Session 4 (5)

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Section C- Housing and

Urban Planning (30 Marks)


SESSION- 4

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COURSE CONTENT
S.N. TOPIC REMARKS
1 Hierarchy of urban settlements

2 Types of urban settlements in Nepal.

3 Base Maps:

4 Hierarchy of plans

5 Principles of land use planning

6 Building byelaws

7 Periodic plans for local authorities

8 Planning legislation of Nepal

9 Environmental issues in urban development.

10 Institutions involved in urban planning and development in


Nepal.
11 Types of urban development programs in Nepal.

12 Conservation of heritage sites,

13 Settlement planning for disaster mitigation.

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COURSE CONTENT
S.N. TOPIC REMARKS
14 Municipalities of Nepal and their role in urban development.

15 Town Development Committees and their role in urban development.

16 Different types of housing,

17 Principles of housing design

18 Different models of land development

19 Squatter and slums,

20 Private housing development,

21 Rural housing, housing development programmes in Nepal,

22 Prospects of apartments and group housing in Nepal.

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PAST QUESTIONS
2067/68
6) Describe in brief what you understand by master plan, structure plans, local area plan and site plan.

7) Compare the planning of the traditional urban settlements of Kathmandu with its contemporary expansion in terms of
mitigation of disaster related to earthquakes.

8) What are the main problems of housing in rural Nepal? Discuss the issue with particular reference to resettlement
activities in the Terai?

2068/69
6) What do you mean by EIA? Elaborate on the need and methodology of EIA . In which year EIA was introduced in Nepal?

7) Kathmandu city is losing its physical and cultural heritage day by day. In your opinion, what strategies should be followed
to conserve te Kathmandu valley?

8) Describe the types of land development that is commonly applied in Nepal. Under what legislation the land development
schemes can be implemented? Describe briefly salient features of a land pooling scheme?

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2070/71

6) Describe the housing situation in Kathmandu valley as its supply changes over from owner built to private developer led.
Comment on role and effectiveness of the Apartments Act in ensuring the proper safety and security of services and housing
environment both inside and around the housing estates.

7) Describe the various methods of land development in Nepal.

8)What are the positive roles of municipality in urban development? Explain in relation to available planning regulations and
use of building byelaws in urban context.

2071/72
6) Mention with examples hierarchy of urban settlements in Nepal.

7) Apartment housings are drawing attention in Nepal, describe your opinions on the merits and demerits of apartments,
also illustrate norms for apartments in inside and outside of ring road in Kathmandu.

8) Why is it necessary to involve private sector in the housing development project of Nepal. Suggest ways for enhancing
public private partnership in housing and urban development of Nepal.

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2072/73
6) What are the different kind of urban housing? Describe in detail about “Site and Services”.

7) What do you understand by the term “land use planning”? Write the importance of land use planning in urban
development. Which agencies are involved for urban development in Nepal?

8) What is a periodic plan of a municipality? How can municipality play its roles in urban development of Nepal?

2073/74
6) What is a periodic plan of a municipality? Explain how it is prepared?

7) Describe briefly with the sketches base map, master plan, land use plan and setback.

8) Explain what is land development? Explain the steps in sequences of land development under land pooling scheme.

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3.12 CONSERVATION OF
HERITAGE SITES

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The World Heritage Convention recognizes that heritage can be defined as “monuments, group of buildings, and sites.”
There is a wide range of styles including urban cities, archeological sites, industrial heritage, cultural landscapes, and heritage
roads. By this definition, heritage is not only buildings such as worship places or fortresses and castles, which were considered
as independent places of its own not related to its urban environment. Today, heritage represents the whole environment
that is influenced by its interaction with humanity and is therefore qualified to be recognized as a heritage .

There are several definitions of architectural and urban heritage preservation. For example, Elias considered that
“conservation is a set of procedure which guarantee the protection of the architectural and historical characteristics of the
important old areas and buildings, such as repairing, removing erosion and sedimentation signs, and securing acceptable
standards for the protection of open spaces and squares. These emphasize the importance of urban preservation and the
need for the functional continuity of these areas and buildings” . This means preserving the heritage while insisting on
keeping up and responding to the modern urban fabric of the city as a whole.
Since the ruined or heritage building cannot be separated from its urban surroundings, therefore, urban conservation is what
we should seek.
Today, in contemporary cities, there is a rapid population growth leading to the expansion of contemporary cities, and with
the loss of most master plans of cities, the relationship between ancient and contemporary has become an issue that has
been addressed in many researches. This makes us responsible for developing today’s cities, especially our historic cities for
the future. As a result, future cities must be based on the past, living in the present, and evolving in the future through a
coherent chain that meets the needs of all people in any age.

Cities that lack memory, away from their past, and do not preserve their heritage and identity cannot build their own future,
which make them vulnerable to destruction.

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This leads us to the importance of studying the term “urban conservation.”

Urban conservation is “a process that focuses on the quality of urban environment by developing a program to protect
cities and urban areas from environmental and optical pollution” .

The definition highlights the importance of restoration as an essential part of conservation procedure, regardless of the
way or the area covered by preservation, whether it is a single building, urban fabric, or an entire city.

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Figure illustrates the dimensions
of heritage conservation that
accrue not only for heritage
assets, but also to larger
development aspects (across the
x-axis). Distinctions across the y-
axis on the other hand show the
benefits at the community level,
and at the city levels.

Heritage Conservation Policy Dimensions

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Importance/ justifications and implications of heritage conservation strategies:
1.Heritage conservation and urban identity / pride: A good heritage conservation strategy is critical to build a strong
urban identity and pride in our cities and towns.

2.Heritage conservation is more than history: A good heritage conservation strategy incorporates all aspects of a region's
heritage - historical, but also natural and cultural.

3.Heritage conservation needs community participation and involvement: A good heritage conservation strategy
requires the active participation and involvement of the local community in all aspects of its development and
implementation.

4.Heritage conservation leads to well-being / human security: A good heritage conservation strategy should also have
well-being and human security as some of its eventual goals for the local community.

5.Heritage conservation is critical to job creation and poverty alleviation: A good heritage conservation strategy should
be linked to the local economy, in order to create jobs and alleviate poverty - particularly in developing countries

6.Heritage conservation helps preserve intangible local cultures: A good heritage conservation strategy looks at both
tangible and intangible heritage resources in an integrated manner
7.Heritage conservation strongly influences sustainability goals: A good heritage conservation strategy inherently takes
into account, the long term sustainability goals of the region
8.Heritage conservation through localization, contextualization& and customization: A good heritage conservation
strategy needs to be localized, contextualized and customized in order for it to succeed and deliver on its goals.
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Sustainable Development Goals and Heritage
Where is heritage conservation addressed in the new Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)*?

The 17 SDGs have a number of targets embedded within them focusing on heritage conservation themes and issues.

Goal 11 aims to “Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable.” This goal envisions
sustainable, livable urban centers with universal access to green spaces. There are a total of 10 targets to be achieved
under this Goal.
Target 11.4 specifically calls for “Strengthening efforts to protect and safeguard the world’s cultural and natural heritage”

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The elements of a good strategy
A typical heritage conservation strategy will take into consideration a number of elements, including:
1. understanding the value and need of preserving and conserving local heritage assets for the local community.
2. placing an appropriate balance between the cultural, natural, historical and other heritage assets, both tangible and intangible.
3. defining the role and purpose of heritage conservation, including issues related to governance, education and awareness, finance,
technology and related aspects.
4. building local stakeholder's partnerships to identify and act on roles and responsibilities of each stakeholder
5. identifying the risks, challenges, or barriers facing heritage conservation.
6. opportunities or actions to strengthen heritage conservation for different stakeholders, and its monitoring and evaluation.

Ultimately, it will be the strategy's localization, contextualization and customization that will ensure its short and long term success in
preserving the local heritage.
•Heritage localization
"Localizing" heritage action refers to the scale of the action. A good heritage conservation strategy will have to ensure that the scale of the
action is local and micro in nature, and is - first and foremost - relevant to, and benefits, the local community. It will be small local actions that
will cumulatively enable the conservation of heritage assets in the longer term.
•Heritage contextualization
"Contextualizing" heritage action refers to the situation of the action. A good heritage conservation strategy will have to ensure that the
situation of the local area where the intended action is to take place, is well understood, and is - first and foremost - relevant to, and benefits,
the local community. If poverty and low-income households predominate in the locality, then the strategy will have to focus on job creation
and income generation as an integral part of the strategy.
•Heritage customization
"Customizing" heritage action refers to the need for action. A good heritage conservation strategy will have to ensure that the need for action
is understood, and is - first and foremost - relevant to, and benefits, the local community. Understanding this need, and the priority/value
placed on heritage by the local community, will be useful to foster their deeper participation and partnership in heritage action.

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Integrated Approach to Heritage Conservation

There are a number of developmental activities,


particularly in an urban setting, that will enhance the
conservation of heritage assets, and increase its
overall impacts and effects. These fields include, for
example:
•Urban services and planning processes: A
number of zoning, landuse planning and related
urban management processes that influence the
character and preservation of old districts, including
heritage-related planning regulations
•Transportation systems: Planing and development
of transportation infrastructure, including pedestrian
and non-motorized streets, and promotion of public
transport, go a long way in helping conservation
efforts.
•Mass media support: The role of print and
electronic media is critical in raising awareness of
heritage value, both among local communities, as
well as outside visitors/tourists

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•Local communities involvement: The consensus of local communities that live in heritage-rich districts to conservation
efforts is important for many reasons - to generate jobs and income, to promote tourism and related economic activities, to
raise awareness of the need for preservation, to instill a sense of pride, or increase livability of the area.

•Entrepreneurship and business development: Heritage conservation efforts that focus only on preservation and
maintenance could fail unless it is integrated within the broader economic activities of the community and city, helping in
entrepreneurship and setting up of businesses (particularly tourism related).

•Environmental management: Many of the regulations and strategies that promote heritage conservation in fact have a
number of externalities, particularly preventing degradation of the local environment.

•Disaster management: Due to their relative age and construction techniques used, heritage assets are usually more
vulnerable to disasters such as earthquakes and typhoons. This not only puts the assets at risk of loss, but also the
communities that live in the districts. Disaster risk reduction plans should also include heritage assets in their retrofitting
plans.

•Tourism development planning: As mentioned above, tourism development and planning is not just an economic activity,
but can and should also promote and integrate heritage conservation efforts within its processes.
In developing countries that particularly have significant heritage assets, integration of heritage conservation strategies into
poverty reduction programmes and informal sector development is also a critical factor that increases community
involvement and improves their economic standing.

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3.9 Environmental issues
in Urban Development

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Urban Environmental Problems
• Development of slums
• Management of solid waste
• Over exploitation of natural resources
• Non-availability of open spaces
• Air pollution
• Noise pollution
• Violation of urban planning rules
• Water-logging and drainage
• Traffic and floating population
• Unusual rise in temperature (Heat island Effect)

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A narrow definition of EIA describes it as a systematic process of identifying, predicting, analyzing, evaluating and
mitigating the direct and indirect environmental effects of a proposed activity before permission is given for it to
commence.

A broader definition stresses the need to identify and assess the potential impacts, not only of projects, but also of
legislative proposals, policies, programmes and operational procedures, on the environment, human health and well-
being, and to communicate information about those impacts to the general public.

Within the context of this broader definition, several studies on sustainable development (World Bank, 1991; UNEP, 1993;
Glasson et al., 1996) recommend that in addition to assessing impacts on the physical and biological environment, EIA
should address socio-economic impacts, including those on ethnic minorities, women, and community governance.

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What is EIA?
• Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a process which ensures that all environmental
matters are taken into account quite early in the project at planning process itself.
• It takes into consideration not only technical and economic considerations but also, traditional
aspects like impact on local people, biodiversity etc.
Why EIA?
EIA is intended to prevent or minimize potentially adverse environmental impacts and enhance the
overall quality of a project. The main benefits and advantages of EIA are:
Lower project costs in the long-term Reduced environmental damage
Increased project acceptance Improved integration of projects
Improved project design into their environmental and
Informed decision making social settings
Environmentally sensitive decisions
Increased accountability and transparency
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The EIA Directive
• The EIA Directive requires projects likely to have significant effects on the Environment by virtue of
their nature, size or location to undergo an environmental assessment before the competent
authority in question grants consent.

• The EIA Directive defines a project as the execution of construction works or of other installations or
schemes,
• other interventions in the natural surroundings and landscape including those involving the
extraction of mineral resources
• The EIA should identify, describe and assess the direct and indirect effects of a project on the following
factors:
Human beings
Fauna and flora
Soil, Water & Air
Climate and the landscape
Material Assets
Cultural Heritage
Interaction between all above factors

EIA therefore should have a very strong social dimension


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History
➢ Started in 1960’s with the formulation of National Environment
Protection Act, 1969 in USA
In context of Nepal
• Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-1985) had first mentioned the need for EIA for major infrastructure projects
• Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-1990), first time a national level
policy on environment management was incorporated
• Eighth Five Year Plan (1991-1995) anticipated the establishment of a national system for EIA and stipulated that EIA be
conducted at the stage of feasibility study.
• National EIA Guideline, endorsed in September 1992 and gazette
in July 1993
• Enforcement of Environment Protection Act and Environment Protection Regulation in 1997
• Constitution of Nepal
• Currently Environment Protection Act 2019 and Environment Protection Regulation in 2020

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EIA study and report approval process

• Proponent
• National Environmental Impact Assessment Guideline, 1993
• Physical, Biological and Socio-economic cultural environment
• Desk study (Literature review)
• Field study
Scoping Phase:
➢ Delineation of the project area
➢ Collection of baseline data
➢ Interaction with the stakeholders
➢ Identification and prioritization of the issues
ToR phase:
➢ Methodology
➢ Prioritized issues
➢ EIA format
EIA phase:
➢ Detail study of baseline environment
➢ Identification, Prediction and evaluation of the impacts
➢ Proposing enhancement and mitigation measures along with environmental management cost
➢ Public hearing

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OPERATIONAL ISSUES EPR 2020. (Uprety, 2020)

The brief environmental study (BES) report is an addition in the EPR 2020. As per EPA
2019, the proposal includes a plan, project, or program; and Strategic Environmental
Analysis (SEAn) is proposed to carry out for policy or program or project.

As mentioned above, a program or project may require BES, IEE, EIA, or SEAn. In general
understanding, BES, IEE or EIA are carried out for projects, and
Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) is for policy, plan, or program.

This sufficiently confuses the global and regional practices in carrying out project-level or
higher-level of assessments. It is, therefore, natural to consider 'redundant' and 'departure
from practices'.

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The required time for approval of the Scoping document, Terms of Reference (ToR) and environmental study reports may
require 'determined' effort of the concerned officials engaged in processing for approval and decision-makers. The number
of days the government will take for approval will be counted only after submission of all required documents, including
'revised' reports. Once all quality documents are received, the Government will need 35 days to approve of an EIA report. If
all processes are complete, a decision can be made within a few days. Efficiency will be 'known' only after full
implementation of the EPR 2020 and 'positive outlook' in the decision-making process for all types of projects and of all
proponents.

In the case of the public hearing, the Rules (#6.3) obliges the proponent to organize public hearing in more than one place
taking into consideration the geographical area to be covered by the project. In order to make it 'development-friendly', it is
encouraged to clearly mention the 'number of the public hearing required' while approving the ToR as it is time-consuming
and in some cases costly. It is equally important to consider the nature and location of the project.

Reviewing the Schedules, Schedules 1, 2 and 3 provide a list of proposals that require BES, IEE and EIA studies respectively
and the proponent will proceed for preparing BES, IEE or EIA reports. The 1997 EPR included 'sensitive area and investment
criteria' for proposals that were not covered in Schedules. As per EPR 2020, any category of proposals not included in these
three Schedules will neither be implemented nor any level of environmental assessments required. Alternatively, all new
proposals not included in these Schedules will be environment-friendly. This 'far-sightedness' or 'gross negligence' will, at
least, promote socio-economic development 'at the cost of the environment'.

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Each Schedule considers pre-construction, construction and operational stages of a project. Some proposals may be
directly implemented and may not require these stages. For example, plantation of single species in a block, or clear
felling in more than 30 ha of land will not require the construction stage as in infrastructure projects.

Stakeholders are given the opportunity to comment and provide inputs on environmental assessment reports. In general,
the draft report is made public but the format of the public notice clearly indicates to collect stakeholder's suggestions
'while preparing the report'. It indicates that stakeholders or 'to be affected' community(ies) may or may not be
informed about the impacts of the proposal with corresponding measures. As also flagged previously, the IEE report
format is inappropriate to all sectors. The alternative analysis undermines the '3W' (with & without, and within)
approach. The EIA report format undermines the national and transboundary nature of impacts and instructs to write
impact-based measures in two chapters. Clarity is required in environmental monitoring and auditing as well.
Unnecessary details further confuse and delay decision-making.

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The Ministry of Forests and Environment or the 'prescribed agency' is responsible for environmental auditing. However, the
ToR for EIA study instructs the proponent to mention 'when' (time) and 'who' (agency) to carryout environmental auditing.
The timing and responsibility contradict with Section 12 of the EPA 2019.

Recalling the EIA Convention (1991), EIA laws or guidelines in number countries, conference decisions, principles and
practices, Nepal's EPR 2020 challenges the principles and practices of environmental assessment (EA) process in some areas,
and includes unnecessary details to confuse proponents, practitioners and decision-makers. Many Schedules look like
'teaching material'.

The EPR ignores the nature and location of the project and confuses the scope of Rules, Guidelines and Manuals. Although
many countries follow the 'prescriptive approach' in implementing the EA tool, the EPR 2020 attempts to regulate each step
of the EA process, limits 'flexibility', and 'innovativeness', and provides spaces to delay report approval.

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3.13 Settlement Planning
for Disaster Mitigation

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ljkb\ Joj:yfkg rqm
(Disaster Management Cycle)

k"j{ ;"rgf
Early Warning
ljkb\
k"j{ tof/L Disaster
Preparedness

Go"gLs/0f
Reduction/Mitigation p2f/ tyf /fxt
Rescue & Relief
/f]syfd
Prevention
k'g:yf{kg / k'glg{df{0f
Reconstruction & Rehabilitation

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Settlement Planning for disaster mitigation

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The UNISDR (2009) defines a disaster as: “A serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society involving
widespread human, material, or environmental losses and impacts which exceeds the ability of the affected
community to cope using only its own resources.”

The UNISDR goes on to indicate: “Disasters are often described as a result


of the combination of: the exposure to a hazard; the conditions of vulnerability that are present; and insufficient
capacity or measures to reduce or cope with the potential negative consequences. Disaster impacts may include
loss of life, injury, disease and other negative effects on human physical, mental and social well-being, together with
damage to property, destruction of assets, loss of services, social and economic disruption and environmental
degradation.”

. In general risk is defined as “the combination of the probability of an event and its negative consequences” (UNISDR,
2009). The term risk is thus multidisciplinary and is used in a variety of contexts. Risk is usually associated with the degree
to which humans cannot cope (lack of capacity) with a particular situation (e.g. natural hazard).

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A hazard is defined as “a dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity or condition that may cause loss of life,
injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or
environmental damage” (UNISDR, 2009).

Vulnerability is a set of prevailing or consequential conditions arising from various physical, social, economic and
environmental factors which increase the susceptibility of a community to the impact of hazards (UNISDR,
2002:24).

Coping capacity for disaster risk reduction refers to the ability of people, organisations and systems, using
available skills and resources, to face and manage adverse conditions such as hazards, emergencies or disasters. Coping
capacities contribute to the reduction of disaster risks (UNISDR, 2009).

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The UNISDR defines resilience as “the ability of a system, community or society exposed to hazards to resist, absorb,
accommodate to and recover from the effects of a hazard in a timely and efficient manner, including through the
preservation and restoration of its essential basic structures and functions” (UNISDR, 2009). This definition therefore
considers the presence of a hazard and not a disaster. Thus once a disaster actually occurs, it would be incorrect to
refer to resilience but rather to coping capacity. Resilience and the building of resilience should therefore be seen as an
integral part of disaster risk reduction activities.

Disaster risk reduction (also referred to as just disaster reduction) is defined as the concept and practice of reducing
disaster risks through systematic efforts to analyse and manage the causal factors of disasters, including through reduced
exposure to hazards, lessened vulnerability of people and property, wise management of land and the environment,
and improved preparedness for adverse effects.

Disaster risk management is the systematic process of using administrative directives, organisations, and
operational skills and capacities to implement strategies, polices and improved coping capacities in order to lessen
the adverse impacts of hazards and their possibility of disaster. Disaster risk management aims to avoid, lessen or
transfer the adverse effects of hazards through activities and measures for prevention, mitigation and preparedness
(UNISDR, 2009).

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Hazards in themselves do not constitute disasters. The magnitude of a disaster is usually described in terms of the
adverse effects which a hazard has had on lives, property and infrastructure; environmental damage; and the costs
attached to post- disaster recovery and rehabilitation. In other words there is a direct link between the capacity of those
affected to withstand, cope and recover from the adverse affects of a hazard using only their own resources, and what
constitutes disaster risk. Put simply disaster risk is the product of the combination of three elements –
vulnerability, coping capacity and hazard (UNISDR 2002:41).

Disaster risk (R) = Vulnerability (V) x Hazard (H)


Capacity (C)
OR
Disaster risk = function of H and V/C

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• Disaster Mitigation is a series of efforts to reduce disaster risk, both thorough physical development
(structural mitigation) and awareness and capacity building in the face of disaster threats

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Disaster Statistics of Nepal
Hazard Types = 29
◦ Top Five: Landslide, Fire, Epidemics, Flood, Accidents

◦ Earthquake – Low Frequency High Consequence Hazard!!

◦ Events Recorded – 24,313, Death -32,802 (+2,388 missing),


Injured >59,000; Affected – 6.95 million (1/3rd of population);

Total reported (Direct) Losses = NRs 40,488,152,183 = Forty billion


Nepali Rupees ( 0.9 billion NRs. lost due to disaster per year (average)

Source: Nepal DesInventar Database, NSET 2013 (For the period Jan 1, 1971 to Dec 31, 2013)

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जोखिमका दृष्टिले ष्टिश्वका अन्य
ु को दााँजोमा नेपाल
मुलक

बाढी – ३० औ ं स्थानमा
(स्रोत: UN/BCPR, 2004)

भूकम्प –११औ ं स्थानमा (स्रोत:


UN/BCPR, 2004)

काठमाडौं शहर भूकम्पका दृष्टिले


सबैभन्दा जोखिमपूर् ण शहर (GHI 2001)

जलिायू पररितणन – छै ठौं स्थानमा


(स्रोत: जमणनिाच, २००६)

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Concept of Urban Resilience
• It is the capacity of cities to function so that the people living and working in them, particularly the poor
and vulnerable, survive and thrive no matter what stresses or shocks they encounter.

• This conception of resilience moves away from traditional disaster risk reduction based understanding,
which is founded on risk assessments that relate to specific hazards. Instead, it accepts the possibility that
a wide range of disruptive events both stresses and shocks may occur but are not necessarily predictable.

• It is also focused on not only bouncing back after a shock like an earthquake or a chemical accident but
‘building back better’ to enhance system resilience of the entire city. It also emphasizes improving
baseline living and working conditions of people converging with the SDG agenda.

• Resilience concentrates on enhancing the performance of a system in the face of multiple hazards rather
than preventing or mitigating the loss of assets due to a specific event.

• City systems should be reflective, robust, redundant, flexible, resourceful, inclusive and integrated to
enable resilience

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10 Essentials for making cities resilient

1. Organize for disaster resilience


2. Identify, understand and use current and future risk scenarios
3. Strengthen financial capacity for resilience
4. Pursue resilient urban development and design
5. Safeguard natural buffers to enhance the protective functions offered by natural ecosystems
6. Strengthen institutional capacity for resilience
7. Understand and strengthen societal capacity for resilience
8. Increase infrastructure resilience
9. Ensure effective disaster response
10. Expedite recovery and build back better

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Planning starts immediately. It can serve as a tool for coordination, integration and reconstruction.

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