Chapter three

Contexts of Administrative Ethics

3.1. Analyzing Problems and Ethical Theory
3.1.1. Ethical Theory
 Ethical or sometimes defined as Moral Theories. We use ethical/moral theories to help
us understand
 Ethical cases and ethical problems that often face by engineers. “A Moral theory defines
terms in uniform ways and links
 Ideas and problems together in consistent ways” (Harris, Pritchard and Rabins) They are
not algorithms to resolve complex dilemmas.
 They can however, provide systematic guidance, and understanding There are may
approaches that can be applied to solve ethical issues.
 We can look at the problems from different “eyes”
 The opinions from these different “eyes” are based on a variety of ethical theories
Ethical Theories
1. Virtue Ethics
2. Duty Ethics
3. Right Ethics
4. Utilitarianism
5. Others - Divine Command Ethics
- Ethical Egoism
- Ethical Relativism
- Ethical Pluralism

1. Virtue Ethics
Oldest theory, started with Aristotle
Assumes ethical behavior follows from characteristics/traits that people acquire.
People will do the right thing because they have developed virtuous habits.
Considered wisdom and good judgment the most important virtues.
Virtue ethics focus on words such as responsibility, honesty, competence, and
loyalty

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 Vices are dishonesty, disloyalty and irresponsibility.
Considered “Professional Responsibility” a virtue with 4 main components:
Self direction
Public spirited
Team work
Proficiency
2. Duty Ethics
Moral duties are fundamental
Ethical (right) actions can be written down as a list of duties (be good, be honest etc.)
May not be good for all
Duty ethical actions express respect for individuals
Once one’s duties are recognized, then the ethically correct
Actions are obvious Problem: doesn't allow any flexibility for exceptions when duties
conflict. For example, if we promised to pay ransom to a hostage taker (a duty), is it all
right to deceive the kidnapper to benefit the hostage (another duty).
The duties we should follow are what rational people would agree to in a hypothetical
contracting situation. A "rational person” are:
 Has no self interest (bias)
 Has knowledge about human psychology, society, science etc.
 Will promote their long term interests
 Will seek agreement with others (about principles all will voluntarily follow)
3. Right Ethics
Humans have the right to life, liberty and property
Humans have fundamental rights (the right to live, for example) and others have the duty
to respect
Liberty and welfare rights - based on a sense of community
Moral “rights" meant capacity to show concern for others Some rights arise from others
actions, e.g. one has a right to have a promise kept because another person made it.
Social welfare system reflects this philosophy
4. Utilitarianism

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 Based on maximizing "goodness“ (Produce the most good for the most people given
equal consideration to all affected)
Tries to establish a balance of good over bad consequences
Focused on society versus individual
There are two types of Utilitarianism:
- Act Utilitarianism
- Rule Utilitarianism
Act Utilitarianism Rule Utilitarianism
 Focuses on individual actions, rather  Moral rules are most important
than general rules  Adhering to moral rules will ultimately
 An act or action is proper if it produces lead to the most good
the most good for the most people  Rule utilitarianism is more rigid than
involved act Utilitarianism
 Rules should be broken if they lead to  Rules considered in sets called "moral
the most good codes“. The optimal code is the one that
maximizes good for the most people

5. Other Ethical Views

 Divine Command Ethics: right actions are commanded by God; wrong actions are
forbidden by God religion and ethics very closely related for many
 Ethical Egoism: "it's all about me“ proposes that we are all driven by pursuit of our
own long term interests
 Ethical Relativism: it's OK if it's legal or customary attempts to reduce moral values to
that reflected in-laws and local customs (which may vary significantly over time and
through cultures)
 Ethical Pluralism: there are many to choose from, one will never fit all - also considers
the effect of customs and cultures.

3.1.2. Analysis of Issues in Ethical Problems

The first step in solving any ethical problem:

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  Completely understand all of the issues involved
 Frequently a solution to the problem becomes apparent
 The issues involved in understanding ethical problems can be divided into three (3)
categories: a. Factual Issue
b. Conceptual Issue
c. Moral Issue

a. Factual Issue

 What is actually known about a case (what the facts are always clear)
 Resolved through research to establish the truth
 May be controversial
Example: Global warming is of great concern to society as we continue to emit greenhouse
gaseous into atmosphere

b. Conceptual Issue
 The meaning or applicability of an idea
 Resolved by agreeing on the meaning of terms and concepts
 Like factual issues, conceptual issues are not always clear-cut and will often result in
controversy as well
c. Moral Issue
 Once the factual and conceptual issues have been resolved, all that remains is to
determine which moral principle is applicable to the situation.
 Finally, moral issue are resolved by agreement as to:
Which moral principles are pertinent?
How they should be applied.
Problem Solving Techniques
Identification
 Recognize/acknowledge a state of conflict Identification

 Identify source of conflict and stakeholders

Analysis

Analysis
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  Investigation, facts
 Alternatives, ranking
Action
 Deciding on and initiating a course of action/resolution
Action

3.2 Organizational Structure: A Reflection of Society's Values and a Context for

Individual Ethics

Organizational structure plays crucial role in a number of organizational decisions and

activities. As Daft suggests, the definition of organizational structure has three components:

 The organizational structure designates the formal reporting relationships. It

prescribes the levels of hierarchy that the organization would have and the span of
control for each level.

 The organizational structure prescribes the grouping of organizational members into

departments and departments into an organization.

 The organizational structure identifies the systems for coordination, communication

and integration of efforts made by organizational members across the organization.

Thus, the organizational structure lays out the whole foundation of the organization.
Organizational structure identifies how many divisions will work there in the organization
and who will report to whom. It also identifies the systems through which the work of
various divisions will be coordinated to accomplish the common organizational objective.
(Daft, 2010)

Organizational structure is important to study ethics

Various experts have provided that the organizational structure of a firm has lot of influence
on the ethical behavior shown by the firm. As Ferrell has said, “An organization’s structure

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is important to the study of business ethics because the various roles and job descriptions that
comprise that structure may create opportunities for unethical behavior.”

3.3. Governmental Ethics and Organizational Culture

Ethics is gaining prominence in the discourse about governance today.
Government ethics constitutes the application of ethical rules to government. It is that part of
practical jurisprudence, or the philosophy of law, that governs the operation of government and
its relationship with the people that it governs.

It covers issues of honesty and transparency in government, dealing with matters such as
bribery, political corruption, police corruption, legislative ethics, regulatory ethics, and conflict
of interest, avoiding the appearance of impropriety, open government, and legal ethics.
Establishing an ethical government is not an easy task. There is no single approach to curb
corruption effectively. Instead, controlling corruption requires a wide range of strategies.

Organizational culture refers to the beliefs and values that have existed in an organization for
a long time, and to the beliefs of the staff and the foreseen value of their work that will influence
their attitudes and behavior.

Functions of Organizational Culture

 Gives members an organizational identity: Sharing norms, values and perceptions
gives people a sense of togetherness that helps promote a feeling of common purpose.
 Building a strong company culture will help recruiters entice elite candidates and
retain top talent. Not only that, but a winning corporate culture has been shown to
improve levels of employee engagement, productivity and performance.
 A culture that strongly relies upon intuition when making decisions tends to
primarily: Utilize discussions to make decisions. Socialize information on activities
through personal interaction. Consider few if any key facts when making decisions
 It facilitates collective commitment. The common purpose that grows out of shared
culture tends to elicit strong commitment from all those who accept the culture as their
own.

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  It promotes systems stability. By encouraging a shared sense of identity and
commitment, culture encourages lasting integration and cooperation among the members
of an organization. It enhances social stability by holding the organizational members
together by providing them appropriate standards for which the members should stand
for.
 It shapes behavior by helping members make sense of their surroundings. An
organization culture serves as a source of shared meaning that explains why things occur
the way they do. Organizational culture is not fully visible but felt. At less visible level
culture reflects the value shared by organizational members.
 It provides a boundary: Culture creates distinction between one organization and the
other. Such boundary – defining helps identify members and non-members of the
organization.
 It helps organizational members: Stick to conformity and expected mode of behavior.
Culture ensures that everyone thinks and behaves in a prescribed manner.

3.4. The Relevance of Public Ethics to Administration and Policy

Ethics is important for any aspiring or current public administrator, particularly because ethics is
imperative to each of our government’s functions as follows:

 Establish justice: Encourages justice that is fair and equitable (e.g., fair sentencing practices).
 Ensure peace among the people and the states: Allows for the federal government to smooth
tensions between states as equitably and objectively as possible.
 Provide for the common defense: Ensures that the protection of the United States does not come
at a great moral cost (e.g., concentration camps during times of war).
 Promote the general welfare of the public: Ensures the government does its due diligence in
balancing values of equity and efficiency in delivering public welfare programs.
 Secure the blessing of liberty for all now, and for future generations: Ensures the public’s
liberties and rights are not infringed upon by other individuals, organizations, or government
entities.

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3.5. Administrative Ethics and the Chimera of Professionalism: The Historical Context of
Public Service Ethics.

Public service has always been valued as a major feature of human civilization. This has been
due to many factors, including the nature of humankind as a social creature with concern for
common good and common interests as well as for self interest.

The state and public sector organizations have played a leading role in providing this common
good and public service throughout history. In fact, civilization and administration have been
developed together, one promoting the other (Waldo, 1980/1992).

Public service seeks to promote the good of the whole community, not just particular sections of
it. Services for certain sections of the community, including affirmative action and positive
discrimination, are perfectly compatible with the common good.

The idea of public service, then, is bound up with that of the common good, in turn closely
linked with that of the individual in relation to others – other orientation. It implies a selfless,
outward looking disposition, embracing other regarding sensibilities, or sympathies

Professionalization of the administrative state and of public service has been a common
phenomenon of both capitalism and socialism.

Professional public administrators may be seen as guardians of public trust and public interest.
For decades, the administrative state and public administration provided stability and continuity
to governance and political systems.

Professionalization of public administration has been characterized by an adherence to merit

systems rather than spoils systems, task specialization by either training or experience,
procedural systems of checks and balances, and organizational values of efficiency, economy
and effectiveness achieved through a degree of political neutrality. It has also meant adherence to
professional standards and ethics rather than partisan or other arbitrary criteria.

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