 1.06
x RSI, the amount of the benefit is per month:
Number of children Amount of support

1 0.15 x RSI (approx. EUR 18)

2 0.3 x RSI (approx. EUR 36)

3 0.45 x RSI (approx. EUR 54)

4+ 0.6 x RSI (approx. EUR 72)

The total amount of social assistance received by a person or a family per year must not
exceed a certain coefficient linked to the RSI. This is fixed each year in a government
resolution.

Tax credits and other benefits

Family taxation
A symbolic tax allowance of RON 100 (EUR 20) per child per month is available to all
parents. The tax allowance, introduced in 2023, can be claimed up to the age of 18 but
only one parent can claim it from the employer.

General tax relief4

All employees are entitled to a monthly personal income tax reduction up to the minimum
wage plus RON 1,550 (6,975 EUR) per month, depending on their income and the number
of children. The monthly amount is at least RON 9 (EUR 2) and up to RON 25 (EUR 5) for
1 child and at least RON 19 (EUR 4) and up to RON 35 (EUR 7) for 3 children.

Housing
In Romania, there is no such benefit.
4
https://www.oecd.org/els/soc/TaxBEN-Romania-latest.pdf

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 Romania

II. Reconciling work and family life

Employment
In Romania, the employment rate for mothers aged 18-64 with children under 6 years
in 2023 was 47.1%, well below the EU average (66.4%). Female employment lags behind
male employment, with 81% of men aged 18-64 with young children in work, also below
the EU average.5 The employment rate for parents with young children was 83% for
fathers and 50.2% for mothers in 2022.

The share of women aged 15-64 working part-time was among the lowest in the EU in
2023, at 2.9% (EU average 28.5%). For men, the share was 3.8% (EU average 8.4%).

Carer’s leave
Mothers with children under one year of age are entitled to a breastfeeding break of 2x1
hour per day or a reduction of 2 hours per day (the mother is also entitled to full pay for
the breaks).

Carer’s leave (concediul de îngrijitor): 45 days per year for children under 7 years or 5 days
per year for persons living in the same household as the worker and needing care. The
worker must provide medical evidence of a serious health problem.

Under a carer’s leave to care for a cancer patient (concediul medical pentru îngrijirea)
a worker over 18 years of age who accompanies a worker suffering from cancer for
treatment prescribed by a specialist is entitled to 45 days’ leave. The leave is covered by
medical benefits at a rate of 85% of income.

Flexible working arrangements

Workers who care for a dependent older person may work part-time (4 hours a day).
Reduced working hours for this reason are considered full-time for pension contributions
and other insurance benefits.

The employee may request any adjustment to the working hours from the employer on
the grounds of general caring responsibilities. Although the employer is not obliged to
accept this, it must give written reasons for the refusal.

Early childhood education and care

In Romania, children are entitled to Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) from
any age, with fees in nurseries based on the parents’ income. However, in the 2000s, the

5
https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/12743486/14207633/RO-EN.pdf

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Romania

closure of public nurseries led to a shortage of places for children under 3 years of age.
Between 2009 and 2023, nearly 350 new institutions were opened6 and children aged 2 to
3 years became eligible for public kindergarten places, which were previously reserved
for children over 3 years of age. Kindergarten is free of charge, but in rural areas the
facilities are typically open for half a day and close after lunch.

In 2023, only 12% of children aged 0-3 in Romania attended nursery, well below the
EU average (37%), although it showed an increase compared to the first year (2007),
when it was only 6%. In 2023, 69% of children aged 3-6 attended kindergarten, which
was also well below the EU average (89%) and only showed a slight increase compared
to 2007 (61%).

6
https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-education-systems/romania/national-reforms-early-childhood-education-and-care

262
 Slovakia

KEY DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS

2001 2011 2016 2021 2022 2023

Population 5 378 783 5 392 446 5 426 252 5 459 781 5 434 712 5 428 792

Live birth (persons) 51 136 60 813 57 557 56 754 52 668 48 788*

Death (persons) 51 980 51 903 52 351 73 461 59 583 54 133*

Immigrant (persons) 2 023 4 829 7 686 5 733 5 463 5 923 *

Emigrant (persons) 1 011 1 863 3 801 3 395 4 468 N/A

Marriage (number) 23 795 25 621 29 897 26 350 29 172 26 484 *

Divorce (number) 9 817 11 102 9 286 8 131* 8 180 N/A

TFR 1.2 1.45 1.48 1.63 1.57 N/A

Source: Eurostat, * Slovak Statistical Office (Download date: 12.08.2024.)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

50 000 40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000 0 10 000 20 000 30 000 40 000 50 000

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 Slovakia

DEMOGRAPHICS
The population of Slovakia has increased by a few tens of thousands of people per year in
the last 20 years until 2021, and from 2022 the population has started to decrease, albeit
slightly. As of 1 January 2023, the population of the country was 5,428,792. According to
the results of the 2021 census57, the majority of the population in Slovakia (83.8%) are
Slovaks, the largest minority is Hungarians with 7.7%, and there are also Romanians,
Czechs, Rusyns and Ukrainians living in the country.
The population of Slovakia shows the picture of an aging society, where the number of
people under the age of 40 has decreased significantly.

The country was characterized by a moderate natural decrease in 2001 and then
a significant natural increase between 2011 and 2016. However, in recent years (2021-
2023) more people die than are born, which is only slightly reduced by the positive
migration balance.

The number of live births ranged from 50,000 to 60,000 since 2001, with most children
born in 2011 (60,813). Starting from 2016, it started to decrease, and in 2023 there were
only 48,788 live births. In 2023, there were 4.6% fewer births compared to 2001 and
19.8% fewer births compared to 2011. The number of deaths varied around 50,000 after
2001, but as a result of the negative impact of the COVID-19 epidemic, it jumped to
over 70,000 people in 2021, which normalized by 2023, returning to pre-pandemic levels.
Overall, the number of deaths increased by 4.1% from 2001 to 2023.

Compared to 2001, the rate of immigration has tripled, although only about 6,000 people
came to the country in 2023. The number of emigrants also increased and more than
quadrupled by 2022, however, the number of immigrants exceeded that of emigrants in
each year of the examined period.

In 2023, the number of marriages was about 11.3% higher than in 2001, while the number
of divorces decreased significantly from 2011 to 2021 by 26.8%, and remained at this
level in 2022. In total, 16.7% fewer divorces were registered in 2022 compared to 2001.
The change in the fertility rate indicated an increase in the desire to have children from
2002 to 2011, and then decreased significantly in 2012 (from 1.45 to 1.34). However,
fertility continued to increase until 2021. In 2022, there was a slight decrease to 1.57.

265
Slovakia

FAMILY POLICY

I. System of family support

Birth grant
The amount of the birth grant (príspevok pri narodení dieťaťa) in 2022 is a one-off EUR 830
per child after the birth of the first three children and EUR 151 for the birth of additional
children. In case of multiple births, the mother is entitled to an additional EUR 75 per
child. In Slovakia, since April 2021, there has been a pregnancy benefit (tehotenské),
which is a contributory benefit and aims to provide income support to insured pregnant
women to compensate for expenses during pregnancy. The benefit is due from the 27th
week before the expected date of birth to the day of birth. Its amount is 15% of the
average daily salary of the previous year.

Pregnancy scholarship benefit (tehotenskéštipendium) can be granted to pregnant students

in higher education over the age of 18 from the 27th week of pregnancy to childbirth. The
benefit amounts to EUR 200 per month.

Maternity leave and benefit

The duration of maternity leave (materská dovolenka) is 34 weeks and starts 6–8 weeks
before childbirth. Maternity leave should not be less than 14 weeks and should not end
earlier than 6 weeks after giving birth. Its length is 37 weeks for single mothers and 43
weeks for multiple births. Except for the first 6 weeks, the parents can share the leave
among themselves. The same conditions apply in the case of adoption. The condition of
the infant care benefit paid during leave is that the parent has an employment relationship
of at least 270 days in the 2 years before the birth of the child and pays health insurance
contributions.
The infant care benefit (materské) amounts to 75% of the previous 12-month net average
wage. The upper limit of the benefit (in 2022) was 1,851 EUR, that is, 75% of the double
of the national average wage 2 years ago. If this amount is lower than the parental benefit,
a supplement is due to the mother.

Paternity leave
By law, fathers are entitled to 14 days of paid leave (otcovská dovoléna) in the first
6 weeks after childbirth. For this period, fathers receive 75% of the average earnings of
the previous calendar year if the employee had earnings and paid health insurance. This
period may coincide with the mother’s maternity leave period.
Fathers are also entitled to 28 weeks of infant care benefit, which is not transferable to
mothers. If the fathers have taken the 14 days paid leave, their entitlement to infant care
benefit will be shortened accordingly. The calculation of paternity benefit is the same as
the calculation of infant care benefit. Two parents cannot receive infant care benefit at
the same time after the same child. At the same time, both parents can receive infant care

266
 Slovakia

benefit if it is received after different children, typically the mother after the newborn
and the father after the older child. The same conditions apply in the case of adoption.

Parental leave and benefit

Working parents are entitled to parental leave (rodičovská dovolenka) until the child
turns 3 years old, which, however, is an optional and unpaid leave and not related to
parental allowance. That is, childcare provision is also due if the parent works part-time
or full-time.
The parental allowance (rodičovský príspevok) is due until the child is 3 years old (up to
the age of 6 in the case of disability, long-term illness), and the amount does not depend
on the income of the family. If the mother is entitled to parental allowance and infant
care benefit at the same time, she may receive only one of them, the one with the higher
amount. The monthly amount of the parental allowance in 2024 is EUR 345 or EUR 473,
if the mother received infant care benefit.1 In the case of twins, the amount of the benefit
increases by 25% per child. Another condition of the support is school/kindergarten
attendance of the child (including his/her siblings), if this is not fulfilled, the amount of
the allowance will be halved for 3 months.
The allowance is also supplemented by a childcare allowance (príspevok na starostlivosť
odieťa), which parents can use to fund children’s day care. If a parent pays a private
caregiver for the care of their child under the age of 3, they can claim up to EUR 280 per
month. The amount varies by type of care, for example EUR 80 per month for public
nurseries and kindergartens and EUR 41 if day care is provided by another person (e.g.
grandmother).

Family allowance2
In Slovakia, the monthly amount of the family allowance (prídavoknadieťa) in 2024 is
EUR 60 per child and is due until the child is 16 years old or 25 years old if the child is
studying at a higher education institution or if he or she cannot work or study due to an
illness. At the beginning of primary school, in the first month, a one-time allowance of
EUR 110 is added to the family allowance. Supplementary allowance (EUR 30 per month)
may be granted to pensioners who take care of the child, have no earnings and do not
receive a child tax credit.

1
https://www.employment.gov.sk/sk/rodina-socialna-pomoc/podpora-rodinam-detmi/penazna-pomoc/rodicovsky-prispevok/
és https://www.upsvr.gov.sk/vzory-ziadosti-v-slovenskom-jazyku-a-inych-jazykoch/vzory-ziadosti-pre-oblast-socialnych-ve-
ci-a-rodiny/rodicovsky-prispevok.html?page_id=268773
2
https://www.missoc.org/missoc-database/comparative-tables/results/

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Slovakia

Tax credits and other benefits

Family taxation3
As of 1 January 2023, the amount of the dependent child tax bonus, as well as other
conditions for application and payment, have changed in Slovakia. Until 31 December
2024, EUR 50 per month is being provided for each dependent child over 18 years
of age and EUR 140 per month for each dependent child under 18 years of age. The
bonus amount will change from 1 January 2025 and will be EUR 50 per month for each
dependent child over 15 years of age and EUR 100 per month for each dependent child
under 15 years of age.
The tax bonus is available to individuals with taxable income from employment or
entrepreneurial activity. The tax bonus reduces the tax liability. It is only available to
those who have their permanent residence in Slovakia or for whom at least 90% of the
income comes from Slovak sources.

Housing
In Slovakia, there is no such benefit.

II. Reconciling work and family life

Employment
In 2023, the employment rate for women aged 18-64 raising children under the age of
6 was 67.7%, which is higher than the EU average of 66.4%. For men, this indicator was
88.4%, which is slightly below the EU average (89.6%). Part-time employment in Slovakia
was 5.0% in 2023, which is the fourth lowest in the Union; and 1.8% for men, which is
the second lowest.
In Slovakia, the number of fathers taking paternity leave and parental leave is increasing.
Fathers took leave more often if they had higher incomes or were self-employed. In 2019,
the most recent year for which data are available, 78% of maternity benefits were paid to
mothers and 22% to fathers.

Carer’s leave
Employees can take time off to care for their sick relative at home (ošetrovaniečlena
rodiny) or to take care of their child under the age of 11 (under the age of 18, if the child
has long-term health problems) for other reasons (e.g. if the child’s school is closed). The
duration of the leave is not limited. However, insured parents receive benefits (ošetrovné)
equal to 55% of their previous daily earnings for a maximum of 14 calendar days. The

3
https://www.mic.iom.sk/en/social-issues/social-support-benefits/403-tax-bonus.html és https://accace.com/amendments-inco-
me-tax-act-in-slovakia/ és https://taxsummaries.pwc.com/slovak-republic/individual/other-tax-credits-and-incentives

268
 Slovakia

number of carer’s leaves per year is not limited if they do not exceed 14 days at a time.
Insured parents are also entitled to long-term care when caring for a child in need of
home care following a hospital stay or palliative care. The amount of the benefit is 55%
of their previous daily earnings for a maximum of 90 calendar days and can be shared
between the parents.

Flexible working arrangements

If the employee’s child is under 6 months old, she is entitled to 2x30 minutes of
breastfeeding break per full working day. The breastfeeding break is 1x30 minutes per
day from the age of 6 to 12 months of the child. Mothers who do not work full-time
but work at least 4 hours a day are entitled to 1 break per child per day until their child
reaches the age of 6 months. During the break, the employee is entitled to 100% of her
earnings.
Pregnant women and those caring for children under the age of 15 may request shorter
working hours from their employer. The employer may reject the request for serious
operational reasons.

Early childhood education and care

In Slovakia, kindergarten education is usually provided for children aged 3-6 years, but
children aged 2 years can also be admitted if the capacity of the kindergarten allows it.
The relationship between schools and kindergartens is strengthened by the system of
pre-school education, which can be used 1 year before the start of the first grade. Pre-
school education is compulsory for children over 5 years of age until 31 August of the
last kindergarten year. In public kindergartens, the compulsory pre-school year is free of
charge, otherwise a reimbursement fee is payable. For disadvantaged children and low-
income families, the kindergarten is free of charge and they also receive a meal subsidy.
Institutions providing care for children under the age of 3 are payable.
In 2023, 1% of children aged 0-3 in Slovakia received childcare, which is the lowest value
in the EU and shows a decrease compared to 3% in 2005. In the same year, 73% of children
aged 3-6 went to kindergarten, well below the EU average (89%), which represents only
a slight increase compared to 2005 (68%).

269
 Slovenia

KEY DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS

2001 2011 2016 2021 2022 2023

Population 1 990 094 2 050 189 2 064 188 2 108 977 2 107 180 2 116 972

Live birth (persons) 17 477 21 947 20 345 18 984 17 627 16 989*

Death (persons) 18 508 18 699 19 689 23 261 22 426 21 540*

Immigrant (persons) 7 803 14 083 16 623 23 624 35 613 33 939*

Emigrant (persons) 4 811 12 024 15 572 21 144 20 956 22 411*

Marriage (number) 6 935 6 671 6 667 5 916 6 768 6 388*

Divorce (number) 2 274 2 298 2 531 2 322* 2 149 2 165*

TFR 1.21 1.56 1.58 1.64 1.55 1.51*

Source: Eurostat, * Slovenian Statistical Office (Download date: 12.08.2024.)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

25 000 20 000 15 000 10 000 5 000 0 5 000 10 000 15 000 20 000 25 000

270
 Slovenia

DEMOGRAPHICS
Slovenia’s population has been on a steadily increasing trend since 2001, in 2023 it was
2,116,972 people. The growth of recent years is mainly due to immigration. The Slovenian
population, which was below 2 million in the early 2000s, increased by 6.4% until 2023.
Slovenians make up 83% of the population, with Serbs (2%) and Croats (1.8%) being the
largest minorities. There are also historical national minorities of Hungarians (0.5%) and
Italians (0.5%), each having 1 national seat in the Slovenian Parliament.

The country’s population pyramid shows an ageing society, with some growth in the
younger age groups and then a decline in recent years.

The number of live births showed a downward trend in the early 2000s, falling below
18,000 during this period. It then started to grow, approaching 22,000 in 2011, but has
since started to decline again. Between 2001 and 2023, live births fell by 2.8% and deaths
increased by 16.4%.

In Slovenia, immigration more than quadrupled between 2001 and 2023, while emigration
increased four and a half times. The slight natural decrease is compensated by a positive
net migration, which is also responsible for the growth in the population.

The number of marriages decreased slightly until 2018, then started to increase in 2019,
but probably due to the coronavirus epidemic, the number of marriages in 2020 decreased
significantly compared to the previous year. Since 2021, the number of marriages has
fluctuated, and in 2023, the total number of marriages was 7.9% lower than in 2001. The
number of divorces increased from 2001, reaching over 2,400 in 2019, and was slightly
lower at 2,165 in 2023. The marriage rate is well above the divorce rate, with three times
as many people getting married in 2023 (6,388) as opting for divorce (2,165).

In Slovenia, the fertility rate has been increasing steadily since 2003, with minor
fluctuations, reaching 1.64 in 2021. It has been decreasing since then, but is still above
the EU average. In 2023, fertility fell to 1.51.

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Slovenia

FAMILY POLICY

I. System of family support

Birth grant
The childbirth allowance (pomoč ob rojstvu otroka) is a one-off benefit of EUR 422 that
one of the parents can claim no later than 60 days after the birth of the child.1 Eligibility
is conditional on residence in Slovenia.

Maternity leave and benefit

Mothers are entitled to 105 days of maternity leave (materinski dopust), starting at the
earliest 28 days before the birth, with 15 days being compulsory.2 During this period, the
benefit (materinsko nadomestilo) is 100% of the previous average wage, which cannot be
less than half the minimum wage (EUR 629). There is no upper limit.
Only parents who were covered by parental leave insurance (zavarovanje za starševsko
varstvo) before the start of the leave - for at least 12 months during the preceding 3 years
- are entitled to infant care benefit. Based on the parents’ decision, this benefit may
also be paid to the father or another person caring for the child. Adoptive parents are
also entitled.

Paternity leave
Previously, the paternity leave (očetovski dopust) was 30 days, but since 1 April 2023
fathers are entitled to 15 days before the age of 3 months which is non-transferable. This
period is extended by 10 days in the case of the birth of twins and 20 days in the case of
the birth of triplets.
The benefit for this period (očetovsko nadomestilo) is 100% of the previous average salary,
but up to a maximum of 2.5 times the average monthly salary (EUR 5,060).
In the event of the death of the mother (or if the mother is unable to care for the child),
the father (or the child’s carer) is entitled to an additional maximum of 77 days of leave.

Parental leave and benefit

Each of the insured parents are entitled to 160 days of childcare leave (starševski dopust),
of which 100 days can be transferred to the other parent. Parents may take childcare
leave at the same time, but one parent must start taking it after the end of the maternity
leave. The period of leave will be extended by 30 days, if the parents already have two or
more children under 8; 60 days if they have three; and 90 days if they have four or more
children under 8. If the mother is under 18 and still in education, one of the grandparents

1
https://www.gov.si/teme/pravice-ob-rojstvu-otroka/
2
https://www.missoc.org/missoc-database/comparative-tables/results/

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 Slovenia

(who is insured for parental leave) can take the leave. During parental leave, parents can
work part-time.
The benefit (starševsko nadomestilo) is 100% of the previous average earnings for 260
days, which cannot be less than the minimum wage, but can be up to 2.5 times the
average monthly wage. The allowance can be shared. Adoptive parents receive the same
benefits.

Uninsured parents are also entitled to a benefit (starševski dodatek) for one year, the
amount of which was EUR 465 per month in 2023. During the first 77 days after the birth,
only the mother is entitled to the benefit (the father only if the mother is unable to care
for the child). Fathers can claim the benefit from the 77th day after the birth.

Child benefit
All children under the age of 18 living in Slovenia are entitled to a child benefit (otroški
dodatek), which depends on the number of children, their age and the family’s per capita
income. The exact amount may therefore vary from month to month.

The amount of child benefit for children under 14 in 2024:3

3rd and each
Average monthly income 1st child 2nd child
additional child

Under EUR 231 EUR 141 EUR 155 EUR 169

EUR 231 – EUR 385 EUR 121 EUR 133 EUR 146
EUR 385 – EUR 462 EUR 92 EUR 103 EUR 114
EUR 462 – EUR 538 EUR 73 EUR 83 EUR 93
EUR 538 – EUR 680 EUR 59 EUR 69 EUR 79
EUR 680 – EUR 821 EUR 38 EUR 47 EUR 56
EUR 821 – EUR 1,051 EUR 28 EUR 38 EUR 47
EUR 1,051 – EUR 1,269 EUR 25 EUR 34 EUR 43

For one-parent families, the amount is 30% higher, or 20% higher if the child under
4 is not attending kindergarten (unless the parent is receiving childcare benefit or is on
childcare leave).4
Families with three or more children under the age of 18 (under 26 for students) are
entitled to a one-off allowance (dodatek za veliko družino) per year. The allowance is
conditional on at least one parent and the children having a common permanent or
temporary address in Slovenia. The amount of the allowance was EUR 468 for a family
with three children and EUR 569 for a family with four or more children in 2023.5

3
https://www.gov.si/teme/otroski-dodatek/
4
https://www.missoc.org/missoc-database/comparative-tables/results/
5
https://www.missoc.org/missoc-database/comparative-tables/results/

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Slovenia

For a child in need of special care, a child benefit of EUR 102 per month is paid, while
for a child with a disability (serious mental developmental disorder or serious physical
disability) or serious illness, a benefit6 If a parent stops working to care for a child with
a severe disability or more than one mild disability, a partial allowance (delno plačilo za
izgubljeni dohodek) is payable for the loss of income. This is equal to the minimum wage
for full-time care (EUR 1,254 in 2024) and is available up to the age of 18. A proportionately
reduced amount is payable for part-time work.

Tax credits and other benefits

Family taxation
In Slovenia, the tax base can be reduced by a special tax credit for dependent family
members.7 The amount is calculated on the number of dependents: the employee is
entitled to a tax credit of EUR 2,698 per year for the first child, EUR 2,933 for the second,
EUR 4,892 for the third, EUR 6,851 for the fourth and EUR 8,810 for the fifth. For a child
with special needs, a tax base reduction of EUR 9,777 is available.

Housing
In Slovenia, there is no such benefit.

II. Reconciling work and family life

Employment
Part-time work is not widespread, only 12.2% of women and 5.4% of men were in
employment in 2023 (compared to an EU average of 28.5% for women and 8.4% for men).
The employment rate for women with children under 6 years old in 2022 was 81.6%, which
was above the EU average (66.4%). The employment rate was similarly high for men with
young children (93.9%), which was also above the EU average of 89.6%.

Carer’s leave
Insured persons are entitled to take leave to care for a sick family member (spouse or
child). In general, 7 working days can be taken in such cases. This period is increased to
15 working days for disabled children under 7 years of age. Exceptionally, if the health
condition of the sick family member requires it, the period may be extended to 14 or 30
working days, or even longer (up to 6 months) in extreme cases. During this period, the
carer receives 80% of their previous average earnings (which cannot be less than 60% of
the minimum wage).

6
https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1128&langId=en&intPageId=4774
7
https://taxsummaries.pwc.com/slovenia/individual/deductions

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 Slovenia

Flexible working arrangements

Full-time nursing mothers have the right to a paid break of at least 1 hour a day until their
child is 18 months old.

Parents with a child under 3 years of age (under 18 years of age for a disabled child) or
with at least two children (at least one of whom is under 8 years of age), are entitled to the
option of part-time work of not less than 20 hours a week. Parents may exercise the right
to work part-time at the same time, provided that the total hours worked are equal to or
more than half of the total weekly working time. After this they have the right to return
to their previous work schedule.
A parent who leaves the labour market to care for four or more children (and who is
entitled to parental leave or has been an active jobseeker for at least 12 months in the last
3 years) is entitled to state-paid social security contributions until the youngest child is
8 years old.

Early childhood education and care

Children from the age of 11 months are eligible for placement in a state-subsidized early
childhood education and care institution, however, attendance is not compulsory.8
Parents’ contribution to the cost of the institution depends on their financial situation
and ranges from 0% to 77% of the total cost. If several children from the same family
are enrolled in the same institution, parents are exempted from paying the fees for the
youngest child. They are also exempted from paying the fee for the third child and for
each additional child, regardless of whether the children attend at the same time as their
siblings. Families whose average monthly income per person does not exceed EUR 1,218
are eligible for this allowance (znižanje plačila vrtca).9 In the school year 2022/2023,
84.6% of children aged between 1 and 5 years attended an institution. Out of them, 94%
attended a public institution.10
In 2023, 57% of children aged 0-3 years in Slovenia were in nursery care, which was well
above the EU average (37%) and was a significant increase compared to 24% in 2005. In
the same year, 95% of Slovenian children aged 3-6 attended kindergarten, which was also
above the EU average (89%), and was an increase compared to 2005 (81%).

8
https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-education-systems/slovenia/early-childhood-education-and-care#:~:text=In%20
the%202022%2F2023%20school,Republic%20of%20Slovenia%2C%202023)
9
https://www.missoc.org/missoc-database/comparative-tables/results/
10
https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-education-systems/slovenia/early-childhood-education-and-care#:~:text=In%20
the%202022%2F2023%20school,Republic%20of%20Slovenia%2C%202023)

275
 Spain

KEY DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS

2001 2011 2016 2021 2022 2023

Population 40 665 545 46 667 174 46 440 099 47 398 695 47 432 893 48 085 361

Live birth (persons) 405 313 470 553 408 734 336 247 328 704 322 075*

Death (persons) 357 580 386 017 408 231 449 270 462 734 435 331*

Immigrant (persons) 414 772 371 331 414 746 528 856 1 258 894 N/A

Emigrant (persons) N/A 409 034 327 325 696 866 531 889 N/A

Marriage (number) 206 266 158 220 173 049 147 673 178 624 N/A

Divorce (number) 39 242 103 290 96 824 86 851 81 302 80 065*

TFR 1.23 1.34 1.34 1.19 1.16 N/A

Source: Eurostat, * Spanish Statistical Office (Download date: 12.08.2024.)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

450 000 300 000 150 000 0 150 000 300 000 450 000

276
 Spain

DEMOGRAPHICS
Spain’s population grew steadily until 2012, and after a slight decrease, it started to rise
again in 2017, reaching 48,085,361 people1 in 2023, an increase of 18.2% compared to
2001. Foreigners account for one sixth of the total population, with more than half of the
immigrants coming from the former Spanish colonies, mostly from Latin America, and
the other half mainly from Eastern Europe (Romania, Bulgaria, Russia).
The country’s population pyramid shows an ageing society, with a steep decline in the
number of people under 40.

In Spain, the increasing rate of natural decrease is offset by a positive net migration,
which is responsible for the country’s growing population.
The number of live births increased steadily between 2001 and 2008, from 405,313 in
2001 to 518,503 in 2008, after which the birth rate started to fall. In 2023, 20.5% fewer
children were born than in 2001. In 2023, Spain had one of the lowest live births per
1,000 inhabitants among EU Member States. However, the number of deaths rose by
21.7% between 2001 and 2023. While until 2016 there were more births than deaths, in
2017 the natural decrease was 31,000 and this trend has continued since then, reaching
130,000 in 2022 and 110,000 in 2023. Among the EU-27, Spain has one of the lowest
death rates per 1,000 inhabitants.

The country’s migration balance was negative until 2015, but since then the
country’s population has increased every year due to migration. Immigration increased
between 2004 and 2007, when the number of immigrants ranged between 700,000 and
900,000, but fell to around 300,000 in 2012, before increasing again, reaching over 750,000
in 2019 and 1,250,000 in 2022. Data on emigration show a steady increase from 2007 to
2013. In the following years it started to decrease and in 2019 it fell below 300,000. In
2021, the number jumped again, with a total of 696,866 emigrants.

The number of marriages increased until 2004, after which it started to decline. Between
2010 and 2019, the number was around 160,000, reaching a low in 2020, due to the
closures caused by the coronavirus epidemic. In 2022, there were 178,624 marriages,
a 13.4% decrease compared to 2001. Spain has one of the lowest marriage rates per 1,000
people in the EU. Between 2001 and 2007, the number of divorces in Spain rose steadily.
From 2008 to 2010, the number fluctuated. Since 2011, it has been on a downward trend,
falling by 22.5% in 2023 compared to 2011, but still twice as high as in 2001.

1
https://www.ine.es/dyngs/INEbase/en/operacion.htm?c=Estadistica_C&cid=1254736176992&menu=ultiDa-
tos&idp=1254735572981

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Spain

In 2001, the total fertility rate was 1.23 in Spain, after which it increased until 2008, and
then decreased until 2013. It then rose slightly, but has been falling steadily since 2017.
The 2022 value (1.16) is the second lowest in the European Union.

FAMILY POLICY

I. System of family support

Birth grant
In the case of multiple births or adoptions, the following benefits (prestación por parto
o adopción múltiples) are paid to parents according to the number of children:
• for 2 children: EUR 4,000;
• for 3 children: EUR 8,000;
• for 4 or more children: EUR 12,000;
• EUR 1,000 per birth or adoption for large families, one-parent families or disabled
mothers.

Maternity leave and benefit2

The birth and childcare leave for the mother (permiso y prestación por nacimiento
y cuidado del menor) entitles the mother to 16 weeks of leave. In the case of a twin birth,
the birth of a disabled child or adoption, 1 additional week per child is granted, starting
with the second child. The period of leave is also extended by 1 week in the case of
premature birth or hospitalisation. After childbirth, 6 weeks of leave are compulsory and
can start at the earliest 4 weeks before the expected due date. The allowance paid during
the leave is 100 % of the calculation base (calculation base: the contribution base for the
month preceding the date of the leave divided by the number of days corresponding
to the contribution. The maximum contribution base could not exceed EUR 4,495 per
month in 2023.)

Eligibility criteria:
For female and male workers aged 26 and over:
• 180 days of contributions in the 7 years preceding the birth of the child (or, in the
case of adoption or foster care, in the 7 years preceding the administrative/court
decision); or
• 360 contribution days for full-time employment.

2
https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1129&langId=en&intPageId=4789

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 Spain

For workers aged between 21 and 26:

• 90 contribution days in the 7 years preceding the birth of the child (or in the 7 years
preceding the administrative/judicial decision in the case of adoption or foster care);
or
• 180 contribution days for full-time employment.

For workers under 21, there is no minimum contribution period.

Special leaves:
• Benefit for risk during pregnancy (riesgo durante el embarazo) is available for the
employee if she is unable to continue her normal occupation during pregnancy. The
leave lasts for the time necessary to protect the safety or health of the worker.
• Benefit for risk during breastfeeding (riesgo durante la lactancia) is for working
mothers who are breastfeeding and therefore cannot continue their normal
occupation. It is paid until the child is 9 months old.

In both cases, the amount of the benefit is 100% of the calculation base for the entire
period of the leave.
Non-contributory maternity allowance3 (subsidio por maternidad de naturaleza no
contributiva) is available to all pregnant workers or self-employed persons who meet all the
conditions for maternity and childcare allowance, except for the minimum contribution
period. The amount of the allowance is 100% of the Spanish social index, IPREM (EUR
600 per month in 2023) for 42 days (56 days in some cases).4

Paternity leave
There is a birth and childcare leave which is granted not just for fathers but also for the
“parent other than the biological mother” (permiso y prestación por nacimiento y cuidado
del menor del progenitor distinto de la madre biológica). The conditions for entitlement
are the same as for mothers.

Parental leave and benefit

Parents can take unpaid leave to care for their child/children (excedencia por cuidado
de hijo) from the birth until the child is 3 years old. 4 out of 17 Spanish provinces offer
supplementary childcare benefits to residents with family income below a certain income
threshold: the amount paid is between EUR 290 and EUR 645 per month.

3
https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1129&langId=en&intPageId=4789
4
https://www.iprem.com.es/

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Spain

Child benefit
From 2022, families with dependent children can receive up to EUR 100 per month,
depending on the age of the children and the income level of the parents. Families with
two adults and one child whose total annual income is less than EUR 27,000 and families
with two adults and two or more children whose total annual income is less than EUR
32,100 can receive this benefit. One-parent families with one child and an annual income
of less than EUR 25,700 and one-parent families with at least two children and an annual
income of less than EUR 30,800 are also eligible. Families with higher incomes are
not eligible.
The amount of benefit per child:
• Families with children aged 0 to 3 years receive EUR 100 per month (for each child
in this age group).
• Families with children aged 3 to 6 receive EUR 70 per month (for each child in this
age group).
• Families with children aged 6 to 18 receive EUR 50 per month (for each child in this
age group).

In Spain, families are entitled to a supplementary benefit for dependent children or foster
children (prestaciones por hijo o menor acogido a cargo) for a disabled dependent minor
child. If the child is over 18, it is only paid if the child is at least 65% disabled. The
amount varies:
• EUR 1,000 per year for each minor with a disability of more than 33%;
• EUR 5,440 per year for each adult child with a disability of 65% or more;
• EUR 8,159 per year for each child, foster child or adopted adult with a disability of
75% or more.

Special child benefits are paid to large families (families with four or more children), one-
parent families or families where one of the parents lives with a disability (prestaciones
por nacimiento o adopción en caso de familias numerosas, monoparentales o padres
o madres con discapacidad), if the family income does not exceed the threshold value for
the number of children. The amount of the supplementary family allowance is a single
annual amount of EUR 1,000.5

Tax credits and other benefits

Family taxation
In Spain, working mothers are entitled to a monthly payment of EUR 100 or a tax refund
of EUR 1,200 at the end of the year for the first 3 years of their child’s life.
5
https://www.seg-social.es/wps/portal/wss/internet/Trabajadores/PrestacionesPensionesTrabajadores/10967/85?changeLangua-
ge=en

280
 Spain

For each dependent child under 25 years of age earning less than EUR 8,000 per year, the
tax base is reduced by an annual amount of:6
• EUR 2,400 for the first child;
• EUR 2,700 for the second child;
• EUR 4,000 for the third child;
• EUR 4,500 for the fourth and each additional child.

Families with three or more children are also entitled to an additional tax credit of EUR
1,200 per child per year for the third and fourth child and EUR 2,400 for the fifth and
each additional child. For children aged 0-3, there is also an annual tax credit of EUR
2,800 to cover the cost of nursery care or paid childcare.
Taxpayers who work outside the home and live in large families or have dependants can
claim a tax credit of EUR 1,200 per year. This tax credit can be used in addition to the
maternity tax credit.
The tax credit can be increased by up to EUR 600 for each child in a large family who
exceeds the minimum number (4) of children to be considered as a large family.

Pension supplement after children

The new maternity (parental) pension supplement in 2023 amounts to EUR 30 per
child per month.7 Its original purpose is to reduce the difference between the amounts
received by men and women. The new mechanism significantly modified the previous
supplementary maternity pension. From the first biological or adopted child up to the
fourth child, one parent is entitled to pension compensation. (The previous supplement
could only be received by the mother and only from the second child.)
The purpose of the supplement is to compensate for the setback in professional careers
that women usually suffer after having a child or adopting, which results in lower pensions
for them in the long run. The supplement is given to the parent who suffered a greater
loss in his professional career after the birth of the child. In the vast majority, these are
mothers, but if it is the father, then he is the one who is entitled to the supplement.

Housing
In Spain, the government provides rental assistance to low- and middle-income earners
aged 18-35 through the “Bono Joven Alquiler” (youth rent). This operates with a budget of
EUR 200 million, and it is assumed that more than 70,000 young people will apply for
it from May 2023 to May 2025. The applicants can receive an amount of EUR 250 per
month to pay their rent.

6
https://taxsummaries.pwc.com/spain/individual/deductions
7
https://www.seg-social.es/wps/portal/wss/internet/Trabajadores/PrestacionesPensionesTrabajadores/4c-
43ce49-6636-4a12-bacf-5e6697eb81da?1dmy&urile=wcm%3apath%3a%2Fwebcontent%2Bsyndication%2Fibmcontent-
wcm%253AunresolvedReferences#Cuantia

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Spain

To be eligible for the support, the following conditions must be met:

• The applicant must be a Spanish or European Union citizen or a third-country
national legally residing in Spain.
• The rent subsidy can only be used to pay the rent.
• The rent cannot exceed EUR 600, or EUR 300 for a room. In exceptional cases, the
rent may be higher, up to EUR 900 per property or EUR 450 per room.
• The annual income cannot be more than three times the value of the IPREM
(Indicador Público de Renta de Efectos Mútiples), which was EUR 24,318 in
2023.

II. Reconciling work and family life

Employment
In Spain, part-time employment is relatively common among women aged 15-64 – about
a fifth of women work this way. The employment rate of women aged 18-64 with small
children was 63.5% (EU-27 average: 66.4%) in 2023, while that of men aged 18-64 was
83.9% (EU-27 average: 89.6%). The employment rate of women raising young children
aged 18-64 was 56.1% in 2006. The employment rate of men raising young children aged
18-64 was 90.3%. Their proportion decreased until 2013, after which it began to rise. It
has fluctuated over the past few years, but its value has been around 80%.

Carer’s leave
In order to care for a sick child or relative, the employee is entitled to 2-4 days of 100%
paid leave per illness. In the case of a child requiring long-term care or hospitalization, the
parent is entitled to unlimited leave. Employees in the public sector can request 2-3 years
of long-term care leave for a relative who needs long-term care, during which time they
can receive a maximum of 66% of their salary.
In June 2023, the law on menstrual leave was adopted. The legislation provides women
with a minimum of 3 and a maximum of 5 days per month to stay at home in case of
severe menstrual pain. This requires a medical certificate, and from the first day the
social insurance pays the amount corresponding to the sick leave.

Flexible working arrangements

Until the baby is 9-12 months old, both parents are entitled to a 1-hour breastfeeding/
feeding break per day. A reduction in the number of working hours can be applied for
until the child is 12 years old, or for a longer period in the case of a disabled child.
Parents of children under the age of 12 have the right to request flexible working options,
including remote work. Employers can reject the application, but they must justify this
with objective reasons.

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 Spain

A working parent can reduce his or her working day from one-eighth to half to take care
of a child under 12 or to take care of a disabled child of any age (reducción de jornada
por guarda legal). Employees can decide on the extent and duration of the reduction in
working hours within their normal work schedule. This is defined as an individual right
and is considered unpaid leave, but social security contributions (which cover pension
and other benefits) are credited for the duration of the part-time leave – calculated as full-
time for a maximum of 2 years. Individual entrepreneurs cannot benefit from this.

Early childhood education and care

For many parents, it is a problem that the state only provides high-quality parental benefit
for 5 months, and that there are not enough places for many children in nurseries. Thus,
caring for a child from the age of 6 months to 3 years is a difficulty for a significant
number of parents. There is no law that requires the provision of early childhood care
under the age of 3, the entitlement opens only at the age of 3. In public nurseries, half-day
care is typically available, and in all cases a reimbursement fee must be paid. All children
between the ages of 3 and 6 have the right to free kindergarten care, but parents are
required to pay for meals. The lack of qualified staff is a problem in kindergartens, with
a kindergarten teacher having to take care of an average of 30 children.
In 2023, 56% of children aged 0-3 were in nursery care, which is much higher than the
EU average (37%) and represents an increase compared to 38% in 2005. In 2023, 98% of
Spanish children aged 3-6 attended kindergarten, exceeding the EU average (89%), which
represents a slight increase compared to the 2005 figure (95%).

283
 Sweden

KEY DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS

2001 2011 2016 2021 2022 2023

Population 8 882 792 9 415 570 9 851 017 10 379 295 10 452 326 10 521 556

Live birth (persons) 91 466 111 770 117 425 114 263 104 734 100 051*

Death (persons) 93 752 89 938 90 982 91 958 94 737 94 385*

Immigrant (persons) 60 795 96 467 163 005 90 631 102 436 94 514*

Emigrant (persons) 32 141 51 179 45 620 48 284 50 592 73 434*

Marriage (number) 35 778 46 922 53 817 38 895 47 883 44 190*

Divorce (number) 21 022 23 389 24 258 23 647* 21 531 21 231*

TFR 1.57 1.9 1.85 1.67 1.53 1.45*

Source: Eurostat, * Swedish Statistical Office (Download date: 08.12.2024.)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 000 75 000 50 000 25 000 0 25 000 50 000 75 000 100 000

284
 Sweden

DEMOGRAPHICS
Sweden’s population is on the rise, with 10,521,556 people on 1 January 2023, an increase
of 18.4% compared to 2001. The majority of the population is Swedish, with the largest
minority being Finnish. During the immigration crisis, the majority of immigrants came
from Iraq, Iran, Syria and Lebanon.
Sweden’s population pyramid shows a relatively balanced society, with an upward trend
in the 30-years old’s age group.

Natural increase (+5,600 persons in 2023) and positive migration balance (+21,000 persons
in 2023) contribute to the country’s population growth.
Looking at live births, it can be seen that their number has been steadily increasing over
the years, exceeding 117,000 in 2016, but has been gradually decreasing since 2017.
Overall, there were 9.4% more live births in 2023 compared to 2001.1 The mortality rate
remained largely unchanged until 2018, but there was a larger decrease in 2019, and
in 2020, presumably due to the coronavirus epidemic, the number of deaths increased
by 10.5% compared to the previous year, and this increase continued until 2022 and
remained at this level in 2023, which is practically the same as in 2001.

Immigration to Sweden has increased between 2011 and 2017, with the number of
immigrants rising by 85,000 in 2017, 2.4 times more than in 2001. However, from that
year onwards, their numbers decreased year by year until 2021, with around 90,000
arriving in Sweden in 2021 and 2023, and over 100,000 in 2022. Emigration surged in the
early 2000s, but has since then been around 50,000 per year. It rose sharply to 73,434 in
2023, up 128.5% compared to 2001.

The number of marriages increased until 2008 and then, after some fluctuations, increased
again from 2012 until 2015. From 2016 (except in 2022), the number of marriages
decreased year by year, but still 23.5% more marriages were concluded in 2023 than in
2001. In Sweden, the Marriage Act was amended in 2015 to allow same-sex couples to
marry. Thus, from 2015, the number of marriages now includes same-sex marriages.2 The
number of divorces decreased until 2005, then the trend reversed and peaked in 2013,
when 26,933 divorces were recorded. Thereafter, it showed a downward trend again until
2023, reaching a level of around 21,000 in 2023, similar to 2001 values.
The total fertility rate was 1.57 in 2001, rising until 2010 (1.98), then declining from 2012
to 1.53 in 2022, the lowest in two decades, and falling further in 2023, which is expected
to be the lowest Swedish fertility rate ever (1.45).

1
https://www.scb.se/en/finding-statistics/statistics-by-subject-area/population/population-composition/population-statistics/
pong/statistical-news/swedens-population-2022--population-changes2/
2
https://www.statistikdatabasen.scb.se/pxweb/en/ssd/START__BE__BE0101__BE0101L/GiftSkilsmassaTyp/table/table-
ViewLayout1/

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Sweden

FAMILY POLICY

I. System of family support

Birth grant
In Sweden, there is no such benefit. Pregnancy allowance (graviditetspenning) is paid to
pregnant women who do physically demanding or dangerous work or work in a risky
environment and their employer cannot transfer them to another job. Mothers are
entitled to an allowance of 77.6% of their income for the last 2 months of pregnancy,
up to a maximum of SEK 759 gross per day (EUR 67). Since March 2021, all pregnant
women who have reached their 20th week of pregnancy are eligible for COVID-19 risk
support. As a result, the number of applications reached almost 38 000 in 2021, i.e. one in
three women took advantage of this possibility.3

Maternity leave and benefit

The mother has to take 2 weeks’ maternity leave before or after the expected date of
childbirth, for which she can claim benefit (föräldrapenning) at the expense of her
parental benefit. This is possible if the woman is not receiving pregnancy allowance.
Either parent may take unpaid child care leave until the child is 18 months old.

Paternity leave4
Paternity leave is 10 days, to be taken within 60 days of the child’s discharge from hospital.
It is possible to split the 10 days into quarters, thirds or half days. In 2021, 77% of men
took advantage of paternity leave. The length of leave is increased in the case of multiple
births (e.g. doubled in the case of twins). Adoptive parents living together are entitled to
5 days at the time of adoption, single adoptive parents to 10 days.

Parental leave and benefit5

A parent who has been insured for at least 240 days before the birth of the child and
has an income of more than SEK 180 (EUR 16) per day is entitled to parental benefit
(föräldrapenning).
Both parents are entitled to 240 days of paid parental leave per child, making a total of
480 days. Each parent has a non-transferable period of 90 days, with the remaining 150-
150 days being freely shared and transferable. In the case of twins, an additional 180 days
per child is granted. Up to the age of one, parents can use the benefit for 30 days at the
same time. After the child’s 4th birthday, only 96 days can be used, with a total of 132

3
https://www.forsakringskassan.se/english/parents/if-you-are-expecting-a-child/pregnancy-benefit
4
Blum et al. Leave Policies 2023
5
Blum et al. Leave Policies 2023, MISSOC és https://www.forsakringskassan.se/english/parents/when-the-child-is-born/paren-
tal-benefit

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 Sweden

days for twins. The parental leave is available until the child reaches the age of 12 or the
end of the 5th year of primary school.
The parental benefit ranges from SEK 250-1,021 per day (EUR 22-91) for 390 days,
depending on the parent’s income, to 77.6% of salary, and SEK 180 per day (EUR 16)
for the remaining 90 days. The parental benefit is subject to tax and can be claimed for
full or part days. If the parent has not worked for 240 days before the birth of the child
or has an annual income of less than SEK 117,590 (EUR 10,345), he or she is entitled to
a parental benefit of SEK 250 (EUR 22) per day, including for unemployed persons and
students. The allowance for the remaining 90 days is also SEK 180 (EUR 16) per day for
these beneficiaries.
Mothers can claim the benefit up to 60 days before the expected date of delivery. It is also
possible for parents to claim less than 100% of the benefit, thus extending the period of
parental leave.
The length of leave is increased in the case of multiple births: for twins, 90 extra days at
77.6% of earnings, and a further 90 days at a flat rate of SEK 180 (EUR 16) per day. In
the case of sole custody, the custodial parent receives all the parental leave (i.e. 480 days).
Both in the public sector and in the corporate sector, it is observed, that an additional
parental allowance (föräldralön) is paid, which is around 10% of income, raising the
parental allowance to 90%.

Child benefit6
In Sweden, parents receive a child allowance (barnbidrag) of SEK 1,250 (EUR 111) per
month for each child up to the age of 16. After that, parents get a supplementary child
allowance (förlängt barnbidrag) and a student allowance if the child is still in secondary
school up to the age of 20, both of SEK 1,250 (EUR 111) per month (SEK 2,500 in total).
The supplementary child allowance is paid directly to the child after the age of 18.
Families with three or more children also receive an additional amount (flerbarnstillägg)
until the child is 16: SEK 150 (EUR 13) per month for the second child, SEK 730 (EUR
65) for the third, SEK 1,740 (EUR 155) for the fourth and SEK 2,990 (EUR 267) for the
fifth child. To qualify for the large family allowance, there must be a child under 16 in
the family or a child over 16 living at home, in full-time education and not yet married.7
In the case of children born after 1 March 2014, the child allowance and its supplementary
amount are also shared 50-50% between the two parents, if they share custody. If only
one of them is entitled, the full amount is paid to that parent. In the case of children born
before 1 March 2014, parents can declare whether they want to share the allowance. If
they do not, the mother of the child receives the full amount.

6
https://www.forsakringskassan.se/privatperson/foralder/barnbidrag-och-flerbarnstillagg and MISSOC
7
https://www.forsakringskassan.se/privatperson/foralder/barnbidrag-och-flerbarnstillagg

287
Sweden

Tax credits and other benefits

Family taxation
In Sweden, there is no such benefit.

Housing8
There are three types of housing benefit (bostadsbidrag) in Sweden:
1. The first is for young people aged 18-28 without children, living in a home of up to
60 sqm and paying at least SEK 1,800 (EUR 160) per month. The maximum monthly
amount of the benefit is SEK 1,300 (EUR 116). For young people living alone, the
annual income must not exceed SEK 86,720 (EUR 7,729).
2. The second is for families with a child under 18. The monthly amount is SEK 3,400
(EUR 303) for one child, SEK 4,200 (EUR 374) for two children and SEK 5,200 (EUR
463) for three or more children.
3. The third type is for parents who live with their child only part-time (e.g.
intermittently, e.g. divorced). The amount is SEK 2,400 (EUR 214) per month for one
child, SEK 2,800 (EUR 250) for two children and SEK 3,300 (EUR 294) for three or
more children.

The above amounts are the maximum, and the amount paid depends on income, housing
costs, the size of the apartment and the number of children. Housing benefit is available
for both rental and own property. The average rent for a one-bedroom property is SEK
10,000 – 20,000 (EUR 890-1,780) per month.

II. Reconciling work and family life

Swedish parents are very successful in balancing work and family responsibilities. They
have the highest female and maternal employment rates in the EU and the lowest risk
of child poverty. The country’s family policy promotes the two-earner family model and
ensures that both women and men can share work and family responsibilities.

Employment
In 2023, the employment rate for women was 75.6% and for men 79.1%. The employment
rate for mothers with young children was among the highest in the EU at 83.6% in 2023,
and 92.9% for men (the EU average for women was 66.4% and for men 89.6%). A high
proportion of women work part-time and/or in flexible arrangements: in 2023, the part-
time employment rate for women aged 15-64 (28%) is just below the EU average (28.5%),
while for men it is 12.6%, above the EU average (8.4%).

8
ttps://www.forsakringskassan.se/english/parents/housing-allowance-for-families-with-children

288
 Sweden

Carer’s leave9
Parents of children under 12 years of age can take temporary parental leave to care for
a sick child and receive 77.6% of income (tillfällig föräldrapenning) below a certain
income limit. Parental leave for care is limited to 120 days per child, but there is no time
limit in cases of serious illness. A medical certificate is required for a period longer than
7 consecutive days. Of the 120 days, 60 days can also be used to stay at home with young
children if the regular carer falls ill.
For children under 18 years of age with a terminal/severe illness (life-threatening
conditions), there is no upper limit on the number of days of benefit. In such cases, both
parents may be on leave at the same time. Parents whose child has been ill for more than
6 months or live with a disability can apply for child carer’s allowance (omvårdnadsbidrag10)
and an additional cost allowance (merkostnadsersättning för barn11).

Flexible working arrangements12

Until a child reaches the age of eight or completes the first grade of school, parents have
the right to reduce their normal working time by up to 25%. The reduced working hours
are paid at a proportionately lower rate. In some sectors, such reductions are allowed up
to the age of 12. Employees (parents) always have a right to return to the original working
hours at any point in time.

Early childhood education and care13

Early childhood education and care can be divided into two main stages. Uniform childcare
centres (förskola) provided by municipalities are available for children aged 1 to 5 years.
State-subsidised day care is provided for children aged 1-3 years, with parents paying
a reduced fee. From the age of 3, children are provided free of charge for at least 15 hours
per week, in addition to which a fee is payable. In the last year before starting primary
school, children aged 6 attend compulsory and free pre-school classes (förskoleklass).
In addition, there is a home-based service called pedagogical care (pedagogisk omsorg),
which is run by registered childminders and can be organised in different ways (either
in the childminders’ homes or elsewhere). Many local authorities offer childcare services
in open kindergartens (öppen förskola), where parents (or childminders) can come with
their children whenever they want. Children whose parents are working or studying are
entitled to a state-subsidised place in an out-of-school leisure centre (fritidshem).

9
Blum et al. Leave Policies 2023 és https://www.forsakringskassan.se/
10
https://www.forsakringskassan.se/privatperson/foralder/om-ditt-barn-har-en-funktionsnedsattning/omvardnadsbidrag
11
https://www.forsakringskassan.se/privatperson/funktionsnedsattning/om-ditt-barn-har-en-funktionsnedsattning/merkostnad-
sersattning-for-barn
12
Blum et al. Leave Policies 2023
13
https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-education-systems/sweden/early-childhood-education-and-care

289
Sweden

In 2023, 57% of children aged 0-3 years in Sweden were looked after in childcare centres,
well above the EU average (37%) and a slight increase from 52% in 2005. This proportion
is lower in large cities and higher in smaller towns. In 2023, 99% of Swedish children
aged 3 to 5 attended kindergarten (71.6% of the age group for more than 30 hours per
week), above the EU average (89%) and an increase compared to 2005 (88%).

290
Comparative table
EU AUSTRIA

Population (persons) (Eurostat, 2023) 9 104 772

Total Fertility Rate

1.46 1.41
(TFR) (Eurostat, 2022)

Birth grant, amount None

Length of maternity leave 14 weeks 16 weeks

May be determined by
Maternity benefit in % of previous earnings 100%
the Member State

28-31 days
The length of paternity leave 10 days
(one month)

52 EUR per day, so a total

Paternity benefit in % of previous earnings
of approx. EUR 1.600

Length of parental leave and its use minimum 2 months until

up to a certain age of the child the child is 2 years old

Monthly benefit during parental leave in %

80%
of previous earnings or given amount

Eligibility age for child benefit 18

(also in the case of higher education) (24)

Family taxation available

Female employment rate in the population

70.2 73.3
aged 20-64(%) (Eurostat, 2023)

Employment rate of women with at least one

66.4 73.7
child under the age of 6 (%) (Eurostat, 2023)

Nursery attendance rate in the population

37 24
aged 0-3 (%) (Eurostat, 2023)

Kindergarten attendance rate in the

89 90
population aged 3-6 (%) (Eurostat, 2023)

292
 BELGIUM BULGARIA CYPRUS CZECH REPUBLIC

11 742 796 6 477 710 920 701 10 827 529

1.53 1.65 1.37 1.64

EUR 586 - 1289 (varies by

EUR 250 - 600 EUR 411 - 535
region and in Wallonia
(depending on the EUR 581 (depending on the
the allowance is reduced
number of the child) number of the child)
for the 2nd child.)

15 weeks 58 weeks 18 weeks 24 weeks

72% (in the case

of multiple births,
82% in the first month,
depending on the
then 75% (the latter 90% 70%, has an upper limit
number of twins, it can
has an upper limit)
be 80%-90%-100%),
there is no upper limit

20 days 15 days 14 days 14 days

In the given contribution

100% in the first 3 days year, 72% of the weekly
and 82% of the previous value of the basic
payment in the following 90% insurance points, which 70%
days (maximum: may increase to 80%,
EUR 144 per day) 90% and 100% for one,
two or three children

8 months until the 12 months until the 36 weeks until the up to the child
child is 12 years old child is 2 years old child is 8 years old is 3 years old

EUR 978 per month EUR 399 per month N/A EUR 515 - 2136 per month

18 18 15
20
(25) (20) (in case of 26 disability)

available available not available available

68.3 72.6 74.6 74.5

69.6 64.8 73.5 45.4

56 17 37 4

99 95 88 81

293
 DENMARK ESTONIA

Population (persons) (Eurostat, 2023) 5 932 654 1 365 884

Total Fertility Rate

1.55 1.41
(TFR) (Eurostat, 2022)

Birth grant, amount None EUR 320

Length of maternity leave 14 weeks 14 weeks

Maternity benefit in % of previous earnings varies by individual 100%

The length of paternity leave 10 days 30 days

Paternity benefit in % of previous earnings up to EUR 630 per week 100%

Length of parental leave and its use 48 weeks until the 475 days until the
up to a certain age of the child child is 9 years old child is 3 years old

Monthly benefit during parental leave in %

max. EUR 610 per week 100%
of previous earnings or given amount

Eligibility age for child benefit

18 19
(also in the case of higher education)

Family taxation available available

Female employment rate in the population

77 80.9
aged 20-64(%) (Eurostat, 2023)

Employment rate of women with at least one

78.3 70.7
child under the age of 6 (%) (Eurostat, 2023)

Nursery attendance rate in the population

70 38
aged 0-3 (%) (Eurostat, 2023)

Kindergarten attendance rate in the

97 95
population aged 3-6 (%) (Eurostat, 2023)

294
 FINLAND FRANCE GREECE NETHERLANDS

5 563 970 68 172 977 10 413 982 17 811 291

1.32 1.79 1.32 1.49

EUR 170 EUR 1019 EUR 2000 None

6 weeks 16 weeks 17 weeks 16 weeks

90%, has an upper limit 100%, has an upper limit 55%, has an upper limit 100%, has an upper limit

included by 28 days
14 days 30 days
parental leave (35 days for twins)

included by parental 100% for the first 5

leave: 90% in the first 16 up to EUR 100 per day 100% days and 70% for
days and 70% thereafter the other 25 days

320 days until the 12 months until the 8 months until the 36 weeks until the
child is 2 years old child is 2 years old child is 12 years old child is 8 years old

minimum EUR the amount of the

EUR 429 per month 70%
32 per day current minimum wage

18
17 20 18
(24)

not available available available available

78.1 71.7 57.6 79.6

70.4 69.6 54.5 81.8

42 57 30 73

94 97 87 97

295
 CROATIA IRELAND

Population (persons) (Eurostat, 2023) 3 850 894 5 271 395

Total Fertility Rate

1.53 1.54
(TFR) (Eurostat, 2022)

Birth grant, amount EUR 310 10

Length of maternity leave 30 weeks 42 weeks

262 EUR/week for

Maternity benefit in % of previous earnings 100% 26 weeks, 16 weeks
without payment

10 days
The length of paternity leave 14 days
(15 days for twins)

Paternity benefit in % of previous earnings 100% 274 EUR per week

Length of parental leave and its use 8 months until the 18 weeks until the
up to a certain age of the child child is 12 years old child is 2 years old

Monthly benefit during parental leave in %

100% EUR 1048
of previous earnings or given amount

Eligibility age for child benefit 15 16

(also in the case of higher education) (19) (17)

Family taxation available available

Female employment rate in the population

66.8 74.3
aged 20-64(%) (Eurostat, 2023)

Employment rate of women with at least one

71.7 71.4
child under the age of 6 (%) (Eurostat, 2023)

Nursery attendance rate in the population

30 22
aged 0-3 (%) (Eurostat, 2023)

Kindergarten attendance rate in the

82 94
population aged 3-6 (%) (Eurostat, 2023)

296
 POLAND LATVIA LITHUANIA LUXEMBOURG

36 753 736 1 883 008 2 857 279 660 809

1.29 1.47 1.27 1.31

EUR 220 EUR 421 EUR 605 EUR 1740

20 weeks 16 weeks 18 weeks 20 weeks

100% 80% 77.60% 100%, has an upper limit

14 days 10 days 30 days 10 days

100% 80% 78% 100%

4 - 6 months (12 months

41 weeks until the 18 months until the until the child is
in case of part-time), until
child is 6 years old child is 8 years old 3 years old
the child is 6 years old

The benefit for this

period is the parent's
If they ask for 13 months, Parental leave is paid previous salary, but
then 60% of their until the child is 2 cannot be less than
70-81.5% previous earnings, years old, for which the minimum wage
or if they ask for 19 they receive 78% of and more than 5/3 of
months, then 43.75%. their previous salary. the minimum wage,
that is, between EUR
2.508 and EUR 4.180.

18 16 18 18
(21) (20) (23) (25)

available yes not available available

72 76 77.7 71.4

70.7 75.7 75.4 78.4

13 35 20 60

75 95 92 85

297
 HUNGARY MALTA

Population (persons) (Eurostat, 2023) 9 599 744 542 051

Total Fertility Rate

1.56 1.08
(TFR) (Eurostat, 2022)

Birth grant, amount EUR 168 EUR 400

Length of maternity leave 24 weeks 18 weeks

100% (for the first

14 weeks), flat-rate
Maternity benefit in % of previous earnings 100% allowance for the last
4 weeks (EUR 193/
week in 2023)

The length of paternity leave 10 days 10 days

100% for the first 5

Paternity benefit in % of previous earnings days and 40% for 100%
the other 5 days

4-4 months in the private

Length of parental leave and its use until the child is sector, 12-12 months in
up to a certain age of the child 3 years old the public sector, until
the child is 8 years old.

Up to 70% of the double

of the current minimum
Monthly benefit during parental leave in %
wage, which is HUF Unpaid
of previous earnings or given amount
373.520 (EUR 980) gross
per month in 2024.

Eligibility age for child benefit 18 16

(also in the case of higher education) (20) (21)

Family taxation available available

Female employment rate in the population

76.1 74
aged 20-64(%) (Eurostat, 2023)

Employment rate of women with at least one

71.1 73.7
child under the age of 6 (%) (Eurostat, 2023)

Nursery attendance rate in the population

20 50
aged 0-3 (%) (Eurostat, 2023)

Kindergarten attendance rate in the

100 93
population aged 3-6 (%) (Eurostat, 2023)

298
 GERMANY ITALY PORTUGAL ROMANIA

84 358 845 58 997 201 10 467 366 19 054 548

1.46 1.24 1.43 1.71

None None None None

14 weeks 21 weeks 17-21 weeks 18 weeks

100% for 120 days or

100% 80% 85%
80% for 150 days

10 days
10 days
(draft, but will also be 28 days 10 days
(20 days for twins)
fixed by law in 2024)

no data, the law has not

100% 100% 100%
yet entered into force

until the child is 9 months until the 6 months until the until the child is
3 years old child is 12 years old child is 6 years old 2 years old

For the first year of

maternity leave, the
benefit is 65% of the
previous year's earnings, The full-time benefit is
depending on income, 85% of the average net
EUR 300-1800 per monthly income earned
month, up to the age In the first month, The benefit is 30% of in the 12 months before
of 2, the amount of the 80% of the previous the previous earnings (if the birth (the minimum
parental support plus earnings, in the second both parents take their amount is RON 1.495
is 65% of the difference 60%, in the rest 30%. 3-3 months, it is 40%). (EUR 302) per month
between the earnings and the maximum
before the birth of the amount is RON 8.500
child and the current (EUR 1.746) per month).
earnings, depending
on income, EUR 150-
900 per month.
18 18 16
18
(25) (21) (24)

available available available available

77.2 56.5 75.5 59.1

67.4 54.1 79.8 47.1

23 35 56 12

86 95 88 69

299
 SPAIN SWEDEN

Population (persons) (Eurostat, 2023) 48 085 361 10 521 556

Total Fertility Rate

1.16 1.53
(TFR) (Eurostat, 2022)

EUR 4000 in case

Birth grant, amount None
of multiple birth

Length of maternity leave 16 weeks As part of parental leave

Maternity benefit in % of previous earnings 100% 0

10 days
16 weeks (parents are entitled
(80 days) of which to a total of 480
The length of paternity leave
6 weeks (30 days) days, of which 90
are mandatory days are reserved for
the father only)

Paternity benefit in % of previous earnings 100% 80%

Length of parental leave and its use until the child is 480 days until the
up to a certain age of the child 3 years old child is 12 years old

The amount of the

benefit is 77.6% of
the salary for 390
days, between SEK
Monthly benefit during parental leave in % 250-1.021/day (EUR
Unpaid
of previous earnings or given amount 22-91) depending on
the income of the
parent, and SEK 180/
day (EUR 16) for the
remaining 90 days.

Eligibility age for child benefit 16

18
(also in the case of higher education) (20)

Family taxation available not available

Female employment rate in the population

65.4 80.2
aged 20-64(%) (Eurostat, 2023)

Employment rate of women with at least one

63.5 83.6
child under the age of 6 (%) (Eurostat, 2023)

Nursery attendance rate in the population

56 57
aged 0-3 (%) (Eurostat, 2023)

Kindergarten attendance rate in the

98 99
population aged 3-6 (%) (Eurostat, 2023)

300
 SLOVAKIA SLOVENIA

5 428 792 2 116 972

1.57 1.55

EUR 830 EUR 422

34 weeks 15 weeks

75% 100%

10 days 15 days

75% of the 100% (cannot be less

calculation basis than EUR 465)

until the child is 320 days until the

3 years old child is 8 years old

For 260 days, the benefit

is 100% of the previous
The monthly amount
average wage, which
of the benefit in 2024
cannot be less than
is EUR 345 or EUR 473,
the minimum wage,
if the mother received
and its maximum is
maternity benefit.
2.5 times the monthly
average wage.

16
18
(25)

available available

73.6 74.3

67.7 81.6

1 57

73 95

301
Authors and editors
Hungarian Demographic Research Institute
Zsuzsanna Makay, PhD, Senior Researcher

Századvég Foundation
Fruzsina Ökrös, Junior Research Fellow
Dömötör Gere, Senior Researcher
Krisztina Kolozsvári, Specialist
Péter Pillók, PhD, Director; Associate Professor, Pázmány Péter Catholic University,
Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Institute of Sociology

ELTE Faculty of Law

Éva Lukács Gellérné, PhD, Assistant Professor

Mária Kopp Institute for Demography and Families

Gergely Agócs, JD, Senior Analyst
Ádám Bencze, Researcher-Analyst
Ágnes Dusa Deákné, PhD, Researcher-Analyst
Kata Eplényi, Senior International Coordinator
Tünde Fűrész, President
Anikó Horváth-Varga, Researcher-Analyst
Kinga Joó, Senior International Coordinator
Kriszta Kállay-Kisbán, Head of International Bureau
Melinda Ludescher, Researcher-Analyst
Árpád Mészáros, JD, Vice President
Tímea Nagy, Researcher-Analyst
András Pári, JD, Head of Research; Assistant Professor, Pázmány Péter Catholic University,
Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Institute of Sociology
Réka Szász, International Coordinator
Mariann Trieb, Researcher-Analyst
Péter Uhljár, Researcher-Analyst

EDITORS
Gergely Agócs, JD, Senior Analyst, KINCS
Tünde Fűrész, President, KINCS
Kriszta Kállay-Kisbán, Head of International Bureau, KINCS
András Pári, JD, Head of Research, KINCS; Assistant Professor, Pázmány Péter Catholic
University, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Institute of Sociology

302
 Published by:
Mária Kopp Institute for Demography and Families (KINCS)

Director of publishing:
Tünde Fűrész

Editors:
Gergely Agócs, Tünde Fűrész, Kriszta Kállay-Kisbán, András Pári

Translated by:
Kata Eplényi, Kriszta Kállay-Kisbán, Réka Szász, Zsuzsanna Tóth

Graphic design and pagination:

György Protzner

Printing house:
Gelbert Eco Print Kft.

ISBN 978-615-6447-23-4

This publication is not for commercial distribution.

Publisher’s volumes (in print and e-book formats)
available for order at the KINCS bookshop:
www.ekonyv.koppmariaintezet.hu/en
Over the last decade, family policy has increasingly become part of everyday
public discourse not only in Hungary but also in several other countries of the
world. More and more people are recognising that the family is not just a private
matter, but a public matter that determines the state and future of our societies,
and therefore deserves community support. Although the system and intensity
of family support varies from country to country, the objectives are similar: to
stabilise and improve the situation of families and promote their growth.

By presenting the family policy systems of the European Union, we wish to

provide a broad and detailed insight into the measures of the Member States.
This will give us a better idea of which path each country is following, when it
comes to supporting families, what measures they are taking to support parents
having and raising children, and how they generally approach to the institution
of the family and family values.

Our book is a snapshot for 2024 of the frequently and rapidly changing family
policies in the Member States of the European Union. We hope that our work
will be useful for professionals and those interested in the subject, as well as for
those living in families and planning to start one. Our volume draws attention
to the fact that, even by European standards, our country’s multifaceted family
support system provides families with a number of special solutions and unique
opportunities that are not available elsewhere in Europe.

The timeliness of the preparation of this volume is given by Hungary’s Presidency

of the Council of the European Union in the second half of 2024.