UNIVERSITY OF DELHI

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS & ASTROPHYSICS

(Solid State Physics Lab)

To study the characteristics of P-N junction

Group Members: Submitted To:

1. Atul Kumar Prof. S Somorendro Singh

2. Gautam Yadav
3. Jaskirat Singh
4. Vaishali Dinkar
P-N JUNCTION

When a p-type semiconductor is suitably joined to an n-type semiconductor, the contact

surface is called a p-n junction.

Consider a p-type and n-type semiconductor shown in Fig.1. The p-type semiconductor
has negative acceptor ions and positively charged holes. In contrast, the n-type
semiconductor has positive donor ions and free electrons.

When the two types of materials are suitably joined to form a p-n junction, electrons
diffuse from n-side to p-side while holes diffuse from p-to n-side. This process is called
diffusion and gives rise to diffusion current.

Fig.1: n and p-type semiconductor

As holes continue to leave the p-side, some of the negative acceptor ions near the
junction are left uncompensated. Similarly, some of the positive donor ions near the
junction are left uncompensated as the electrons leave the n-side. Consequently, a
negative space charge forms near the p-side of the junction, and a positive space charge
forms near the n-side.

When a sufficient number of holes and electrons have crossed the junction, further
diffusion is prevented. It is because now the positive charge on the n-side repels holes to
cross from the p-side to the n-side and the negative charge on the p-side repels the
electrons to enter from the n-side to the p-side. Thus, a barrier is set up against further
movement of charge carriers. This is called a potential barrier or junction barrier VB. The
potential distribution diagram is shown in Fig.2. It is clear from the diagram that a potential
barrier VB is set up which gives rise to the electric field. This field prevents the respective
majority of carriers from crossing the barrier region. This field however allows the few
holes in the n-material to shift from n to p and the few electrons in the p-material to shift
from p to n, both giving rise to drift current from n to p in a direction opposite to the diffusion
current. At equilibrium, drift and diffusion currents for each type of carrier (holes as well
as electrons) separately cancel each other and there is no net current.
The potential difference across the p-n junction can be applied in two ways, namely;
forward biasing and reverse biasing.

1. Forward biasing: An external voltage applied with the polarity such that the negative
terminal of the battery is connected to the n-side of the junction and the positive terminal
to the p-side, is called a forward bias. A p-n junction diode in the forward bias mode. With
such a biasing, the height of the potential barrier at the junction is lowered and the
diffusion current due to both electrons and holes, increases rapidly.

2. Reverse biasing: In this type of biasing, the negative terminal of the battery is
connected to the p-side of the junction, and the positive terminal to the n-side. This causes
both the holes in the p-type and the electrons in the type to move away from the junction.
Consequently, the height of the potential barrier increases. The electrons in the n-side
and holes in the p-side do not have enough energy to cross this barrier. Hence the
diffusion current is almost negligible for reverse bias.

Fig.2: Potential distribution diagram

PN JUNCTION SET-UP:

The setup consists of the following:

1. PN junction set up,

2. Oven with thermometer,
3. A Sample of junction transistor with connecting leads,
4. Diode to measure junction capacitance,
5. Connecting lead to connect oscilloscope for measure junction capacitance,
6. Power Cord.

Fig.3: Components of the P-N junction setup.

EXPERIMENT 1.1

Aim: Determination of the reverse saturation current Io & material constant η.

Theory: The current I in the p-n junction is given by,

I = Io (eqV/ηkT - 1) …….…(1)

Where,
q = electronic charge = 1.602 × 10−19 Coulomb
η = material constant
k = Boltzmann's constant = 1.38 × 10−23 J/K
T = Temperature in Kelvin
V = Junction voltage in Volt.

The reverse saturation current is usually too small to measure directly. An indirect
graphical method may be obtained by taking the logarithm of equation (1) for eqV/ηkT≫1
as,

𝑞𝑉
ln I = ln Io + 𝜂𝑘𝑇 ……….(2)

If V & ln I are plotted on graph paper a straight line is obtained. This line intersects the
current (ln I) axis at ln Io & its slope may be solved to compute material constant.

Equation (2) is of the form, y = mx + C.

Where,

𝑞
m = 𝜂𝑘𝑇

Therefore, material constant,

𝑞 𝛥𝑉
η= ……….(3)
𝑘 𝑇 𝛥 𝑙𝑛 𝐼
Procedure:

1. Connect the junction transistor lead to the Junction terminals provided in the setup.

2. Keep the left-hand side digital display in ‘Junction Mode’.

3. Keep the right-hand side digital display in ‘Current Mode’.

4. Switch ON the p-n junction setup.

5. Vary the junction voltage knob and obtain current as a function of junction voltage.

6. Determine the slope from the graph obtained between junction voltage and current
and hence calculate the material constant.

Observations:

Temperature = 290 K
Least count of Junction voltage = 1mV
Least count of Current = 0.1 mA

S.No. Current, I (mA) ln I Junction Voltage,

V (volts)
1 0.1 4.61 0.610

2 0.2 5.30 0.635

3 0.4 5.99 0.655

4 0.7 6.55 0.679

5 1 6.91 0.693

6 2 7.60 0.719

7 4 8.29 0.745

8 7 8.85 0.767

9 10 9.21 0.782

Table 1: Reverse saturation current

Graph:

Fig.4: Graphical Representation of Variation of V as a Function of ln I

Calculations:

From the above graph (Fig. 4), the intercept point is,

ln Io = - 11.6

Therefore, reverse saturation current, Io = 0.91 × 10-10 A.

𝛥𝑉
The slope of the curve, 𝛥 𝑙𝑛 𝐼 = 0.037

Therefore, material constant,

𝑞 𝛥𝑉 1.602 × 10−19 ×0.037

η= = = 1.58
𝑘 𝑇 𝛥 𝑙𝑛 𝐼 1.38 × 10−23 ×290
Result:

1. The reverse saturation current of the p-n junction, Io = 0.91 × 10-10 A.

2. The material constant of a p-n junction, η = 1.58 (i.e. ̴ 2 for Si).

Precautions:

1. Ensure a proper connection of a sample of junction transistor with connecting

leads.

2. Temperature of the junction transistor should remain constant in Ex. 1.1.

3. Current through the junction transistor should be passed in smaller amounts to

avoid overheating.
EXPERIMENT 1.2

Aim: Determination of temperature coefficient of junction voltage and energy band gap.

Theory: The reverse saturation current is given by,

Io= kTm 𝑒 (−Vg)/ηV𝑇

and the diode forward current by

I = Io (𝑒 V/ηV𝑇 − 1)
≈ Io (𝑒 V/ηV𝑇 )

= kTm 𝑒 (V−Vg)/ηV𝑇

Where,

V = Junction voltage in volts

K = Boltzmann’s constant
T = Temperature of the P-N junction
for Si: m = 1.5, η= 2
for Ge: m = 2.0, η= 1
Thermal voltage, V𝑇 = kT/q

Taking logarithm of above equation,

ln I = lnk + mlnT+ (V-Vg/ηkT)

At I = constant, differentiating w.r.t T,

𝑚 𝑑 (V−Vg)q
0=0+ + 𝑑𝑡 [ ]
𝑇 ηkT

On simplifying,

𝑑𝑉 mηkT
Vg = V - T 𝑑𝑡 - 𝑞

Where slope = dV/dT is the temperature coefficient of the junction voltage and Vg is the
energy band gap.
Procedure:

1. Insert the junction transistor in the oven.

2. Vary the junction voltage knob so that the forward current is at a low value to
avoid heating.

3. Setting the forward current of 1 mA, which will remain constant throughout the
experiment.

4. The right-hand side display is now switched to temperature to read oven

temperature.

5. Switch on the oven.

6. Rotate the temperature knob and note down the voltage or a function of
temperature.

Observations:

I = 1 mA (constant for the set)

S. No. Temperature (in Kelvin) Junction Voltage (in volts)

1 305 0.690

2 313 0.682

3 320 0.666

4 328 0.653

5 336 0.635

6 344 0.628

7 353 0.613

8 360 0.604

Table 2: Junction voltage variation with temperature

Graph:

Fig.5: Graphical representation of V as a function of T

Calculations:

From the above graph (Fig. 5), the Temperature Coefficient,

dV/dT = - 0.077/48
= -1.604×10-3 V/K

Now, for silicon,

m = 1.5
η = 1.58 (as calculated in Experiment 1.1)

So,

mηkT
= 1.5 × 1.4 × 1.381 ×10-23× 305/1.6×10^-19 [At T = 305 K]
𝑞

= 0.0552 V

At T = 305 K, we have V = 0.690

Therefore,

Vg = 0.69 - {305× (-1.604×10^-3)} - 0.0552

= 1.124 ≈ 1.12 V

=> Eg = 1.1eV → Energy band gap

Result:

1. Temperature Coefficient of junction voltage, dV/dT = -1.604 × 10-3 V/K.

2. Energy band gap of the sample, Eg= 1.12 eV (i.e. for Si).

Precautions:

1. In T-I mode, make sure that the oven switch is ‘OFF’ and SET temp knob is at minimum
position before connecting the oven.

2. On each setting of temperature, allow sufficient time for the temperature to stabilized,
between 5-6 minutes.

3.Observations must be taken when the temperature is decreasing.

EXPERIMENT 1.3

Aim: Study of the depletion capacitance & its variation with reverse bias

Theory:
The measurement is based on CD (depletion capacitance) & GD (leakage resistance) of
the diode under test.

Fig.6: Circuit Diagram

The output voltages V1 & V2 at the two frequencies 1 , 2 (2 > 1) may be written as,

𝑉1 = −𝑉(𝐺𝐷 + 𝑗𝜔1 𝐶𝐷 )𝑅
𝑉2 = −𝑉(𝐺𝐷 + 𝑗𝜔2 𝐶𝐷 )𝑅

Where,

V is the input signal of same magnitude both for 1, 2.

Squaring & subtracting after taking magnitudes,

𝑉22 − 𝑉12 = 𝑉 2 𝑅 2 (𝜔22 − 𝜔12 )𝐶𝐷2

√𝑉22 − 𝑉12
𝐶𝐷 =
𝑉𝑅√𝜔22 − 𝜔12

Here,
V1 is the p-p output voltage in V at 5KHz,
V2 is the p-p output voltage in V at 20KHz
Now,
√𝑉22 − 𝑉12 √𝑉22 − 𝑉12
𝐶𝐷 = = 𝐶𝐷0
𝑉𝑅√𝜔22 − 𝜔12 𝑉

1
𝐶𝐷 =
𝑅√𝜔22 − 𝜔12

Here,

R = Feedback Resistance at The Amplifier End = 100 kΩ = 105 Ω;

ω1 = 2 π ν1 = 2 π (5×103 ) rad/s
ω2 = 2 π ν2 = 2π (20×103 ) rad/s
V = Input voltage (measured p-p) = 200mV

Substituting these values, we can obtain,

𝐶𝐷 = 0.41√𝑉22 − 𝑉12 𝑝𝐹
Observations:

Bias voltage (in V) V1 p-p (5 kHz) V2 p-p (20 kHz) CD (in pF)

0.00 225 1200 483.27

-0.50 140 760 306.26

-1.00 120 400 156.44

-2.00 80 310 122.79

-3.00 70 260 102.66

-4.00 60 225 88.90

-5.00 52 210 83.41

-7.00 45 170 67.21

-10.00 40 140 55.00

Table 3: CD variation as a function of V

Graph:

Fig.7: Graphical representation of CD as a function of V

Result: The depletion capacitance of P-N junction decreases with decrease in Bias
voltage.

Precautions:

Junction capacitance of diode/ transistor junction, the devices should be directly

connected with terminals, connections through leads would result in additional
capacitance and pick ups.