Small Mammals

For mammals, one obvious advantage of smallness in the natural environment pertains to
easy concealment from predators: by hiding rather than fleeing, a small mammal can cut back
on energy expended for locomotion – a crucial economy for hot-bodied small mammals.
Most species of small mammals are either active mainly at night or at dawn and dusk, and
therefore are faced with predation pressure more from flying predators than those on land.
However, foraging below the leaf litter, under the snow (subnivean), or in the subterranean
environment certainly reduces vulnerability to capture from above. For small mammals such
as insectivores, rodents, and small marsupials, concealing coat coloration adds additional
advantage to small size in avoiding detection from aerial predators. Also, small size affords a
wider range of available food types.  Small mammals focus their foraging on the
availability of resources to meet their energy needs.  Some small mammals, such as mice,
consume almost everything they come in contact with, including invertebrates, plant material
such as rhizomes, fruits, seeds, leaves, flowers, ferns, and fungi. 

Small size also enables small mammals to utilize microhabitats that are well insulated from
fluctuating temperatures in the ambient environment.  Small bodies can lose heat rapidly
due to their high surface-area-to-volume ratios; they must conserve energy by reducing
conductive heat loss. By living in subterranean tunnels under forest floors, below the grass
cover of prairies, or, better yet, in subnivean runways below a blanket of snow, small
mammals are able to reduce heat loss in spite of fluctuating ambient temperatures. Small size
enables these mammals to utilize microhabitats characterized by improved microclimatic
temperatures and humidities. Another advantage of being a small mammal is the high fertility
rate seen in many species. Most small mammals have short life spans, short generation times,
and high turnover rates; as a consequence, changes in the genetic composition of a population
may occur in a short time. Such mechanisms provide populations of small mammals with
resiliency and the possibility of adapting to and coping with habitat changes.

What about the disadvantages or constraints of being small? Most species of small
mammals, as noted above, have short life spans. For instance, shrews do not live more than
12 months in the wild, and most voles and mice in the temperate zones rarely make it through
two winters. Bats are an exception and tend to be long-lived for their size. Mortality in bats is
high in the first year of life and decreases rapidly over the next few years. Bats are known to
live 10 to 30 years. Brandt’s bats, found in Siberia, are reported to live up to 41 years in the
wild. For the majority of small mammals, however, short life spans prevent elaborate
socialization of young and thus limit opportunities for learning from the experiences of
adults, which are crucial for refining food-procuring abilities and avoiding predators – to

1
mention just a couple of learned behaviors. Although small mammals do have an enhanced
availability of food supplies in the wild, their rate of intake is great: many species of shrews
are known to consume more than the equivalent of their own body mass each day. However,
the major disadvantages to being small are related to the high energy cost of euthermy
(maintaining normal body temperature). In sum, the advantages of small size outweigh the
disadvantages.

Small mammals (and mammals in general) are newcomers on the evolutionary stage. They
evolved from a primitive group of reptiles (the therapsids) in the Triassic period of the
Mesozoic era, only some 230 million years ago, during the Age of Reptiles. At the end of the
Cretaceous period, about 65 million years ago, the ruling reptiles nearly became extinct. The
mammals then underwent a remarkable adaptive radiation in which new species rapidly
evolved. This led to the dominant position of mammals in the Cenozoic era. Over the past 65
million years, a time aptly called the Age of Mammals; these animals have diversified into a
great variety of ecological niches. Of the 29 orders of mammals currently recognized, 13
contain mostly small mammals. Of the 5,416 recognized species of mammals, more than 90
percent weigh less than 5 kilograms.

For mammals, one obvious advantage of smallness in the natural environment pertains to
easy concealment from predators: by hiding rather than fleeing, a small mammal can cut back
on energy expended for locomotion – a crucial economy for hot-bodied small mammals.
Most species of small mammals are either active mainly at night or at dawn and dusk, and
therefore are faced with predation pressure more from flying predators than those on land.
However, foraging below the leaf litter, under the snow (subnivean), or in the subterranean
environment certainly reduces vulnerability to capture from above. For small mammals such
as insectivores, rodents, and small marsupials, concealing coat coloration adds additional
advantage to small size in avoiding detection from aerial predators. Also, small size affords a
wider range of available food types.  Small mammals focus their foraging on the
availability of resources to meet their energy needs.  Some small mammals, such as mice,
consume almost everything they come in contact with, including invertebrates, plant material
such as rhizomes, fruits, seeds, leaves, flowers, ferns, and fungi. 
1. The word “expended” in the passage is closest in meaning to
A) saved
B) produced
C) needed
D) used

2. According to paragraph 1, all of the following help small mammals avoid detection by

2
 predators EXCEPT
A) going to a place they cannot be seen
B) searching for food under the ground surface
C) having coat colors that make it difficult to be noticed
D) focusing on a small number of food types

3. Based on paragraph 1, which of the following can be inferred about the predators of small
mammals?
A) Land predators catch small mammals more effectively during the day than at night.
B) Flying predators can easily spot small mammals moving below the leaf litter.
C) Land predators are the main source of pressure on the small mammal population.
D) Flying predators are especially well suited to catching small mammals beneath the snow.

Small size also enables small mammals to utilize microhabitats that are well insulated from
fluctuating temperatures in the ambient environment.  Small bodies can lose heat rapidly
due to their high surface-area-to-volume ratios; they must conserve energy by reducing
conductive heat loss. By living in subterranean tunnels under forest floors, below the grass
cover of prairies, or, better yet, in subnivean runways below a blanket of snow, small
mammals are able to reduce heat loss in spite of fluctuating ambient temperatures. Small size
enables these mammals to utilize microhabitats characterized by improved microclimatic
temperatures and humidities. Another advantage of being a small mammal is the high fertility
rate seen in many species. Most small mammals have short life spans, short generation times,
and high turnover rates; as a consequence, changes in the genetic composition of a population
may occur in a short time. Such mechanisms provide populations of small mammals with
resiliency and the possibility of adapting to and coping with habitat changes.
4. The word “fluctuating” in the passage is closest in meaning to
A) low
B) varying
C) harmful
D) uncomfortable

5. It can be inferred from paragraph 2 that small mammals

A) have greater need to conserve energy by reducing conductive heat loss than large
mammals do
B) are able to conserve body heat more easily than large mammals
C) have less risk from very low temperatures than large mammals do
D) are incapable of adapting to change in their environment

3
6. According to paragraph 2, all of the following contribute to the capacity of small mammals
to adapt to and cope with habitat changes EXCEPT
A) producing high numbers of young
B) being able to change the genetic composition of the population quickly
C) having the capacity to maintain a constant body temperature in above-ground habitats
D) having short generation times

What about the disadvantages or constraints of being small? Most species of small mammals,
as noted above, have short life spans. For instance, shrews do not live more than 12 months in
the wild, and most voles and mice in the temperate zones rarely make it through two winters.
Bats are an exception and tend to be long-lived for their size. Mortality in bats is high in the
first year of life and decreases rapidly over the next few years. Bats are known to live 10 to
30 years. Brandt’s bats, found in Siberia, are reported to live up to 41 years in the wild. For
the majority of small mammals, however, short life spans prevent elaborate socialization of
young and thus limit opportunities for learning from the experiences of adults, which are
crucial for refining food-procuring abilities and avoiding predators – to mention just a couple
of learned behaviors. Although small mammals do have an enhanced availability of food
supplies in the wild, their rate of intake is great: many species of shrews are known to
consume more than the equivalent of their own body mass each day. However, the major
disadvantages to being small are related to the high energy cost of euthermy (maintaining
normal body temperature). In sum, the advantages of small size outweigh the disadvantages.
7. The word “constraints” in the passage is closest in meaning to
A) differences
B) flaws
C) limitations
D) risks

8. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted
sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave
out essential information.
A) For the majority of small mammals, short life spans mean that the young have time to
learn only a few simple behaviors from adults.
B) For the majority of small mammals, searching for food and advoiding predators are
important examples of behaviors that have to be learned from adults.
C) The short lives of most small mammals limit opportunities for their young to refine
important behaviors that are learned from adults.
D) In order to learn crucial behaviors during their short life spans, most small mammals
require socialization by adults.

4
9. In paragraph 3, why does the author mention Brandt’s bats?
A) To argue that the life spans of different mammals are unrelated to their size
B) To provide an exception to the rule that small mammals generally have short lives
C) To emphasize the varying life spans of most small mammals
D) To show that some small mammals provide their young with a high degree of
socialization

Small mammals (and mammals in general) are newcomers on the evolutionary stage. They
evolved from a primitive group of reptiles (the therapsids) in the Triassic period of the
Mesozoic era, only some 230 million years ago, during the Age of Reptiles. At the end of the
Cretaceous period, about 65 million years ago, the ruling reptiles nearly became extinct. The
mammals then underwent a remarkable adaptive radiation in which new species rapidly
evolved. This led to the dominant position of mammals in the Cenozoic era. Over the past 65
million years, a time aptly called the Age of Mammals; these animals have diversified into a
great variety of ecological niches. Of the 29 orders of mammals currently recognized, 13
contain mostly small mammals. Of the 5,416 recognized species of mammals, more than 90
percent weigh less than 5 kilograms.
10. According to paragraph 4, which of the following statements about the therapids is true?
A) They first appeared 230 million years ago.
B) They gave rise to small mammals during the Triassic period.
C) They were the earliest mammals.
D) They were dominant during the Cenozoic era.

11. According to paragraph 4, which of the following statements about mammals is true?
A) They first appeared at the end of the Cretaceous period.
B) Their rapid evolution of new species at the end of the Cretaceous period led to the near
extinction of the ruling reptiles.
C) Most of the orders of mammals currently recognized consist mainly of small mammals.
D) Most of the currently recognized species of mammals weigh less than 5 kilograms.

12. Look at the four squares [] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to
the passage.

The amount of food that they eat to meet these needs may seem surprising.

Where would the sentence best fit?

5
13. Select from the seven phrases below the phrases that correctly characterize advantages of
small size for mammals and the phrases that correctly characterize disadvantages of small
size for mammals. Two of the phrases will NOT be used.

Answer Choices:
A) The ability to run faster than many of their predators
B) The kinds of food that they are able to eat
C) The rate at which they produce
D) The large amounts of food that they must eat
E) The ability to make use of microhabitats
F) A lifespan that allows old and young animals to socialize extensively
G) Their bodies’ high ratio of surface area to volume

Advantages of small size for mammals

 e
 bcbe
 g

Disadvantages of small size for mammals

 C
 f

Parental Care by Frogs

6
 Only an estimated 10 percent of anuran (frog and toad) species provide any kind of
parental care. But within this 10 percent there is very great diversity of caregiving behaviors.
The behaviors are of five basic types. The most common type is attendance of eggs. In most
cases, terrestrial eggs are attended. The other four types of parental care are transporting the
eggs, attending young frogs or tadpoles (the immature stage of a frog’s development),
transporting the tadpoles or young frogs, and feeding the tadpoles.

The term parental care is generally used for any type of parental investment in offspring
after the eggs have been deposited or the young have been born. Only a few studies have
investigated the costs and benefits of parental care in amphibians, so, while parental care
presumably increases the survivorship of the young, and usually entails a cost to the
caregiver, the costs and benefits for the vast majority of frog species that provide care to their
offspring are unknown.

How does parental care increase the survivorship of offspring? The parents may protect the
eggs from predators or disease, or they may aerate aquatic eggs. Because the terrestrial
environment is not hospitable to the porous jelly-covered eggs of amphibians or to tadpoles,
parental behaviors may be particularly beneficial in preventing drying out. In some species
the parent releases water from its bladder onto the eggs. Parents may turn the eggs, thus
preventing developmental abnormalities. In New Guinea, male frogs of some species
transport young on their backs. The tiny frogs hop off at different places in the habitat. Thus,
the young may benefit from reduced competition for food, lower predator pressure, and
reduced levels in inbreeding.

The benefits of egg attendance are best known in the Puerto Rican coqui frog. Female
coquis lay eggs in a sheltered retreat within the male’s territory, and the male attends the
eggs. To determine the benefits of egg attendance, Daniel Townsend and his colleagues
removed attending males from some clutches (groups of eggs produced at the same time) to
determine the fates of attended and unattended eggs. Unattended clutches failed more
frequently than attended clutches. The main causes of mortality of unattended clutches were
being eaten by other male coquis and drying out. Male coquis are important predators of the
eggs of other coquis, and attending males aggressively defend their retreats from intrusion by
other males. Attending males also protect their clutches from drying out.

Most amphibians do not exhibit parental care. This observation suggests that parental care
has costs to the parents that may outweigh the enhanced survival of offspring.  Reduced
reproductive output is one cost of parental care. Species that exhibit parental care usually
produce fewer eggs per clutch than related species that do not have parental care. 

7
Furthermore, time and energy spent on parental care may limit opportunities for additional
matings.  Another cost may be decreased food intake for the caring parent.  Parents
typically do not eat when they are guarding nests or eggs, and females that remain with their
clutch produce fewer clutches overall than do females that do not remain with their clutch.
Reduced rates of parental survival are another potential cost of parental care. Remaining with
the eggs could increase an individual’s vulnerability to predation. Because most amphibians
are small and have ineffective defenses against vertebrate predators, parental care could
increase the risks of the parents’ death and might not save their eggs or young.

What circumstances would favor the evolution of parental care? We would expect parental
care to evolve if a parent is able to increase offspring survival enough to offset the costs
involved. If environmental conditions are harsh, or if predation pressure on the eggs or larvae
is high, the benefits might outweigh the costs. There are some circumstances where the costs
of parental care might be minimal. For example, cost might be minimal where parents attend
offspring in hidden nest sites not readily accessible by predators. For females, if reproductive
output is already limited for other reasons, the cost of parental care might be minimal. If
females generally only produce one clutch per season, caring for that clutch might not reduce
reproductive output appreciably. Costs might be minimal for a male if he can provide care for
his offspring and at the same time defend territory and attract additional females.

Only an estimated 10 percent of anuran (frog and toad) species provide any kind of parental
care. But within this 10 percent there is very great diversity of caregiving behaviors. The
behaviors are of five basic types. The most common type is attendance of eggs. In most cases,
terrestrial eggs are attended. The other four types of parental care are transporting the eggs,
attending young frogs or tadpoles (the immature stage of a frog’s development), transporting
the tadpoles or young frogs, and feeding the tadpoles.
1. According to paragraph 1, which of the following is true of parental care in anuran species?
A) Most anuran species provide a wide variety of parental care.
B) Attendance of eggs laid on land is the most common form of parental care.
C) Tadpoles receive parental care more frequently than young frogs do.
D) Parental care is provided according to the various stages of development of offspring.

The term parental care is generally used for any type of parental investment in offspring after
the eggs have been deposited or the young have been born. Only a few studies have
investigated the costs and benefits of parental care in amphibians, so, while parental care
presumably increases the survivorship of the young, and usually entails a cost to the
caregiver, the costs and benefits for the vast majority of frog species that provide care to their

8
offspring are unknown.
2. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted
sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave
out essential information.
A) A few investigations have been carried out that show the benefits of parental care in
amphibians, and presumably parental care increases the survivorship of young frogs in
most cases.
B) Presumably parental care benefits the offspring and has costs for the parents, but the
costs and benefits are not known for the great majority of frog species.
C) Whether there are costs and benefits of providing parental care is unknown for the vast
majority of frog species that provide parental care.
D) Because there have been few investigations of parental care in amphibians, and in frogs
in particular, the vast majority of frog species that provide parental care have not been
investigated.

How does parental care increase the survivorship of offspring? The parents may protect the
eggs from predators or disease, or they may aerate aquatic eggs. Because the terrestrial
environment is not hospitable to the porous jelly-covered eggs of amphibians or to tadpoles,
parental behaviors may be particularly beneficial in preventing drying out. In some species
the parent releases water from its bladder onto the eggs. Parents may turn the eggs, thus
preventing developmental abnormalities. In New Guinea, male frogs of some species
transport young on their backs. The tiny frogs hop off at different places in the habitat. Thus,
the young may benefit from reduced competition for food, lower predator pressure, and
reduced levels in inbreeding.
3. Why does the author mention that in some frog species “Parents may turn the eggs”?
A) To illustrate a behavior of parent frogs that can prevent damage to eggs from drying out
B) To support the idea that the terrestrial environment is not hospitable to amphibian
offspring
C) To give an example of parental care that can increase the survivorship of offspring
D) To explain what happens when a parent releases water onto the eggs

4. It can be inferred from paragraph 3 that adult males of some New Guinea frog species help
their offspring survive by transporting them to locations where
A) some other animals eat the same foods that the offspring eat
B) the offspring are already familiar with the types of predators around
C) plentiful supplies of water are available
D) few or no other offspring from the same parents live

9
The benefits of egg attendance are best known in the Puerto Rican coqui frog. Female coquis
lay eggs in a sheltered retreat within the male’s territory, and the male attends the eggs. To
determine the benefits of egg attendance, Daniel Townsend and his colleagues removed
attending males from some clutches (groups of eggs produced at the same time) to determine
the fates of attended and unattended eggs. Unattended clutches failed more frequently than
attended clutches. The main causes of mortality of unattended clutches were being eaten by
other male coquis and drying out. Male coquis are important predators of the eggs of other
coquis, and attending males aggressively defend their retreats from intrusion by other males.
Attending males also protect their clutches from drying out.
5. According to paragraph 4, what is true about unattended coqui eggs?
A) They usually take more time to hatch.
B) They can be removed easily from sheltered retreats.
C) They can become too dry to survive.
D) They may be eaten by female coquis from other territories.

6. According to paragraph 4, all of the following statements are true about the Puerto Rican
coqui from EXCEPT:
A) Females lay their eggs within the male’s territory.
B) Male coquis move between clutches eggs at different locations.
C) Unattended clutches fail at a higher rate than attended clutches.
D) Male coquis are major predators of other coquis’ eggs.

Most amphibians do not exhibit parental care. This observation suggests that parental care
has costs to the parents that may outweigh the enhanced survival of offspring.  Reduced
reproductive output is one cost of parental care. Species that exhibit parental care usually
produce fewer eggs per clutch than related species that do not have parental care. 
Furthermore, time and energy spent on parental care may limit opportunities for additional
matings.  Another cost may be decreased food intake for the caring parent.  Parents
typically do not eat when they are guarding nests or eggs, and females that remain with their
clutch produce fewer clutches overall than do females that do not remain with their clutch.
Reduced rates of parental survival are another potential cost of parental care. Remaining with
the eggs could increase an individual’s vulnerability to predation. Because most amphibians
are small and have ineffective defenses against vertebrate predators, parental care could
increase the risks of the parents’ death and might not save their eggs or young.
7. The word “potential” in the passage is closest in meaning to
A) identified
B) possible
C) common

10
 D) obvious

8. According to paragraph 5, providing parental care is associated with which of the

following?
A) More clutches produced per female
B) Less danger to parents from predators
C) More food needed by caregiving parents
D) Fewer eggs produced per clutch

9. According to paragraph 5, what is the relationship between predation and parental care in
amphibians?
A) Parental care reliably protects amphibian eggs and young from predators.
B) Parental care could increase the risk of amphibian parents being killed by predators.
C) Parental care prevents amphibian young from developing their own defenses against
predators.
D) Parental care results in the development of more effective defense strategies in adult
amphibians.

What circumstances would favor the evolution of parental care? We would expect parental
care to evolve if a parent is able to increase offspring survival enough to offset the costs
involved. If environmental conditions are harsh, or if predation pressure on the eggs or larvae
is high, the benefits might outweigh the costs. There are some circumstances where the costs
of parental care might be minimal. For example, cost might be minimal where parents attend
offspring in hidden nest sites not readily accessible by predators. For females, if reproductive
output is already limited for other reasons, the cost of parental care might be minimal. If
females generally only produce one clutch per season, caring for that clutch might not reduce
reproductive output appreciably. Costs might be minimal for a male if he can provide care for
his offspring and at the same time defend territory and attract additional females.
10. The word “harsh” in the passage is closest in meaning to
A) unpredictable
B) severe
C) unusual
D) disturbed

11. The word “appreciably” in the passage is closest in meaning to

A) significantly
B) permanently
C) necessarily

11
 D) immediately

12. According to paragraph 6, the cost of parental care is minimal in all the following
circumstances EXCEPT
A) when nests where care is provided cannot be easily reached by predators
B) when reproductive output is limited by reasons other than by providing parental care
C) when females produce many groups of eggs per season
D) when a male can defend territory and attract additional females when providing care

13. Look at the four squares [] that indicate where the following sentence could be added
to the passage.

Caring parents might experience difficulties in different areas of their lives.

Where would the sentence best fit?

14. Prose Summary

In amphibians, any type of parental investment in offspring after the eggs have been
deposited counts as parental care.

Answer Choices:
A) Among the 10 percent of frog and toad species that provide parental care, there is a great
variety of care involving the attending, guarding, and transporting of the eggs or young.
B) The fact that few amphibians provide parental care suggests that the survival and
reproductive costs of providing the care generally outweigh the evolutionary benefits
of having more young survive.
C) The benefits of parental care have been demonstrated in the case of the attending of eggs
by male coqui frogs, but for most species the costs and benefits are unknown.
D) Since amphibian eggs lose water easily and would die if they were to dry out, covering
the eggs to protect them is a major form of parental care among land-dwelling frogs.
E) Because the survival rate of young is greater when the eggs and young are cared for,
frogs that provide parental care do not need to have large clutches of eggs or to
reproduce frequently.
F) Parental care has evolved in those frogs, coqui frogs for example, where there are few
vertebrate predators, easily available food, and hiding places that parents can provide
the young.

12
 The Idea of Continental Drift

For many centuries people thought that Earth was stable and unchanging. But this view
could not have been further from the truth. As early as 1596, Dutch mapmaker Abraham
Ortelius pondered the fact that the coasts of Africa and Europe would fit closely against the
Americas on the other side of the Atlantic and proposed that they might have been joined at
one time. Supporting evidence mounted over the centuries. Coal deposits and other
geological features were found to be similar in Africa and the Americas, and fossils of the
extinct reptile Mesosaurus have been found both along the west coast of southern Africa and
the east coast of South America. In 1912 a German scientist called Alfred Wegener collated
all this evidence and proposed the idea of continental drift. He suggested that there used to be
one supercontinent, which he named Pangaea, and that in geological time this continent had
broken apart, its various pieces separating out to their modern-day positions. At first, his
ideas were received with skepticism because there was no known mechanism by which
continents drift could occur. It wasn’t until the late 1960s that the mechanism was found and
his ideas were truly accepted.

After the Second World War, the use of sonar revolutionized surveys of the sea floor,
making accurate mapping of the ocean basins possible. Far from finding merely the flat
plains previously imagined, scientists discovered gigantic mountain ranges, isolated
seamounts, and deep trenches. The mid-ocean ridge is by far the largest geological feature on
Earth, but it had remained unknown and hidden from human observation except for what are
in fact glimpses of its mountains that here and there break the sea’s surface as islands. It was
the mapping of a great mid-ocean mountain range that, incredibly, extends through all the
ocean basins that was the key to understanding continental drift.

As geologists began to investigate part of the range that extends up the Atlantic (the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge), they found evidence that the ocean floor was spreading apart, thus
supporting Wegener’s idea of continental drift.  Rocks near the center of the ridge were
younger than those further away.  Moreover, the further away from the ridge the geologists
looked, the more overlying sediment there was, suggesting the rocks beneath had been there
longer.  The final piece of evidence came when the magnetism of the rocks was examined.
 Every so often, in geological time, Earth’s magnetic field reverses its polarity so that the
magnetic north switched to the south. Magnetic particles in molten rock align themselves to
the new direction. Geologists found a series of bands or strips of alternating magnetic polarity
in the rocks of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, each one signifying a change in Earth’s polarity.

13
These bands run parallel to each other along the length of the ridge. They also discovered that
the series of bands on either side of the ridge are mirror images of each other. Here, then, was
the evidence that continents were moving apart. Wegener’s theory was accepted.

It is now recognized that the surface of Earth’s is divided into 13 major plates and a
number of smaller ones. The undersea mountain ranges are along edges of these plates. The
plates float on top of the partially molten layer of the mantle, which is the inner part of the
planet between the rocky part (the lithosphere) and the core. Some of these plates carry
continents, but others are purely oceanic. Those that do carry continents are responsible for
continental drift. Continents move at the same rate as the plates are moving apart or together
– 2 centimeters per year in the Atlantic and 18 centimeters per year in the eastern Pacific. It is
thought that currents within the fluid rock of the mantle below cause the plates to move. The
plates, which are 50 – 100 kilometers thick, consist of the surface crust of Earth and a part of
the upper mantle, both of which are rock. The crust part varies in nature. Continental crust, or
land, is thicker (30 – 40 km) but less dense than oceanic crust (only 6 km). This difference in
density accounts for the oceans themselves. Despite being thinner, the denser oceanic crust
floats lower in the liquid rock of the mantle than the lighter continental crust. Water flows by
gravity to the lower areas, thus creating the oceans.

For many centuries people thought that Earth was stable and unchanging. But this view could
not have been further from the truth. As early as 1596, Dutch mapmaker Abraham Ortelius
pondered the fact that the coasts of Africa and Europe would fit closely against the Americas
on the other side of the Atlantic and proposed that they might have been joined at one time.
Supporting evidence mounted over the centuries. Coal deposits and other geological features
were found to be similar in Africa and the Americas, and fossils of the extinct reptile
Mesosaurus have been found both along the west coast of southern Africa and the east coast
of South America. In 1912 a German scientist called Alfred Wegener collated all this
evidence and proposed the idea of continental drift. He suggested that there used to be one
supercontinent, which he named Pangaea, and that in geological time this continent had
broken apart, its various pieces separating out to their modern-day positions. At first, his
ideas were received with skepticism because there was no known mechanism by which
continents drift could occur. It wasn’t until the late 1960s that the mechanism was found and
his ideas were truly accepted.
1. The word “mounted” in the passage is closest in meaning to
A) appeared
B) became clear
C) was considered
D) grew

14
2. Why does the author point out that “fossils of the extinct reptile Mesosaurus have been
found both along the west coast of southern Africa and the east coast of South America”?
A) To provide an example of the type of evidence Ortelius used to support his theory
B) To explain why the theory of continental drift had become well known in the centuries
after Ortelius
C) To imply that Wegener was not a particularly original scientist
D) To provide an example of supporting evidence for the idea that the continents fit together
at one time

3. The word “collated” in the passage is closest in meaning to

A) appreciated
B) explained
C) assembled
D) identified

4. Which for the following is mentioned in paragraph 1 as evidence supporting the idea that
southern Africa and South America were once joined?
A) The awareness that Earth was no longer stable and unchanging
B) The fact that both southern Africa and South America were once parts of Pangaea
C) The geologic similarity of the opposite coasts of the Atlantic
D) The slow movement of these land areas away from each other

5. According to paragraph 1, which of the following was the most important reason why
Wegener’s ideas were accepted?
A) The coasts of Africa and Europe would fit closely with the Americas on the other side of
the Atlantic.
B) Similar coal deposits and geological features were found in Africa and the Americas.
C) Fossils of the extinct reptile Mesosaurus were found in southern Africa and eastern South
America
D) The mechanism that had caused the pieces of Pangaea to move apart was discovered.

After the Second World War, the use of sonar revolutionized surveys of the sea floor, making
accurate mapping of the ocean basins possible. Far from finding merely the flat plains
previously imagined, scientists discovered gigantic mountain ranges, isolated seamounts, and
deep trenches. The mid-ocean ridge is by far the largest geological feature on Earth, but it had
remained unknown and hidden from human observation except for what are in fact glimpses
of its mountains that here and there break the sea’s surface as islands. It was the mapping of a

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great mid-ocean mountain range that, incredibly, extends through all the ocean basins that
was the key to understanding continental drift.
6. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted
sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave
out essential information.
A) Earth’s largest geological feature remained hidden until it was glimpsed, here and there,
beneath the oceans’ islands.
B) The mid-ocean mountain range, Earth’s largest geological feature, was undiscovered
because it is visible only where its peaks appear about the sea surface as islands.
C) The mid-ocean ridge remains unobservable except for brief periods of time when
mountains can be glimpsed above the sea’s surface.
D) It is now known that Earth’s islands are in fact created when the mid-ocean mountain
range is so high that it breaks the sea’s surface.

7. The word “incredibly” in the passage is closest in meaning to

A) amazingly
B) probably
C) progressively
D) essentially

As geologists began to investigate part of the range that extends up the Atlantic (the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge), they found evidence that the ocean floor was spreading apart, thus
supporting Wegener’s idea of continental drift.  Rocks near the center of the ridge were
younger than those further away.  Moreover, the further away from the ridge the geologists
looked, the more overlying sediment there was, suggesting the rocks beneath had been there
longer.  The final piece of evidence came when the magnetism of the rocks was examined.
 Every so often, in geological time, Earth’s magnetic field reverses its polarity so that the
magnetic north switched to the south. Magnetic particles in molten rock align themselves to
the new direction. Geologists found a series of bands or strips of alternating magnetic polarity
in the rocks of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, each one signifying a change in Earth’s polarity.
These bands run parallel to each other along the length of the ridge. They also discovered that
the series of bands on either side of the ridge are mirror images of each other. Here, then, was
the evidence that continents were moving apart. Wegener’s theory was accepted.
8. According to paragraph 3, all of the following provided geologists with essential evidence
about the widening of the ocean floor in the Atlantic Ocean EXCEPT
A) measurements showing an increase in the distance between the continents on either side
of the Atlantic Ocean
B) the comparatively young age of rocks close to the Mid-Atlantic Ridge

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 C) the increase in sediment with increasing distance from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
D) the periodic reversal of the magnetic polarity of rocks on the Atlantic sea floor

It is now recognized that the surface of Earth’s is divided into 13 major plates and a number
of smaller ones. The undersea mountain ranges are along edges of these plates. The plates
float on top of the partially molten layer of the mantle, which is the inner part of the planet
between the rocky part (the lithosphere) and the core. Some of these plates carry continents,
but others are purely oceanic. Those that do carry continents are responsible for continental
drift. Continents move at the same rate as the plates are moving apart or together – 2
centimeters per year in the Atlantic and 18 centimeters per year in the eastern Pacific. It is
thought that currents within the fluid rock of the mantle below cause the plates to move. The
plates, which are 50 – 100 kilometers thick, consist of the surface crust of Earth and a part of
the upper mantle, both of which are rock. The crust part varies in nature. Continental crust, or
land, is thicker (30 – 40 km) but less dense than oceanic crust (only 6 km). This difference in
density accounts for the oceans themselves. Despite being thinner, the denser oceanic crust
floats lower in the liquid rock of the mantle than the lighter continental crust. Water flows by
gravity to the lower areas, thus creating the oceans.
9. The phrase “accounts for” in the passage is closest in meaning to
A) involves
B) explains
C) describes
D) confirms

10. Which of the following facts about the ocean is directly explained in paragraph 4?
A) Why oceans cover a larger area of Earth’s surface than continental crust does
B) Why oceanic crust is denser than continental crust
C) Why oceans form where they do
D) Why oceanic crust is thinner than continental crust

11. Paragraph 4 supports which TWO of the following statements about differences between
oceanic crust and continental crust? To receive credit, you must select TWO answers.
A) Oceanic crust is denser than continental crust.
B) Oceanic crust is not as thick as continental crust.
C) Oceanic crust contains part of the upper mantle but continental crust does not.
D) Oceanic crust floats in liquid rock but continental crust does not.

12. Which of the following questions is NOT answered by paragraph 4?

A) Where is the lithosphere located in relationship to the other layers of Earth?

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 B) How is it possible for the speed of currents within the fluid rock of the mantle to vary
from one location to another?
C) Which type of plate is responsible for continental drift?
D) How many major plates make up the surface of Earth?

13. Look at the four squares [] that indicate where the following sentence could be added
to the passage.

For example, the age of seafloor rock varied in relation to its distance from the ridge.

Where would the sentence best fit?

14. Prose Summary

It was noted hundreds of years ago that the complementary shapes of the continents suggest
that the continents were once fitted together as a single landmass.

Answer Choices:
A) The shape of the coasts of Africa and Asia proves beyond question that these lands once
formed an immense continent, now called Pangaea.
B) In 1912 Alfred Wegener proposed that the continents move, but he could not explain
how this movement occurred.
C) Studies of a great mountain range in the Atlantic Ocean prove that the continents of
Africa and America are moving apart.
D) Continental drift is caused by the interaction of magnetic particles in the mantle with
Earth’s reversing magnetic field.
E) Earth’s surface is composed of separate rocky plates that float and move in the molten
mantle below them.
F) The crust of the continents is both thicker and much more dense than the oceanic crust.

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