Ch.

5 Photosynthesis
○1 Photosynthesis

- The process which plants, algae and certain bacteria use simple inorganic
substances to make organic food.
- Captures light energy and converts it into chemical energy, which is
stored as organic substances in the body.
- Takes place in chloroplast which contains chlorophyll.
- Anabolic process.
- Overall equation of photosynthesis:
Light energy
CO2 + H2O Chlorophyll
Glucose + Oxygen

○2 Significance of photosynthesis

□1 Provide basic food source, maintain energy flow of ecosystem

- Plants make carbohydrates, proteins and lipids from the 1intermediates of

photosynthesis and 2minerals from the soil.
- Plants are producers: light energy → chemical energy
- Many organisms depend directly or indirectly on plants for food.
- Chemical energy stored in plants is transferred to organisms at higher
trophic level through feeding.
Note that
Energy will eventually lost from ecosystem as the plant respire or die.

□2 Maintain balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide in atmosphere

- Organisms continuously take in O2 for respiration and release CO2.

Note that
Plants respire continuously before they die, even under light.
- Human activities (e.g. combustion of fuel) uses O2 and release CO2.
- Plants intake CO2 and release O2 by photosynthesis.
3 Glucose
○
- Functions: 1. Source of energy for metabolism
2. Make structural biopolymer
(Plants: make cellulose; Fungi: make chitin)
3. Stored in fruit as sucrose
4. Stored in seeds as fats
- Plants usually store starch rather than glucose
1. Starch can be converted to glucose easily
2. Starch won’t affect water concentration inside cells
3. Starch won’t move away from the storage areas
Note that
Glucose is water soluble while starch isn’t.
4 Requirements for photosynthesis to happen
○
- Light - Water
- Carbon dioxide - Chlorophyll
(absorbs red and blue-violet light)

○5 Adaptation of plants to photosynthesis

Leaves
- Site with the most chloroplast.
- Adapted to bring together 1light, 2CO2 and 3water while removing 1O2
and 2food produced.
Light absorption:
◻ Leaf blade is broad and flat
(large surface area for absorbing light energy, light easily reach photosynthetic cells)
◻ Leaves are arranged (leaf mosaic)
(Less overlapping of leaves)
◻ Midrib & network of veins found on leaves (Source: Radical Botany)

(support & maintain shape of leaf, so the leaves face light source)
◻ Palisade mesophyll is located on the upper part of leaf
(Directly exposed to the light source)

Gaseous exchange:
◻ Leaves are thin
(shorten diffusion distance for CO2 from lower part of the leaf to palisade mesophyll)
◻ Spongy mesophyll are loosely packed
(creates air spaces for gases to diffuse freely between the atmosphere and the cells)
◻ Epidermis contains numerous stomata
(allows passage of gases and water vapour to and out of leaf)
◻ Epidermis contains guard cells
(opens when conditions are favourable; close when conditions are less favourable)

Transport of substances:
◻ Midrib and veins contains vascular bundles (xylem and phloem)
(xylem: transport water and minerals to leaf; phloem: transport photosynthetic
products away from leaf)
◻ Dense network of veins found on leaves
(efficient transport of materials)
(Source: kyoshino)

Reduce water loss:

◻ Upper epidermis & lower epidermis are covered by thin, waxy cuticle
(reduce water loss by vaporization)
◻ Upper epidermis has fewer stomata (*for terrestrial plants)
(reduce water loss by vaporization)
◻ Guard cells are present to control size of stomata
Chloroplasts

Thylakoid membrane

Stroma

(Source: studyandscore.com)

Inner membrane - Give rise to flattened membrane sacs: thylakoid.

Stroma - Jelly-like fluid.
- Contains enzymes which catalyse photosynthesis.
Thylakoid - Contains chlorophyll.
Thylakoid membrane - Tubular extensions.
- Transport photosynthetic products.
Grana - A chloroplast has about 50 grana, each contains about 100 thylakoids.
- A stack of thylakoids has large surface area for light absorption and
allows more chlorophyll to be stored.
Starch grain - Temporary storage of photosynthetic products.

○6 Photosynthesis

- Photosynthesis consists of 1photochemical reactions and 2carbon fixation.

Photochemical reactions
- Requires light
- Take place in thylakoid membranes where chlorophyll is present.
Δ Absorption of light
Chlorophyll molecule absorbs light energy
↓
Energy is transported to an electron
Electron is raised to higher energy levels (excited)
↓
Excited electron is emitted from chlorophyll molecule
↓
Passes through a series of electron carriers of decreasing energy
levels (electron transport chain) in thylakoid membrane
(Energy released)

Photophosphorylation Photolysis of water

 Δ Photophosphorylation
- Energy released by the excited electron is used to produce adenosine
triphosphate (ATP).
Adenine Adenine
Light Energy
P P + P P P P
Ribose Chlorophyll Ribose

Adenosine diphosphate Phosphate group Adenosine triphosphate

Δ Photolysis of water
- Energy released by the excited electron is used to split water molecules:
2H2O 4H+ + 4e- + O2
- The electrons produced replace the lost electrons in chlorophyll.
- Hydrogen ion is taken up by hydrogen acceptor: NADP to form NADPH.
- Oxygen is released as by-product.
Summary of photochemical reactions:
1 Light energy absorbed by chlorophyll
○

2 ATP generated by
○
-
e ADP + P ATP
e - e-
3 Photolysis of
○
2H2O 4H+ + 4e- + O2

NADP + H+ NADPH

C C C C C CO2 fixation

5-C compound
Enzyme CO2
Carbon fixation
- Does not require light (light-independent). C C C C C C

- Takes place in stroma as it needs enzymes. 6-C compound (unstable)

- Requires ATP and NADPH. The reaction stops

if there is no ATP and NADPH which can be C C C ×2
used up quickly. 3-C compound Reduction of 3-C compound
Formation of glucose
NADPH
- A cyclic series of reaction (Calvin cycle): NADP
ATP
1 CO2 fixation, forming 3-C compound ADP + P
□
2 Reduction of 3-C compound, forming
C C C ×2
□
Triose phosphate Regeneration of CO2 acceptor
triosephosphate
□3 Regeneration of CO2 acceptor NADPH
NADP Glucose (6-C compound)

C C C C C
5-C compound
 Summary of Calvin cycle (formation of 1 glucose molecule):

6 CO2
O C O

Enzyme CO2 fixation

6 5-C compound 12 3-C compound

C C C C C C C C

12 ATP
6 ADP + 6 P 12 ADP + 12 P
6 ATP Reduction of 3-C compound,
Regeneration of carbon dioxide aceptor 12 NADPH
forming triosephosphate
12 NADP

10 Triose phosphate Calvin cycle 12 Triose phosphate

C C C C C C

2 Triose phosphate
C C C

Glucose
C C C C C C

Overall products:
1 Glucose
6 CO2 → 12 NADP
18 ADP
Summary of photosynthesis:

Photochemical

Glucose
(Source: thelessonlocker)

7 Synthesis of carbohydrates
○

Triose phosphate Glucose Starch Sucrose

Main source of energy
Synthesis of cellulose phloem
Temporary storage of
photosynthetic products
Stored in toots or
storage organs

○8 Synthesis of lipids

- Glycerol & fatty acids are formed from intermediates of photosynthesis.

- Act as food reserves.
- Component of cell membranes.

○9 Synthesis of proteins

- Amino acids is formed from intermediates of photosynthesis and minerals.

- For growth and repair.
- Components of cytoplasm and cell membranes.
- Make enzymes.
10 Factors affecting photosynthetic rate
○
Light intensity
- In dark, photosynthesis doesn’t happen as no ATP and NADPH is formed.
- Initially, light intensity↑, photosynthetic rate ↑.
- Photosynthetic rate levels off as light intensity reached saturation point.
(some other factors, e.g. CO2 concentration, become limiting factors)

Saturation point

CO2 concentration
- CO2 concentration↑, photosynthetic rate ↑.
- Under normal conditions, CO2 concentration is the major factor limiting
the photosynthetic rate.
High CO2 concentration

Low CO2 concentration

Temperature
- Temperature↑, photosynthetic rate ↑ (metabolic rate ↑).
- If temperature is too high, enzymes denatures and photosynthetic rate ↓ .

11 Relationship between respiration and photosynthesis

○
- Both are important metabolic pathways.
- 1Recycle material and maintain 2energy flow of ecosystem.

(Source: bioninja)
12 Photosynthesis Vs respiration
○

Photosynthesis Respiration
1. Anabolic process 1. Catabolic process
2. Occurs in chloroplast 2. Occurs in mitochondrion
3. Raw materials: CO2 & Water 3. Raw materials: Organic food & O2
4. End products: carbohydrates & O2 4. End products: CO2 & Water
6. Activation process: 6. Activation process:
Activated through absorption of light Glucose molecules activated by ATP
7. High energy intermediates: 7. High energy intermediates:
Excited electron emitted from activated Activated glucose molecules broken
chlorophyll down into ATP, NADH & FADH
8. ATP formed by oxidative
8. ATP formed by photophosphorylation
phosphorylation
9. Electron eventually accepted by 9. Electron eventually accepted by
NADP to form NADPH oxygen to form water
9. Involve conversion of energy from one to another
(Photosynthesis: Light → Chemical; Respiration: Chemical → ATP & Heat)
10. Requires mechanisms for the exchange of O 2 & CO2
11. Involve cyclic reactions
(Photosynthesis: Calvin cycle; Respiration: Krebs cycle)
12. ATP act as energy carrier