Page 1 of 80

MA1201 Calculus and Basic Linear Algebra II

Chapter 4
Vector Algebra
 Page 2 of 80

Introduction
We use numbers (real numbers) to describe a lot of things (e.g. temperature, price of
products, your GPA, your achievement in Candy Crush Saga etc.) in our real life. Most
of these quantities are just a single number (also called scalar).
Sometimes, a single number may not be enough to describe certain things. When
people study force in Physics, they are also interested in the direction of the force
besides its magnitude. Here are some examples:
1. Force

2. Magnetic Field
 Page 3 of 80

3. Gravitational force of earth 𝐺⃗ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧):

 Page 4 of 80

In order to describe the above phenomena precisely, one has to develop a notation
which can describe the magnitude and the direction of the force at the same time.
This notation is called vectors.
Definition (Vectors)
A vector is a directed line segment joining two points 𝐴 and 𝐵. We denote
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ or 𝑎⃗.
a vector as 𝐴𝐵 𝐵

 Here, 𝐴 is called an initial point and 𝐵 is called a terminal point. These two
points are used to indicate the direction of the vector.
 The magnitude of the vector, denoted by |𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| or |𝑎⃗|, is defined as the length
of the segment 𝐴𝐵.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ≠ 𝐵𝐴
 One has to be careful that 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗. These two vectors are different in
direction although they are the same in magnitude.
 Page 5 of 80

Some terminologies about vectors

1. Equality of vectors (comparison of two vectors)
We say two vectors 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are equal if they both have the same magnitude
and direction.

Note:
Since the vector only records the direction and magnitude. It is possible that two
vectors at different position are equal. For example: the vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 and 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
shown below are equal since they both have magnitude 2 and same direction
(pointing to the east).
2
𝐴 𝐵

2
𝑃 𝑄
 Page 6 of 80

2. Zero vector (denoted by 𝟎 ⃗⃗)

Zero vector is a vector which has magnitude 0.
 Geometrically, it is simply a point in a plane.
 It does not have any direction.

3. “Negative” of a vector
The negative of a vector 𝑎⃗, denoted by −𝑎⃗, is a vector having the same
magnitude as 𝑎⃗ but opposite direction to 𝑎⃗.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −𝐴𝐵
Example: 𝐵𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

2
𝑎⃗ 𝐴 𝐵
−𝑎⃗
2
𝐴 𝐵
 Page 7 of 80

4. Scalar multiplication of a vector

Given a vector 𝑎⃗ and a scalar number 𝑐,
 If 𝑐 > 0, the vector 𝑐𝑎⃗ has the magnitude 𝑐 |𝑎⃗| and the direction is the
same as that of 𝑎⃗.
 If 𝑐 < 0, the vector 𝑐𝑎⃗ has the magnitude −𝑐|𝑎⃗| and the direction is
opposite to that of 𝑎⃗.
𝑎⃗
2𝑎⃗
−2𝑎⃗

5. Addition of vectors
Let 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ be two vectors, we define the sum 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ to be the vector from
the tail of 𝑎⃗ to the tip of 𝑏⃗⃗, i.e. ,
𝑎⃗ 𝑏⃗⃗

𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗
 Page 8 of 80

Remark of 5
Alternatively, one can interpret the sum 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ as follows
𝑏⃗⃗
𝑎⃗ 𝑎⃗ 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ 𝑎⃗

𝑏⃗⃗ 𝑏⃗⃗
This is known as parallelogram law.

6. Subtraction of vectors
We define the difference 𝑎⃗ − 𝑏⃗⃗ to be 𝑎⃗ − 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑎⃗ + (−𝑏⃗⃗).
−𝑏⃗⃗
−𝑏⃗⃗
𝑏⃗⃗
𝑏⃗⃗

𝑎⃗ 𝑎⃗ − 𝑏⃗⃗ 𝑎⃗
 Page 9 of 80

7. Unit Vector (denoted by 𝒂 ̂)

It is the vector with magnitude 1. It is often used to describe the direction of a
vector ONLY.

For any vector 𝑎⃗ ≠ ⃗0⃗, one can express 𝑎⃗ in the following form:
𝑎⃗
𝑎⃗ = |⏟
𝑎⃗| × .
|⏟
𝑎⃗ |
magnitude
unit direction of 𝑎⃗⃗
In other word, any non-zero vector can be expressed as the product of a
magnitude (number) and a direction (a unit vector).
 Page 10 of 80

Example 1

We let 𝑎⃗ ≠ ⃗0⃗ be a vector with magnitude 5. Using the definition of vector,

(a) find the magnitude of the vectors 5𝑎⃗ and −2𝑎⃗.
(b) We let 𝑏⃗⃗ be another vector having the magnitude 3 and its direction is the
same to that of 𝑎⃗. Express 𝑏⃗⃗ in terms of 𝑎⃗.
Solution of (a)
The magnitude of 5𝑎⃗ is 5 × |⏟
𝑎⃗| = 25 and the magnitude of −2𝑎⃗ is 2 × |𝑎⃗| = 10.
=5

Solution of (b)
𝑎⃗⃗ 1
Note that the unit vector of 𝑎⃗ (direction of 𝑎⃗) is |𝑎⃗⃗|
= 𝑎⃗, then
5

1 3
𝑏⃗⃗ = ⏟
3 × ( 𝑎⃗) = 𝑎⃗.
magnitude
⏟5 5
unit direction
 Page 11 of 80

Mathematical representation of a vector

In this section, we will discuss how to present a vector mathematically in ℝ2 and
ℝ3 . In particular, given the coordinates of two points 𝐴 and 𝐵, we would like to
express the vector 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ in terms of the coordinates of 𝐴 and 𝐵.

The vector in 2D-space ℝ2

The analysis is divided into three steps:
Step 1: 2 fundamental vectors
We define 𝑖⃗ and 𝑗⃗ to be two orthogonal (perpendicular to each other) unit vectors
in the directions of the positive 𝑥, 𝑦 axes respectively.
𝑦

𝑗⃗

1
𝑖⃗ 𝑥
0 1
 Page 12 of 80

Step 2: Position Vectors

Let 𝑃 = (𝑥, 𝑦) be a point in 2D-plane, the position vector of 𝑃, denoted by ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃, is
defined as the vector from the origin 𝑂 = (0, 0) to the point 𝑃.
Using the fundamental vectors and the graph below, one can express the position
vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 as
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 = 𝑥𝑖⃗ + 𝑦𝑗⃗
𝑦
𝑃 = (𝑥, 𝑦)

𝑦𝑗⃗ 𝑦𝑗⃗

𝑥
0 𝑥𝑖⃗
 Page 13 of 80

Step 3: Define vector in 2D plane

We let 𝐴 = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝐵 = (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) be two points in a plane. Using vector
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗) is found to be
addition, the vector from 𝐴 to 𝐵 (𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝑂 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵 = −𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵 = −(𝑥1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑦1 𝑗⃗) + (𝑥2 𝑖⃗ + 𝑦2 𝑗⃗)
= (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝑖⃗ + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )𝑗⃗.
𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑂 = −𝑂𝐴

𝐵
𝑂 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵
 Page 14 of 80

The vectors in 3D-space ℝ3

Given the coordinates of two points 𝐴 = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and 𝐵 = (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) in 3D-
space, one can use similar method to express the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵.
Step 1: 3 fundamental vectors

We let 𝑖⃗, 𝑗⃗, 𝑘⃗⃗ to be three orthogonal (perpendicular to each other) unit vectors in
the directions of the positive 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 axes respectively.
𝑧

𝑘⃗⃗

𝑗⃗ 𝑦
𝑂
𝑖⃗
𝑥
 Page 15 of 80

Step 2: Position
Vectors
Let 𝑃 = (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧). The position vector of 𝑃 is defined as the vector from the origin
𝑂 = (0, 0, 0) to 𝑃 and is given by

𝑂𝑃 = 𝑥𝑖⃗ + 𝑦𝑗⃗ + 𝑧𝑘⃗⃗.

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

Step 3: Define vector in 3D plane

Given the coordinates of two points 𝐴 = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and 𝐵 = (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ), then

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ can be expressed as
the vector 𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝑂 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵 = −𝑂𝐴 𝑂𝐵 = −(𝑥1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑦1 𝑗⃗ + 𝑧1 𝑘⃗⃗) + (𝑥2 𝑖⃗ + 𝑦2 𝑗⃗ + 𝑧2 𝑘⃗⃗)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝑖⃗ + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )𝑗⃗ + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )𝑘⃗⃗.
 Page 16 of 80

Previously, we define the equality of vector, sum of vectors, scalar multiplication of

vectors, unit vectors etc., in an intuitive way. We shall restate those statements in a
mathematical way. We summarize the result as follows:
Properties of vectors

Let 𝑎⃗ = 𝑥1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑦1 𝑗⃗ + 𝑧1 𝑘⃗⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑥2 𝑖⃗ + 𝑦2 𝑗⃗ + 𝑧2 𝑘⃗⃗ be two vectors, then we have

1. Equality of vectors

𝑎⃗ = 𝑏⃗⃗ ⇒ 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 = 𝑦2 , 𝑧1 = 𝑧2 .
2. Zero Vector
⃗0⃗ = 0𝑖⃗ + 0𝑗⃗ + 0𝑘⃗⃗

3. Addition and Subtraction of vectors

𝑎⃗ ± 𝑏⃗⃗ = (𝑥1 ± 𝑥2 )𝑖⃗ + (𝑦1 ± 𝑦2 )𝑗⃗ + (𝑧1 ± 𝑧2 )𝑘⃗⃗.

 Page 17 of 80

4. Scalar multiplication

𝑐𝑎⃗ = 𝑐𝑥1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑐𝑦1 𝑗⃗ + 𝑐𝑧1 𝑘⃗⃗.

5. Magnitude of 𝑎⃗

|𝑎⃗| = √𝑥12 + 𝑦12 + 𝑧12 .

6. Unit Vector of 𝑎⃗
𝑎⃗ 𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑧1
= 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗.
|𝑎⃗| √𝑥 2
⏟ +𝑦 +𝑧
2 2 √𝑥 2
⏟ +𝑦 +𝑧
2 2 √𝑥 2
⏟ +𝑦 +𝑧
2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽 cos 𝛾

where 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 are the angles between 𝑎⃗ and the positive 𝑥-axis, 𝑦-axis, 𝑧-axis,
respectively and cos 𝛼, cos 𝛽, cos 𝛾 are called direction cosines.
Remark
All these properties can be proved using the definition of vectors in pp. 4-15.
Although these properties are intuitive, it requires certain level of mathematical
argument.
 Page 18 of 80

Example 2
Let 𝑃 = (1, 2, −4) and 𝑄 = (3, −2, 1) be two points in ℝ3 .
(a) Find ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 .
(b) Find a vector 𝑎⃗ which has magnitude 3 and direction is opposite to that of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 .
Solution

⏟ ⃗ − 2𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗) − (𝑖
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (3𝑖
(a) 𝑃𝑄 ⏟⃗ + 2𝑗⃗ − 4𝑘⃗⃗) = 2𝑖⃗ − 4𝑗⃗ + 5𝑘⃗⃗.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
2𝑖⃗−4𝑗⃗+5𝑘
(b) The unit vector of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ̂ = 𝑃𝑄 =
𝑃𝑄 is given by 𝑃𝑄 =
2
𝑖⃗ −
4
𝑗⃗ +
5
𝑘⃗⃗.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
|𝑃𝑄 √22 +(−4)2 +52 √ 45 √ 45 √45
Thus the vector 𝑎⃗ is then given by
2 4 5
𝑎⃗ = ⏟
3 ⏟ ̂)
(−𝑃𝑄 = 3 (− 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ − 𝑘⃗⃗ )
magnitude direction
√45 √45 √45
(opposite to ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄)
6 12 15
=− 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ − 𝑘⃗⃗
√45 √45 √45
 Page 19 of 80

Example 3
Let 𝐿 be a straight line passing through 𝑃1 = (3, 2, 3) and 𝑃2 = (0, 2, 7). Let 𝑃 be
a point on 𝐿 that is NOT on the line segment 𝑃1 𝑃2 and is 2 units from 𝑃2 .
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(a) Find the vector 𝑃 1 𝑃.
(b) Hence, find the coordinates of 𝑃.

𝑃1
𝑃2
𝑃

𝑂
IDEA of (a)
To find the vector 𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
1 𝑃, we need to know its magnitude (which is the length
of |𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
1 𝑃2 | + 2) as well as its direction (same as that of 𝑃1 𝑃2 )
 Page 20 of 80

Solution of (a):
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Note that 𝑃 ⏟ ⃗ + 7𝑘⃗⃗) − (3𝑖
1 𝑃2 = (2𝑗 ⏟ ⃗ + 2𝑗⃗ + 3𝑘⃗⃗) = −3𝑖⃗ + 4𝑘⃗⃗.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃1

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃1 𝑃2 3 4
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Then |𝑃 2 2 2 ̂
1 𝑃2 | = √(−3) + (0) + 4 = 5 and 𝑃1 𝑃2 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= − 𝑖⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗. Hence,
|𝑃 1 𝑃2 | 5 5
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
the vector 𝑃 1 𝑃 is found to be

3 4 21 28
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃1 𝑃 = (|𝑃⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ̂
⏟ 1 𝑃2 | + 2) 𝑃
⏟ ⃗⃗
1 𝑃2 = 7 (− 𝑖⃗ + 𝑘 ) = − 𝑖⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗.
5 5 5 5
magnitude direction

Solution of (b)

We need to find the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑂𝑃, we note from the above figure that
21 28 6 43
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 = 𝑂𝑃⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗1 + 𝑃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
1 𝑃 = (3𝑖⃗ + 2𝑗⃗ + 3𝑘 ) + (− 𝑖⃗ + 𝑘) = − 𝑖⃗ + 2𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗.
⃗⃗
5 5 5 5
6 43
The coordinates of 𝑃 is (− , 2, ).
5 5
 Page 21 of 80

“Multiplication” of vectors: Scalar Product and Vector Product

There are two products developed in vectors: Scalar product 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗ (also called dot
product) and vector product 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗ (also called cross product). The difference
between these two products is their outputs: The outcome of a scalar product is a
number and the outcome of vector product is a vector.
Scalar Product
Definition (Scalar Product)

Let 𝑎⃗ = 𝑎1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑎2 𝑗⃗ + 𝑎3 𝑘⃗⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑏1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑏2 𝑗⃗ + 𝑏3 𝑘⃗⃗ be two vectors, the

scalar product of these two vectors, denoted by 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗ is defined as

𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑎⏟
1 𝑏1 + 𝑎⏟
2 𝑏2 + 𝑎⏟
3 𝑏3 .
product product product
of the 1st of the 2nd of the 3rd
component component component
 Page 22 of 80

Properties of scalar product

Using the definition of scalar product, one can derive the following properties

Let 𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗ and 𝑐⃗ be three vectors, we have

1. 𝑎⃗ ⋅ ⃗0⃗ = ⃗0⃗ ⋅ 𝑎⃗ = 0
2. 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑏⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝑎⃗
3. (𝑘𝑎⃗ + 𝑙𝑏⃗⃗) ⋅ 𝑐⃗ = 𝑘(𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑐⃗) + 𝑙(𝑏⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝑐⃗)
where 𝑘, 𝑙 are two constants.
4. 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑎⃗ = 𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 𝑎32 = |𝑎⃗|2
Remark:
 We observe that the scalar product has similar properties as that of product of
real numbers.
 The 4th property is useful in finding the vector’s magnitude in theoretic context
(doing proof).
 Page 23 of 80

Alternative representation of scalar product

Theorem

Let 𝑎⃗ = 𝑎1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑎2 𝑗⃗ + 𝑎3 𝑘⃗⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑏1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑏2 𝑗⃗ + 𝑏3 𝑘⃗⃗ be two vectors, then

𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗ = |𝑎⃗||𝑏⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 𝑎⃗

𝜃
where 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋 is the angle between two vectors.
𝑏⃗⃗

Important Remark: The position of 𝜃

In the theorem, 𝜃 in the formula represents the (smaller) angle between two vectors
and both vectors should point OUTWARDS.

𝑎⃗ 𝑎⃗
𝜃
𝜃
𝑏⃗⃗ 𝑏⃗⃗
 Page 24 of 80

Proof of theorem:
We consider the figure on the right. 𝑎⃗ 𝑎⃗ − 𝑏⃗⃗
Applying the cosine law for this triangle, we have 𝜃
2 2
|𝑎⃗ − 𝑏⃗⃗| = |𝑎⃗|2 + |𝑏⃗⃗| − 2|𝑎⃗||𝑏⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 𝑏⃗⃗

Using the fact that |𝑦⃗|2 = 𝑦⃗ ⋅ 𝑦⃗, one can rewrite the equation as

(𝑎⃗ − 𝑏⃗⃗) ⋅ (𝑎⃗ − 𝑏⃗⃗) = 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗ − 2|𝑎⃗||𝑏⃗⃗| cos 𝜃

⇒ 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗ − 2(𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗) = 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗ − 2|𝑎⃗||𝑏⃗⃗| cos 𝜃

⇒ 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗ = |𝑎⃗||𝑏⃗⃗| cos 𝜃.

 Page 25 of 80

Example 4

⃗⃗ = 𝒊⃗ − ⃗𝒌⃗ and ⃗𝒃⃗ = 𝟐𝒊⃗ − 𝒋⃗ + ⃗𝒌⃗ be two vectors, find

Let 𝒂

⃗⃗ ⋅ ⃗𝒃⃗
(a) 𝒂
(b) The angle between 𝒂 ⃗⃗ and ⃗𝒃⃗
(c) Let 𝒄 ⃗⃗ be a vector such that ⃗𝒃⃗ and 𝒄
⃗⃗ = 𝒙𝒊⃗ + 𝟐𝒌 ⃗⃗ are orthogonal (or
perpendicular). Find the value of 𝒙.
Solution:
(a) 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗ = (1)(2) + (0)(−1) + (−1)(1) = 1.
(b) Let 𝜃 (0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋) be the angle between 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗, then it must satisfy
1
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏 = |𝑎⃗||𝑏| cos 𝜃 ⇒ 1 = (√2)(√6) cos 𝜃 ⇒ cos 𝜃 = ⇒ 𝜃 = 73.22°.
√12
(c) If 𝑏⃗⃗ and 𝑐⃗ are orthogonal, then cos 𝜃 = 0 and
𝑏⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝑐⃗ = 0 ⇒ 2𝑥 + 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −1.
 Page 26 of 80

Example 5
Let 𝐴 = (2, 1, 0), 𝐵 = (1, 3, −1) and 𝐶 = (−9, 0, 3) be three points in the 3D
space. Using vector method, find ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶. 𝐴
Solution
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐴
We let 𝜃 = ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶, then we have 𝜃
𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐴 𝐵𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
cos 𝜃 = … … (∗) 𝐵 𝐵𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝐵𝐴||𝐵𝐶 | ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

Note that 𝐵𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (2𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗) − (𝑖⃗ + 3𝑗⃗ − 𝑘⃗⃗) = 𝑖⃗ − 2𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗ and 𝐵𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−9𝑖⃗ + 3𝑘⃗⃗) −
(𝑖⃗ + 3𝑗⃗ − 𝑘⃗⃗) = −10𝑖⃗ − 3𝑗⃗ + 4𝑘⃗⃗, we then get
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝐵𝐶
𝐵𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 1(−10) + (−2)(−3) + (1)(4) = 0.
Substitute them into the equation (∗), we finally get
0 0
cos 𝜃 = = ⇒ 𝜃 = 90°.
(√6)(√125) √750
 Page 27 of 80

Example 6
1
Let 𝑐⃗ and 𝑑⃗ be two unit vectors with 𝑐⃗ ⋅ 𝑑⃗ = .
2

(a) Compute (𝑐⃗ + 2𝑑⃗) ⋅ (3𝑐⃗ − 𝑑⃗)

(b) Find |𝑐⃗ + 𝑑⃗|
Solution of (a)
Using the property of scalar product, we have

(𝑐⃗ + 2𝑑⃗) ⋅ (3𝑐⃗ − 𝑑⃗) = 𝑐⃗ ⋅ (3𝑐⃗ − 𝑑⃗) + 2𝑑⃗ ⋅ (3𝑐⃗ − 𝑑⃗)

= 3(𝑐⃗ ⋅ 𝑐⃗) − (𝑐⃗ ⋅ 𝑑⃗) + 6(𝑑⃗ ⋅ 𝑐⃗) − 2(𝑑⃗ ⋅ 𝑑⃗)
1
𝑐⃗⋅𝑑⃗ =𝑑⃗ ⋅𝑐⃗=
2 1 1 2
=
⏞ |2 ⃗
3|𝑐⃗ − + 6 ( ) − 2|𝑑 |
2 2
5 7
= 3(1 )2 2
+ − 2(1) = .
2 2
 Page 28 of 80

Solution of (b)
IDEA:
Since 𝑐⃗ and 𝑑⃗ are unknown vectors, it is hard to find |𝑐⃗ + 𝑑⃗| directly using
|𝑎⃗| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 . Here, we may use scalar product to do our job.

Using the fact that 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑎⃗ = |𝑎⃗|2 , we have

|𝑐⃗ + 𝑑⃗| = √(𝑐⃗ + 𝑑⃗) ⋅ (𝑐⃗ + 𝑑⃗) = √𝑐⃗ ⋅ (𝑐⃗ + 𝑑⃗) + 𝑑⃗ ⋅ (𝑐⃗ + 𝑑⃗)

= √(𝑐⃗ ⋅ 𝑐⃗) + (𝑐⃗ ⋅ 𝑑⃗) + (𝑑⃗ ⋅ 𝑐⃗) + (𝑑⃗ ⋅ 𝑑⃗)

1
𝑐⃗⋅𝑑⃗ =𝑑⃗ ⋅𝑐⃗=
2 1 1 2
=
⏞ √|𝑐⃗|2 + + + |𝑑⃗|
2 2

= √(1)2 + 1 + (1)2 = √3.

 Page 29 of 80

Example 7 (Harder)

Let 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ be two vectors, show that

2 2 2
(a) |𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗| + |𝑎⃗ − 𝑏⃗⃗| = 2 (|𝑎⃗|2 + |𝑏⃗⃗| )
(b) |𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗| ≤ |𝑎⃗| + |𝑏⃗⃗|. Triangle inequality (Hint: Square it!)
Solution of (a)
Using the property that |𝑎⃗|2 = 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑎⃗, we get
2 2
|𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗| + |𝑎⃗ − 𝑏⃗⃗| = (𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗) ⋅ (𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗) + (𝑎⃗ − 𝑏⃗⃗) ⋅ (𝑎⃗ − 𝑏⃗⃗)

= (𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑎⃗ + 2(𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗) + 𝑏⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗) + (𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑎⃗ − 2(𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗) + 𝑏⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗)

= 2(𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗)

2
= 2 (|𝑎⃗ |2 + |𝑏⃗⃗| ).
 Page 30 of 80

Solution of (b)
IDEA
We take the square on both sides of equation, we have
2 2 2
|𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗| ≤ (|𝑎⃗| + |𝑏⃗⃗|) = |𝑎⃗|2 + 2|𝑎⃗||𝑏⃗⃗| + |𝑏⃗⃗| .

We consider
2
|𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗| = (𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗) ⋅ (𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗) = 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑎⃗ + 2(𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗) + 𝑏⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗
⃗⃗=|𝑎⃗⃗||𝑏
𝑎⃗⃗⋅𝑏 ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃
2
=
⏞ |𝑎⃗ |2 + 2|𝑎⃗||𝑏⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 + |𝑏⃗⃗|
−1≤cos 𝜃≤1
2 2
⏞
≤ |𝑎⃗ |2 + 2|𝑎⃗||𝑏⃗⃗| + |𝑏⃗⃗| = (|𝑎⃗| + |𝑏⃗⃗|) .
Taking square root on both sides, we finally get

|𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗| ≤ |𝑎⃗| + |𝑏⃗⃗|.

 Page 31 of 80

Projection Vector

Definition (Projection Vector)

Let 𝑏⃗⃗ be a fixed vector in 3D space ℝ3 (or 2D space). For any vector 𝑎⃗,
the projection vector of 𝑎⃗ onto 𝑏⃗⃗, denoted by 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑏⃗⃗ 𝑎⃗ is defined as the
perpendicular projection of 𝑎⃗ on 𝑏⃗⃗.

Remark
Depending on the value of 𝜃, the direction of the projection vector is different.

𝑎⃗ 𝑎⃗

𝜃 𝜃
𝑏⃗⃗ 𝑏⃗⃗
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑏⃗⃗ 𝑎⃗ 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑏⃗⃗ 𝑎⃗
If 𝜃 < 90°, 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑏⃗⃗ 𝑎⃗ has the If 𝜃 > 90°, 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑏⃗⃗ 𝑎⃗ has the
same direction as that of 𝑏⃗⃗ opposite direction as that of 𝑏⃗⃗
 Page 32 of 80

General Procedure of finding the projection vector

Step 1: Finding the angle between 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ to determine the direction of the
projector vector. This can be done by using scalar product:

𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗ 𝜃 < 90° if cos 𝜃 > 0

cos 𝜃 = ⇒{ .
⃗⃗
|𝑎⃗||𝑏| 𝜃 > 90° if cos 𝜃 < 0

Step 2: Determine the projection vector using the formula

⃗⃗ 𝑏
𝑎⃗⃗⋅𝑏 ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
𝑎⃗⃗⋅𝑏
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑏⃗⃗ 𝑎⃗ = (magnitude) × (direction) = |𝑎⃗| | ⃗⃗| |𝑏
⃗⃗|
= 2 𝑏⃗⃗.
𝑎⃗⃗||𝑏 ⃗⃗|
|𝑏

𝑎⃗ 𝑎⃗

𝜃 𝜃
𝑏⃗⃗ 𝑏⃗⃗
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑏⃗⃗ 𝑎⃗ 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑏⃗⃗ 𝑎⃗
If 𝜃 < 90°
If 𝜃 > 90°
Magnitude = |𝑎⃗| cos 𝜃
Magnitude = |𝑎⃗| cos(180° − 𝜃) = −|𝑎⃗| cos 𝜃
Direction = 𝑏̂
Direction = −𝑏̂
 Page 33 of 80

Example 8

Let 𝑏⃗⃗ = 2𝑗⃗ + 4𝑘⃗⃗ be a vector. Find the projection vector of 𝑎⃗ = 3𝑖⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗ on 𝑏⃗⃗.
Solution:
Note that

𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗ 3(0) + (0)(2) + 4(1) 4

cos 𝜃 = = = > 0 ⇒ 𝜃 < 90°.
⃗⃗
|𝑎⃗||𝑏| √10√20 √10√20
4 4
Then the magnitude of the projection vector is |𝑎⃗| cos 𝜃 = √10 ( )= and
√10√20 √20
⃗⃗
𝑏 2 4
its direction is 𝑏̂ = ⃗⃗|
= 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗. The projection vector is found to be
|𝑏 √20 √20

4 2 42 4 𝑎⃗
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑏⃗⃗ 𝑎⃗ = ( 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘) = 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗.
⃗⃗
⏟
√ 20 ⏟√20 √20 5 5 𝜃
magnitude direction 𝑏⃗⃗
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑏⃗⃗ 𝑎⃗
 Page 34 of 80

Example 9

Let 𝑎⃗ = 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑗⃗ − 4𝑘⃗⃗ be two vectors, find the projection vector of 𝑎⃗
onto 𝑏⃗⃗ (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗 ⃗⃗ 𝑎⃗).
𝑏

Solution:

𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗ −3
cos 𝜃 = = < 0 ⇒ 𝜃 > 90°.
⃗⃗
|𝑎⃗||𝑏| √3√17
Then the magnitude of the projection vector is |𝑎⃗| cos(180° − 𝜃) = −|𝑎⃗| cos 𝜃 =
−3 3 ⃗⃗
𝑏 1 4
−√ 3 ( )= and its direction is −𝑏̂ = − ⃗⃗|
=− 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗. The projection
√3√17 √17 |𝑏 √17 √17
vector is found to be
𝑎⃗
3 1 4 3 12
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑏⃗⃗ 𝑎⃗ = (− 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗) = − 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗. 𝜃
⏟
√ 17 ⏟ √17 √17 17 17
𝑏⃗⃗
magnitude direction 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑏⃗⃗ 𝑎⃗
 Page 35 of 80

Application of projection vector

Finding the distance between a point and a line
The projection vector is useful in finding the shortest distance between a point and a
line. To see this, we consider the following figure

𝐵
𝐴
We would like to find the shortest distance 𝑑 between the point 𝑃 and the line
passing through 𝐴 and 𝐵.
 One can find the distance by considering the projection vector.
 Page 36 of 80

Suppose the coordinates of 𝑃, 𝐴 and 𝐵 are known, one can find the distance as
follows

𝐵
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐴𝑃
𝐴
Since the triangle is right-angled, one can obtain the value of 𝑑 by

2 2
𝑑 = √|⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑃| − |𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|
𝐴𝑃

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐴𝑃 and 𝐴𝑃 are known.
provided that 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝐴𝐵
 Page 37 of 80

Example 10
Let 𝐴 = (1, 3, −1), 𝐵 = (3, 6, 0) and 𝐶 = (−2, 4, −3) be three points. Find the
shortest distance between 𝐶 and the line passing through 𝐴 and 𝐵.
Solution:
Let 𝑑 be the shortest distance, one can sketch the graph and observe that

2 2
𝑑 = √|𝐴𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | − |𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐶 | .

Note that
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶 𝑂𝐴 = −3𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ − 2𝑘⃗⃗,
𝑂𝐶 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 𝑂𝐴 = 2𝑖⃗ + 3𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

It remains to find the magnitude of 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐴𝐶 . Note that

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝐴𝐵
𝐴𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 5
cos 𝜃 = =− < 0 ⇒ 𝜃 > 90°.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝐴𝐵||𝐴𝐶 | ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 14
 Page 38 of 80

Thus the magnitude of 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐶 is given by

5 5
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | cos(180° − 𝜃) = −|𝐴𝐶
|𝐴𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | cos 𝜃 = −√14 (− )= .
14 √14
Therefore the required distance 𝑑 is given by

2
2 2 2 5 171
𝑑 = √|𝐴𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | − |𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐴𝐶
𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √(√14) − ( ) =√ .
√14 14

Remark. Let 𝑄 be the foot of the perpendicular from 𝐶 to 𝐴 and 𝐵. Then

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐴𝐵
𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 5 2𝑖⃗ + 3𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗ 5 15 5
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑄 = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐴𝐶 = (𝐴𝐶 ⋅ ) =− = − 𝑖⃗ − 𝑗⃗ − 𝑘⃗⃗,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| |𝐴𝐵
|𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| √14 √14 7 14 14
5 15 5 2 27 19
𝑂𝑄 = 𝑂𝐴 + 𝐴𝑄 = (𝑖⃗ + 3𝑗⃗ − 𝑘) + (− 𝑖⃗ − 𝑗⃗ − 𝑘) = 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ − 𝑘⃗⃗ .
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
7 14 14 7 14 14
2 27 19
The coordinates of 𝑄 = ( , ,− ).
7 14 14
 Page 39 of 80

Vector Product
Definition (Vector Product)

Let 𝑎⃗ = 𝑎1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑎2 𝑗⃗ + 𝑎3 𝑘⃗⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑏1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑏2 𝑗⃗ + 𝑏3 𝑘⃗⃗ be two vectors, the

vector product of these two vectors, denoted by 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗, is defined as

𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗ = |⏟
𝑎⃗||𝑏⃗⃗| sin 𝜃 ⏟
𝑛̂ .
magnitude direction

where 𝜃 is the angle between 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ and 𝑛̂ is the unit vector
perpendicular to both 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗.
 Page 40 of 80

How to determine the direction of 𝑛̂?

Given the vectors 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗, there are two vectors (pointing upwards or pointing
downwards) which are perpendicular to both 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗. The final direction of 𝑛̂ is
often determined by using the right hand rule.
𝑧

𝑖⃗ × 𝑗⃗ = 𝑘⃗⃗

𝑗⃗ 𝑦
𝑥 𝑖⃗

As an example, we would like to compute 𝑖⃗ × 𝑗⃗. Note that the magnitude of 𝑖⃗ × 𝑗⃗ is

given by |𝑖⃗||𝑗⃗| sin 90° = 1 × 1 × 1 = 1. Using the right hand, we find that the
direction of 𝑖⃗ × 𝑗⃗ is 𝑛̂ = 𝑘⃗⃗.

Thus 𝑖⃗ × 𝑗⃗ = ⏟
1 × 𝑘⃗⃗
⏟ = 𝑘⃗⃗.
magnitude direction
 Page 41 of 80

Similarly, one can obtain the following elementary result:

𝑗⃗ × 𝑖⃗ = −𝑘⃗⃗,

𝑗⃗ × 𝑘⃗⃗ = 𝑖⃗, 𝑘⃗⃗ × 𝑗⃗ = −𝑖⃗.

𝑖⃗ × 𝑘⃗⃗ = −𝑗⃗, 𝑘⃗⃗ × 𝑖⃗ = 𝑗⃗.

𝑖⃗ × 𝑖⃗ = 𝑗⃗ × 𝑗⃗ = 𝑘⃗⃗ × 𝑘⃗⃗ = ⃗0⃗ (Reason: Note that sin 𝜃 = 0 in this case)

Properties of Vector Product
Let 𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗ and 𝑐⃗ be three vectors in ℝ3 . Then

1. 𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑎⃗ = −(𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗)

2. 𝑎⃗ × (𝑏⃗⃗ ± 𝑐⃗) = (𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗) ± (𝑎⃗ × 𝑐⃗)
3. (𝑚𝑎⃗) × 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑎⃗ × (𝑚𝑏⃗⃗) = 𝑚(𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗)
4. If 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are parallel, then 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗ = ⃗0⃗.
 Page 42 of 80

Computation of Vector Products for General Case

Example 11

Let 𝑎⃗ = 2𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗ = −𝑗⃗ + 2𝑘⃗⃗ and 𝑐⃗ = 𝑖⃗ − 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗, find the value of 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗.
Solution:

𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗ = (2𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗) × (−𝑗⃗ + 2𝑘⃗⃗) = 2𝑖⃗ × (−𝑗⃗ + 2𝑘⃗⃗) + 𝑗⃗ × (−𝑗⃗ + 2𝑘⃗⃗)

= −2(𝑖⃗ × 𝑗⃗) + 4(𝑖⃗ × 𝑘⃗⃗) − (𝑗⃗ × 𝑗⃗) + 2(𝑗⃗ × 𝑘⃗⃗)

= −2𝑘⃗⃗ − 4𝑗⃗ − ⃗0⃗ + 2𝑖⃗ = 2𝑖⃗ − 4𝑗⃗ − 2𝑘⃗⃗.

𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗ = (−𝑗⃗ + 2𝑘⃗⃗ ) × (𝑖⃗ − 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗) = −𝑗⃗ × (𝑖⃗ − 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗) + 2𝑘⃗⃗ × (𝑖⃗ − 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗)

= −(𝑗⃗ × 𝑖⃗) + (𝑗⃗ × 𝑗⃗) − (𝑗⃗ × 𝑘⃗⃗) + 2(𝑘⃗⃗ × 𝑖⃗) − 2(𝑘⃗⃗ × 𝑗⃗) + 2(𝑘⃗⃗ × 𝑘⃗⃗)

= −(−𝑘⃗⃗) + ⃗0⃗ − 𝑖⃗ + 2𝑗⃗ − 2(−𝑖⃗) + 2(0

⃗⃗) = 𝑖⃗ + 2𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗.
 Page 43 of 80

Example 12
Find a vector perpendicular to the plane containing the points 𝐴 = (1, 2, 3), 𝐵 =
(−1, 4, 8) and 𝐶 = (5, 1, −2).
Solution
According to the definition of vector product, the vector 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐴𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is the vector
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝐴𝐶
perpendicular to both 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . So this vector is also perpendicular to the plane
containing 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶. Note that,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑂𝐴 = −2𝑖⃗ + 2𝑗⃗ + 5𝑘⃗⃗,
𝑂𝐵 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶 𝑂𝐴 = 4𝑖⃗ − 𝑗⃗ − 5𝑘⃗⃗.
𝑂𝐶 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Then the required vector is given by
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−2𝑖⃗ + 2𝑗⃗ + 5𝑘⃗⃗) × (4𝑖⃗ − 𝑗⃗ − 5𝑘⃗⃗)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐴𝐶
𝐴𝐵
= −8(𝑖⃗ × 𝑖⃗) + 2(𝑖⃗ × 𝑗⃗) + 10(𝑖⃗ × 𝑘⃗⃗) + 8(𝑗⃗ × 𝑖⃗) − 2(𝑗⃗ × 𝑗⃗) − 10(𝑗⃗ × 𝑘⃗⃗) + 20(𝑘⃗⃗ × 𝑖⃗)
− 5(𝑘⃗⃗ × 𝑗⃗) − 25(𝑘⃗⃗ × 𝑘⃗⃗)
= 2𝑘⃗⃗ − 10𝑗⃗ − 8𝑘⃗⃗ − 10𝑖⃗ + 20𝑗⃗ + 5𝑖⃗ = −5𝑖⃗ + 10𝑗⃗ − 6𝑘⃗⃗.
 Page 44 of 80

Remark of Example 12 (Finding an equation of a plane)

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐴𝐶
The vector 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ obtained in Example 12 is called a normal to the plane. It is
useful in determining the equation of the plane in coordinate geometry.
To see this, we consider a point 𝑃 = (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) in the same plane. Then the vector
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝑥 − 1)𝑖⃗ + (𝑦 − 2)𝑗⃗ + (𝑧 − 3)𝑘⃗⃗ lies on the plane and is perpendicular to the
𝐴𝑃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐴𝐶
normal 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .

Then using scalar product, the point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) should satisfy

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⋅ (𝐴𝐵
𝐴𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐴𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ) = 0

⇒ [(𝑥 − 1)𝑖⃗ + (𝑦 − 2)𝑗⃗ + (𝑧 − 3)𝑘⃗⃗ ] ⋅ (−5𝑖⃗ + 10𝑗⃗ − 6𝑘⃗⃗) = 0

⇒ −5(𝑥 − 1) + 10(𝑦 − 2) − 6(𝑧 − 3) = 0
⇒ 5𝑥 − 10𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 3.
This is the equation of the plane containing 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶.
 Page 45 of 80

Application of vector product

1. Finding the area of triangle / parallelogram
We would like to find the area of a triangle and a parallelogram as shown below:

𝑎⃗ 𝑎⃗
𝜃 𝜃
𝑏⃗⃗ 𝑏⃗⃗
Using standard geometric argument, one can show that the area of the triangle and
1
the area of the parallelogram are given by |𝑎⃗||𝑏⃗⃗| sin 𝜃 and |𝑎⃗||𝑏⃗⃗| sin 𝜃,
2
respectively.

Using the definition of vector product 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗ = |𝑎⃗||𝑏⃗⃗| sin 𝜃 𝑛̂, we have
1
 the area of triangle is |𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗|.
2
 the area of parallelogram is |𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗|.
 Page 46 of 80

Example 13
Let 𝐴 = (0, 1, −1), 𝐵 = (2, 1, 0) and 𝐶 = (1, 2, 1) be three points in the plane.
Find the area of the triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶.
𝐵

𝐶
𝐴

Solution
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Note that 𝐴𝐵 𝑂𝐴 = 2𝑖⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗ and 𝐴𝐶
𝑂𝐵 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑂𝐴 = 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 2𝑘⃗⃗.
𝑂𝐶 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (2𝑖⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗) × (𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 2𝑘⃗⃗) = ⋯ = −𝑖⃗ − 3𝑗⃗ + 2𝑘⃗⃗.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐴𝐶
Then 𝐴𝐵
Therefore, the area of Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 is

1 1 √14
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝐴𝐵 × 𝐴𝐶 | = (√(−1) + (−3) + 2 ) =
2 2 2 (square units).
2 2 2
 Page 47 of 80

Example 14
Show that the points 𝐴 = (2, 4, 3), 𝐵 = (4, 8, 6) and 𝐶 = (6, 12, 9) are collinear
(i.e. the three points lie on the same straight line).
IDEA
𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 are collinear, then the area of Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 is simply zero.

Solution:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Note that 𝐴𝐵 𝑂𝐴 = 2𝑖⃗ + 4𝑗⃗ + 3𝑘⃗⃗ and 𝐴𝐶
𝑂𝐵 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑂𝐴 = 4𝑖⃗ + 8𝑗⃗ + 6𝑘⃗⃗.
𝑂𝐶 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Then
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (2𝑖⃗ + 4𝑗⃗ + 3𝑘⃗⃗) × (4𝑖⃗ + 8𝑗⃗ + 6𝑘⃗⃗) = 2(2𝑖⃗ + 4𝑗⃗ + 3𝑘⃗⃗) × (2𝑖⃗ + 4𝑗⃗ + 3𝑘⃗⃗)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐴𝐶
𝐴𝐵
= ⃗0⃗.
1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐴𝐶
So the area of Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 = |𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 0. Thus 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 are collinear.
2
 Page 48 of 80

2. Finding the distance between a point and a plane

Given a point 𝐷 and a plane 𝜋 containing points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 as shown below, we
would like to find the shortest distance (or perpendicular distance) between point 𝐷
and the plane:
𝐷 𝐷 Distance = Magnitude
Shortest Distance of 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑛⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐷
(Target) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐷

𝐶 𝜋 𝐶 𝜋
𝐴 𝐴
𝐵 𝐵

 We observe from the above figure that the shortest distance is simply the
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ onto the normal vector 𝑛⃗⃗ (the vector
magnitude of the projection vector of 𝐴𝐷
perpendicular to the plane).
 Page 49 of 80

In order to obtain the magnitude of the projection vector, one needs to obtain the
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑛⃗⃗.
vectors 𝐴𝐷
 Suppose the coordinates of the points 𝐴 and 𝐷 are given, one can obtain the
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ using 𝐴𝐷
vector 𝐴𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐷 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴.

 The normal vector 𝑛⃗⃗ is perpendicular to the plane 𝜋 and hence is

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝐴𝐶
perpendicular to both 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ which lies on the plane 𝜋. Using the
definition of vector product, such normal vector can be found as
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐴𝐶
𝑛⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑛⃗⃗ are obtained, the projection vector 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑛⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Once the vectors 𝐴𝐷 𝐴𝐷 can be
found using the method described in p. 32.
 Page 50 of 80

Example 15
Let 𝐴 = (3, −2, 1), 𝐵 = (1, −3, 2) and 𝐶 = (2, −1, −3) be three points on a plane
𝜋. Find the shortest distance from 𝐷 = (−4, −1, 2) to the plane 𝜋.
Solution:
Following the procedure described in previous page, we need to obtain the vectors
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑛⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝐵
𝐴𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐴𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ first.

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
 𝐴𝐷 𝑂𝐴 = (−4𝑖⃗ − 𝑗⃗ + 2𝑘⃗⃗ ) − (3𝑖⃗ − 2𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗ ) = −7𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗.
𝑂𝐷 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
 𝐴𝐵 𝑂𝐴 = −2𝑖⃗ − 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗ and 𝐴𝐶
𝑂𝐵 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑂𝐴 = −𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ − 4𝑘⃗⃗.
𝑂𝐶 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
The normal vector 𝑛⃗⃗ is found to be
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−2𝑖⃗ − 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗) × (−𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ − 4𝑘⃗⃗)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐴𝐶
𝑛⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝐵
= 2(𝑖⃗ × 𝑖⃗) − 2(𝑖⃗ × 𝑗⃗) + 8(𝑖⃗ × 𝑘⃗⃗) + (𝑗⃗ × 𝑖⃗) − (𝑗⃗ × 𝑗⃗) + 4(𝑗⃗ × 𝑘⃗⃗)
− (𝑘⃗⃗ × 𝑖⃗) + (𝑘⃗⃗ × 𝑗⃗) − 4(𝑘⃗⃗ × 𝑘⃗⃗) = 3𝑖⃗ − 9𝑗⃗ − 3𝑘⃗⃗.
 Page 51 of 80

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗. Let 𝜃 be the

It remains to find the magnitude of the projection vector 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑛⃗⃗ 𝐴𝐷
angle between 𝐴𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑛⃗⃗, then 𝜃 is found to be

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝑛⃗⃗
𝐴𝐷 (−7)(3) + (1)(−9) + (1)(−3) −33
cos 𝜃 = = = ⇒ 𝜃 > 90°.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗||𝑛⃗⃗|
|𝐴𝐷 √51√99 √51√99

Then the magnitude of the projection vector 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑛⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐴𝐷 is given by
33 33
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = |𝐴𝐷
Magnitude of 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑛⃗⃗ 𝐴𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| cos(180° − 𝜃) = √51 ( )= = √11.
√51√99 √99
Therefore the required shortest distance is √11.
Remark. Let 𝑃 be the foot of the perpendicular from 𝐷 to the plane 𝜋. Then

𝑛⃗⃗ 𝑛⃗⃗ 33 3𝑖⃗ − 9𝑗⃗ − 3𝑘⃗⃗

𝑃𝐷 = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑛⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⋅ )
𝐴𝐷 = (𝐴𝐷 =− = −𝑖⃗ + 3𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗,
|𝑛⃗⃗| |𝑛⃗⃗| √99 √99
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−4𝑖⃗ − 𝑗⃗ + 2𝑘⃗⃗) − (−𝑖⃗ + 3𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗) = −3𝑖⃗ − 4𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗ .
𝑂𝐷 + 𝐷𝑃
The coordinates of 𝑃 = (−3, −4,1) .
 Page 52 of 80

3. Finding the distance between two non-intersecting straight lines.

The techniques used in p. 48 can also be applied to find the shortest distance
between two non-intersecting straight lines (𝐿1 and 𝐿2 ) as shown:

𝐷 Shortest distance = magnitude of

𝐶 𝐷 projection vector of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐷 onto the
𝐿2 𝑑 𝐶
vector 𝑛⃗⃗
𝐿2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐷
𝐿1 ⃗⃗
Normal vector 𝒏
𝐴 𝐵 𝐿1
𝐴 B

Let 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 be four given points (the coordinates are known) on these two
straight lines. As shown in the second figure, finding shortest distance is equivalent
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ onto the vector 𝑛⃗⃗.
to find the magnitude of the projection vector of 𝐴𝐷
 Page 53 of 80

In order to obtain the magnitude of the projection vector, one needs to obtain the
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑛⃗⃗.
vectors 𝐴𝐷
 Suppose the coordinates of the points 𝐴 and 𝐷 are given, one can obtain the
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ using 𝐴𝐷
vector 𝐴𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐷 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴.

 The normal vector 𝑛⃗⃗ is perpendicular to both lines 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 and hence is
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝐶𝐷
perpendicular to both 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ which lie on 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 respectively. Using
the definition of vector product, such normal vector can be found as
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐶𝐷
𝑛⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑛⃗⃗ are obtained, the projection vector 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑛⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Once the vectors 𝐴𝐷 𝐴𝐷 can be
found using the method described in p. 32.
 Page 54 of 80

Example 16
Find the shortest distance between the line 𝐿1 passing through the points 𝐴 =
(0, 1, 4) and 𝐵 = (3, 4, 1), and the line 𝐿2 passing through the points 𝐶 =
(−1, 4, 11) and 𝐷 = (1, 5, 9).
Solution:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and
Using the procedure described in previous page, we first obtain the vectors 𝐴𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐶𝐷
𝑛⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗.

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
 𝐴𝐷 𝑂𝐴 = (𝑖⃗ + 5𝑗⃗ + 9𝑘⃗⃗ ) − (𝑗⃗ + 4𝑘⃗⃗ ) = 𝑖⃗ + 4𝑗⃗ + 5𝑘⃗⃗.
𝑂𝐷 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
 𝐴𝐵 𝑂𝐴 = 3𝑖⃗ + 3𝑗⃗ − 3𝑘⃗⃗ and 𝐶𝐷
𝑂𝐵 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑂𝐶 = 2𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ − 2𝑘⃗⃗.
𝑂𝐷 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
The normal vector 𝑛⃗⃗ is found to be
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (3𝑖⃗ + 3𝑗⃗ − 3𝑘⃗⃗) × (2𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ − 2𝑘⃗⃗)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐶𝐷
𝑛⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝐵
= 6(𝑖⃗ × 𝑖⃗) + 3(𝑖⃗ × 𝑗⃗) − 6(𝑖⃗ × 𝑘⃗⃗) + 6(𝑗⃗ × 𝑖⃗) + 3(𝑗⃗ × 𝑗⃗) − 6(𝑗⃗ × 𝑘⃗⃗)
− 6(𝑘⃗⃗ × 𝑖⃗) − 3(𝑘⃗⃗ × 𝑗⃗) + 6(𝑘⃗⃗ × 𝑘⃗⃗) = −3𝑖⃗ − 3𝑘⃗⃗.
 Page 55 of 80

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗. Let 𝜃 be the

It remains to find the magnitude of the projection vector 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑛⃗⃗ 𝐴𝐷
angle between 𝐴𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑛⃗⃗, then 𝜃 is found to be

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝑛⃗⃗
𝐴𝐷 (1)(−3) + (4)(0) + (5)(−3) −18
cos 𝜃 = = = ⇒ 𝜃 > 90°.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝐴𝐷||𝑛⃗⃗| √42√18 √42√18

Then the magnitude of the projection vector 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑛⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐴𝐷 is given by
18
Magnitude of 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑛⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| cos(180° − 𝜃) = √42 (
𝐴𝐷 = |𝐴𝐷 ) = √18 = 3√2.
√42√18
Therefore the required shortest distance is 3√2.
 Page 56 of 80

Triple Scalar Product

Let 𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗ and 𝑐⃗ be three vectors in ℝ3 , the triple scalar product of these three
vectors is defined as 𝑎⃗ ⋅ (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗). The output is simply a number.
Important Remark:
One has to compute the vector product first when computing the scalar triple
product!
𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗ = (𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗) × 𝑐⃗ = (number) ×
⏟ ⏟
𝑐⃗ =? ? ? ? ?
vector vector
product

𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗ = 𝑎⃗ ⋅ (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗) = ⏟

𝑎⃗ ⏟⋅ (vector) = (number).
vector scalar
product
 Page 57 of 80

Geometric Interpretation of triple scalar product

Geometrically, one can use triple scalar product to obtain the volume of a
parallelepiped.
Theorem
The volume 𝑉 of the parallelepiped with 𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗ and 𝑐⃗ as its adjacent sides
is given by 𝑉 = |𝑎⃗ ⋅ (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗)|.
(Here, |? ? | is the absolute value sign.)

Proof of the theorem

 Page 58 of 80

Note that the volume of the parallelepiped is given by

𝑉 = (base area) × (height)

⏟⃗⃗||𝑐⃗| sin 𝜃 × |⏟
= |𝑏 𝑎⃗| cos 𝜙
𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗
base area height

= |𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗||𝑎⃗| cos 𝜙

= 𝑎⃗ ⋅ (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗)
Remark:

It may happen that 𝑎⃗ ⋅ (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗) becomes negative if 90° ≤ 𝜙 ≤ 180°. Therefore,
we need to put the absolute value to 𝑎⃗ ⋅ (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗) so that the volume of
parallelepiped is given by |𝑎⃗ ⋅ (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗)|.

Note: The volume of tetrahedron with 𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗ and 𝑐⃗ as its adjacent sides will be
1 1 1
⃗⃗
|𝑏
⏟ 𝑎⃗| cos 𝜙 = |𝑎⃗ ⋅ (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗)|
||𝑐⃗| sin 𝜃 |⏟
3 2 6
triangle base area height
 Page 59 of 80

Example 17
Find the volumes of the parallelepiped and the tetrahedron with 𝐴 = (1, 3, −1),
𝐵 = (2, 1, 4), 𝐶 = (1, 3, 7) and 𝐷 = (5, 0, 2) as its adjacent vertices.
Solution
Using the graph on the right, the volume 𝑉 is given by
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⋅ (𝐴𝐷
𝑉 = |𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐴𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ )| … … (∗)

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Note that 𝐴𝐵 𝑂𝐴 = 𝑖⃗ − 2𝑗⃗ + 5𝑘⃗⃗,
𝑂𝐵 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐷 𝑂𝐴 = 4𝑖⃗ − 3𝑗⃗ + 3𝑘⃗⃗ and
𝑂𝐷 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶 𝑂𝐴 = 8𝑘⃗⃗,
𝑂𝐶 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
then we have

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⋅ (𝐴𝐷
𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐴𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⋅ ((4𝑖⃗ − 3𝑗⃗ + 3𝑘⃗⃗) × (8𝑘⃗⃗))
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ) = 𝐴𝐵

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⋅ [32(𝑖⃗ × 𝑘⃗⃗) − 24(𝑗⃗ × 𝑘⃗⃗) + 24(𝑘⃗⃗ × 𝑘⃗⃗)]

= 𝐴𝐵
 Page 60 of 80

= (𝑖⃗ − 2𝑗⃗ + 5𝑘⃗⃗) ⋅ (−24𝑖⃗ − 32𝑗⃗) = −24 + 64 = 40.

From (∗), the volume of the parallelepiped is 𝑉 = |40| = 40 and so the volume of
40 20
tetrahedron is = .
6 3

Example 18

Three vectors 𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗ and 𝑐⃗ in ℝ3 are coplanar if they lies on a common plane.
Suppose that the vectors 𝑎⃗ = 𝑖⃗ − 2𝑗⃗ + 3𝑘⃗⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗ = −𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 𝑧𝑘⃗⃗ and 𝑐⃗ = 𝑧𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗ are
coplanar, find the value of 𝑧.

IDEA:
𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗ and 𝑐⃗ are coplanar ⇔ The volume of parallelepiped with 𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗ and 𝑐⃗
as adjacent edges = 0.
 Page 61 of 80

Solution

Since 𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗ and 𝑐⃗ are coplanar, then we have

|𝑎⃗ ⋅ (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗)| = 0 ⇒ 𝑎⃗ ⋅ (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗) = 0

⇒ 𝑎⃗ ⋅ [(−𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 𝑧𝑘⃗⃗) × (𝑧𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗)] = 0

⇒ (𝑖⃗ − 2𝑗⃗ + 3𝑘⃗⃗) ⋅ ((1 − 𝑧 2 )𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ − 𝑧𝑘⃗⃗) = 0

⇒ (1 − 𝑧 2 ) − 2 − 3𝑧 = 0
⇒ 𝑧 2 + 3𝑧 + 1 = 0

−3 ± √32 − 4(1)(1) −3 ± √5
⇒𝑧= = .
2(1) 2
 Page 62 of 80

Triple Vector Product

Let 𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗, 𝑐⃗ be three vectors in ℝ3 , the triple vector product of these three vectors
is defined as 𝑎⃗ × (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗).
Remark
 The outcome of triple vector product is a vector.
 One has to be careful that 𝑎⃗ × (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗) ≠ (𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗) × 𝑐⃗ in general. As an
example, we take 𝑎⃗ = 𝑖⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑐⃗ = 𝑗⃗. Then we have
𝑎⃗ × (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗) = 𝑖⃗ × (𝑗⃗ × 𝑗⃗) = 𝑖⃗ × ⃗0⃗ = ⃗0⃗,
(𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗) × 𝑐⃗ = (𝑖⃗ × 𝑗⃗) × 𝑗⃗ = 𝑘⃗⃗ × 𝑗⃗ = −𝑖⃗.
Thus one cannot change the order of multiplication when doing triple vector
product.
 Page 63 of 80

Linear Independence and Dependence

Linear Combination of vectors
Let 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗,
1 𝑎⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗,
2 ⋯ , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑛 be 𝑛 vectors, the vector
𝑚
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑐1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎1 + 𝑐2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗,
𝑎𝑛 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , … , 𝑐𝑛 are constants
is called linear combination of 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗,
1 𝑎⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗,
2 ⋯ , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗.
𝑎𝑛
Example 19

The vector 𝑎⃗ = 3𝑖⃗ + 2𝑗⃗ − 5𝑘⃗⃗ can be seen as the linear combination of the vectors 𝑖⃗,
𝑗⃗ and 𝑘⃗⃗.

The vector 𝑏⃗⃗ = 3𝑘⃗⃗ is not linear combination of the vectors 𝑖⃗, 𝑗⃗ since it is impossible
that
linear combination
𝑏⃗⃗ = ⏟⃗⃗
3𝑘 = ⏟ ⏞
𝑐1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑐2 𝑗⃗
not on the 𝑥𝑦−plane lies on the 𝑥𝑦−plane
 Page 64 of 80

Definition (Linear Dependence and Linear Independence)

We say the non-zero vectors 𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗,
1 𝑎⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗,
2 ⋯ , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑛 are linearly dependent if there
is a vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑘 which can be expressed as a linear combination of other
vectors 𝑎⃗⃗⃗⃗,
𝑗 i.e.,

𝑎𝑘 = 𝑐⏟1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎1 + 𝑐2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎2 + ⋯ +𝑐𝑘−1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑘−1 + 𝑐𝑘+1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑘+1 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗.
𝑎𝑛
linear combination of other vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑗 (without ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑎𝑘

If the above situation does not happen, we say these vectors 𝑎

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗,
1 𝑎⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗,
2 ⋯ , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑛
are linearly independent.
Example 20

The vectors 𝑎⃗ = 4𝑖⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑗⃗ and 𝑐⃗ = 2𝑖⃗ + 5𝑗⃗ are linearly dependent since the vector
𝑐⃗ can be expressed as the linear combination of 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗, i.e.
1 1
𝑐⃗ = 2𝑖⃗ + 5𝑗⃗ = (4𝑖⃗) + 5𝑗⃗ = 𝑎⃗ + 5𝑏⃗⃗.
2 2
 Page 65 of 80

Example 21

The vectors 𝑎⃗ = 𝑖⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑗⃗ and 𝑐⃗ = 2𝑖⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗ are linearly independent since the vector
𝑐⃗ cannot be expressed as the linear combination of another two vectors,

𝑎⃗ = 𝑖⃗ ≠ 2𝑥2 𝑖⃗ + 𝑥1 𝑗⃗ + 𝑥2 𝑘⃗⃗ = 𝑥1 𝑏⃗⃗ + 𝑥2 𝑐⃗,

𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑗⃗ ≠ (𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 )𝑖⃗ + 𝑥2 𝑘⃗⃗ = 𝑥1 𝑎⃗ + 𝑥2 𝑐⃗,

𝑐⃗ = 2𝑖⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗ ≠ 𝑥1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑥2 𝑗⃗ = 𝑥1 𝑎⃗ + 𝑥2 𝑏⃗⃗.

How do the linearly independent/ linearly dependent vectors look like?
Two vectors case: 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗
If two vectors are linearly dependent, then one of them can be written as a linear
combination of another vector, i.e.,

𝑎⃗ = 𝑘𝑏⃗⃗

In order words, 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are parallel to each other.

 Page 66 of 80

𝑎⃗ 𝑎⃗ 𝑎⃗
𝑏⃗⃗ 𝑏⃗⃗ 𝑏⃗⃗

𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗ are linearly dependent 𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗ are linearly independent
Three vectors case 𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗ and 𝑐⃗
If three vectors are linearly dependent, then one of them (say 𝑎⃗) can be written as
the linear combination of other two vectors:
𝑎⃗ = 𝑘1 𝑏⃗⃗ + 𝑘2 𝑐⃗.
It implies that the vector 𝑎⃗ lies on the plane containing 𝑏⃗⃗ and 𝑐⃗. In particular,
three vectors are coplanar.
𝑘2 𝑐⃗
𝑘1 𝑏⃗⃗ 𝑎⃗
𝑎⃗ = 𝑘1 𝑏⃗⃗ + 𝑘2 𝑐⃗

𝑏⃗⃗ 𝑏⃗⃗

𝑐⃗ 𝑘2 𝑐⃗
 Page 67 of 80

How do we check whether a set of vectors are linearly independent in ℝ3 ?

Using the geometric interpretation above, one can establish the following useful test
for checking the linear dependency of vectors in 3D space ℝ3 .

Linear independency of two vectors 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ in ℝ3

𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are linearly dependent ⇔ The angle between 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ is 0° or 180°

𝑎 × 𝑏⃗⃗ = ⃗0⃗.
⇔ sin 𝜃 = 0 ⇔ ⃗⃗⃗⃗

Linear independency of three vectors 𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗ and 𝑐⃗ in ℝ3

𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗ and 𝑐⃗ are linearly dependent ⇔ 𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗ and 𝑐⃗ are coplanar

⇔ |𝑎⃗ ⋅ (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗)| = 0.

Linear independency of four or more vectors 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗,
1 𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗, 𝑎𝑛 in ℝ3
2 ⋯ , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗,
1 𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗,
2 ⋯ , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑛 are always linearly dependent.
 Page 68 of 80

Remark
 This test is useful for vectors in 3-D ONLY. For vectors with higher dimensions
(4-D, 5-D, 6-D, etc.), we will have a more general method to verify the linear
independent. We will discuss the detail later in Chapter 6.

 To understand why the set of four or more vectors in 3D are always linearly
dependent. One can consider the following particular examples: We consider
the vectors
𝑎⃗ = 𝑖⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑗⃗, 𝑐⃗ = 𝑘⃗⃗, 𝑑⃗ = 𝑥𝑖⃗ + 𝑦𝑗⃗ + 𝑧𝑘⃗⃗.
Since 𝑑⃗ is the vector in 3D-plane, it can be expressed as the linear combination
of another three (linearly independent) vectors 𝑖⃗, 𝑗⃗ and 𝑘⃗⃗.
This argument works even we replace 𝑖⃗, 𝑗⃗ and 𝑘⃗⃗ by other three vectors 𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗
and 𝑐⃗ which are linearly independent.
 Page 69 of 80

Example 22
(a) Determine whether the vectors 𝑎⃗ = 𝑖⃗ + 2𝑗⃗ − 3𝑘⃗⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑖⃗ + 4𝑗⃗ − 9𝑘⃗⃗ are
linearly independent.
(b) Let 𝑐⃗ = 𝑗⃗ − 3𝑘⃗⃗ be another vector, determine whether the vectors 𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗ and
𝑐⃗ are linearly independent.
Solution of (a)
Note that 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗ = (𝑖⃗ + 2𝑗⃗ − 3𝑘⃗⃗) × (𝑖⃗ + 4𝑗⃗ − 9𝑘⃗⃗)
= (𝑖⃗ × 𝑖⃗) + 4(𝑖⃗ × 𝑗⃗) − 9(𝑖⃗ × 𝑘⃗⃗) + 2(𝑗⃗ × 𝑖⃗) + 8(𝑗⃗ × 𝑗⃗) − 18(𝑗⃗ × 𝑘⃗⃗) − 3(𝑘⃗⃗ × 𝑖⃗)
− 12(𝑘⃗⃗ × 𝑗⃗) + 27(𝑘⃗⃗ × 𝑘⃗⃗)
= ⃗0⃗ + 4𝑘⃗⃗ + 9𝑗⃗ − 2𝑘⃗⃗ + 8(0 ⃗⃗) = −6𝑖⃗ + 6𝑗⃗ + 2𝑘⃗⃗ ≠ ⃗0⃗.
⃗⃗) − 18𝑖⃗ − 3𝑗⃗ + 12𝑖⃗ + 27(0
So they are linearly independent.
Solution of (b)
Note that |𝑐⃗ ⋅ (𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗)| = |(𝑗⃗ − 3𝑘⃗⃗) ⋅ (−6𝑖⃗ + 6𝑗⃗ + 2𝑘⃗⃗)| = |0 + 6 − 6| = 0.
Thus they are linearly dependent.
 Page 70 of 80

Example 23

Let 𝑎⃗ = 2𝑖⃗ − 4𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗ = 3𝑖⃗ − 𝑗⃗ and 𝑐⃗ = 𝑥𝑖⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗ be three vectors. Suppose the
vectors are linearly independent. Find the values of 𝑥.
Solution:
Since the vectors are linearly independent, then we must have

|𝑎 ⋅ (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗)| ≠ 0 or 𝑎 ⋅ (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗) ≠ 0.

Note that 𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗ = 3𝑥 (⏟ ⏟⃗ × 𝑘⃗⃗) − 𝑥 (⏟

𝑖⃗ × 𝑖⃗) + 3 (𝑖 ⏟⃗ × 𝑘⃗⃗) = −𝑖⃗ − 3𝑗⃗ + 𝑥𝑘⃗⃗.
𝑗⃗ × 𝑖⃗) − (𝑗
=0 =−𝑗⃗ ⃗⃗
=−𝑘 =𝑖⃗

Then 𝑎 ⋅ (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗) = (2𝑖⃗ − 4𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗) ⋅ (−𝑖⃗ − 3𝑗⃗ + 𝑥𝑘⃗⃗) = −2 + 12 + 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 10.

Hence, 𝑎 ⋅ (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗) ≠ 0 ⇒ 𝑥 + 10 ≠ 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ≠ −10.

 Page 71 of 80

The general procedure of checking the linear dependency of the vectors

The procedure above is only useful for 3D vectors. This approach is no longer to be
useful if the vector is in higher dimensions: 𝑥⃗ = 𝑐1 𝑣⃗1 + 𝑐2 𝑣⃗2 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 𝑣⃗𝑛 where 𝑣⃗1 ,
𝑣⃗2 , ⋯ , 𝑣⃗𝑛 are 𝑛 fundamental vectors in ℝ𝑛 (just like 𝑖⃗, 𝑗⃗ and 𝑘⃗⃗ in 3D space).
The following theorem provides a more general procedure in checking the linear
dependency and it requires some knowledge of the system of linear equations

Theorem
The vectors 𝑎⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗,
1 𝑎⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗,
2 ⋯ , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑎𝑛 are linearly independent if and only if the
equation 𝑥1 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗1 + 𝑥2 𝑎 𝑎𝑛 = ⃗0⃗ has only trivial solution (i.e., 𝑥1 =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗2 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑥2 = ⋯ = 𝑥𝑛 = 0).

On the other hand, if the equation 𝑥1 𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗1 + 𝑥2 𝑎 𝑎𝑛 = ⃗0⃗ has other

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗2 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
solutions 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 (other than the trivial solution). Then the vectors 𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗,
1
𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗,
2 ⋯ , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑛 are linearly dependent.
 Page 72 of 80

Example 24

Determine whether the vectors 𝑎⃗ = 3𝑖⃗ + 2𝑗⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑖⃗ − 𝑗⃗ are linearly
independent.
Solution:
To check this, we solve the following equation for 𝑥1 , 𝑥2
3𝑥 + 𝑥2 = 0
𝑥1 𝑎⃗ + 𝑥2 𝑏⃗⃗ = ⃗0⃗ ⇒ (3𝑥1 + 𝑥2 )𝑖⃗ + (2𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )𝑗⃗ = 0𝑖⃗ + 0𝑗⃗ ⇒ { 1 .
2𝑥1 − 𝑥2 = 0
Adding the second equation into the first one, we get 5𝑥1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥1 = 0.
Substitute 𝑥1 = 0 into the first equation, we then get 𝑥2 = 0.

Since (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) = (0, 0) is the only solution, thus 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are linearly independent.
 Page 73 of 80

Review Example 1

Let 𝑎⃗ = 3𝑖⃗ + 2𝑗⃗ − 𝑘⃗⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑖⃗ − 2𝑗⃗ + 3𝑘⃗⃗

(a) Find 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗.

(b) Using scalar product, find |𝑎⃗|.
Solution:
(a) Using the definition of scalar product
𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗ = (3𝑖⃗ + 2𝑗⃗ − 𝑘⃗⃗) ⋅ (𝑖⃗ − 2𝑗⃗ + 3𝑘⃗⃗) = (3)(1) + (2)(−2) + (−1)(3) = −4.
(b) Using the fact that 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑎⃗ = |𝑎⃗|2 , we have

|𝑎⃗| = √(𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑎⃗) = √(3𝑖⃗ + 2𝑗⃗ − 𝑘⃗⃗) ⋅ (3𝑖⃗ + 2𝑗⃗ − 𝑘⃗⃗)

= √(3)(3) + (2)(2) + (−1) × (−1) = √14.

 Page 74 of 80

Review Example 2

Let 𝑎⃗ = 3𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ − 𝑘⃗⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑖⃗ − 2𝑗⃗ + 3𝑘⃗⃗ and 𝑐⃗ = 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 4𝑘⃗⃗ be three vectors.

(a) Are 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ parallel to each other?

(b) Are 𝑎⃗ and 𝑐⃗ orthogonal?
Solution:

(a) The angle between 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ is given by

𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗ 3−2−3 2
cos 𝜃 = = =− ⇒ 𝜃 = 99.27°
⃗⃗
|𝑎⃗||𝑏| √11√14 √154
Since 𝜃 ≠ 0° or 180°, these two vectors are not parallel.
(b) The angle between 𝑎⃗ and 𝑐⃗ is given by
𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑐⃗ 3+1−4
cos 𝜙 = = = 0 ⇒ 𝜙 = 90°.
|𝑎⃗||𝑐⃗| √11√18
These two vectors are orthogonal.
 Page 75 of 80

Review Example 3

(a) If two vectors 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are parallel, what can you say about 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗?
(b) Determine whether the vectors 𝑎⃗ = 3𝑖⃗ − 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑖⃗ − 2𝑗⃗ are parallel.
(c) It is given that the vectors 𝑐⃗ and 𝑑⃗ are not parallel. Show that the vectors
𝑐⃗ + 𝑑⃗ and 𝑐⃗ − 𝑑⃗ cannot be parallel.
Solution of (a)

Note that if 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are parallel, the angle between these two vectors must be
either 0° (same direction) or 180° (opposite direction). In either case, we have

𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗ = |𝑎⃗||𝑏⃗⃗| sin 𝜃 𝑛̂ = ⃗0⃗.

 Page 76 of 80

Solution of (b)
Using the result of (a), we consider

𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗ = (3𝑖⃗ − 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗) × (𝑖⃗ − 2𝑗⃗)

= 3(𝑖⃗ × 𝑖⃗) − 6(𝑖⃗ × 𝑗⃗) − (𝑗⃗ × 𝑖⃗) + 2(𝑗⃗ × 𝑗⃗) + (𝑘⃗⃗ × 𝑖⃗) − 2(𝑘⃗⃗ × 𝑗⃗)

= −6𝑘⃗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 2𝑖⃗ = 2𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ − 5𝑘⃗⃗.

Since 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗ ≠ ⃗0⃗, thus these two vectors cannot be parallel.

Solution of (c)
Again, we consider the vector product

(𝑐⃗ + 𝑑⃗) × (𝑐⃗ − 𝑑⃗) = (𝑐⃗ × 𝑐⃗) + (𝑑⃗ × 𝑐⃗) − (𝑐⃗ × 𝑑⃗) − (𝑑⃗ × 𝑑⃗) = (𝑑⃗ × 𝑐⃗) − (𝑐⃗ × 𝑑⃗)
= −(𝑐⃗ × 𝑑⃗) − (𝑐⃗ × 𝑑⃗) = −2(𝑐⃗ × 𝑑⃗).

Since 𝑐⃗ × 𝑑⃗ ≠ ⃗0⃗, then (𝑐⃗ + 𝑑⃗) × (𝑐⃗ − 𝑑⃗) ≠ ⃗0⃗ and they are not parallel.
 Page 77 of 80

Review Example 4
Using vector product and the techniques in Example 12, find the equation of the
plane containing the points 𝐴 = (−2, 1, −3), 𝐵 = (−3, −2, 4) and 𝐶 =
(1, −3, −2).
Solution:
We need to find the normal vector which is perpendicular to the plane. More
precisely, we need to find a vector which is perpendicular to both ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
𝐵𝐴 and 𝐵𝐶
Note that
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐴 𝑂𝐵 = 𝑖⃗ + 3𝑗⃗ − 7𝑘⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐵𝐶 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑂𝐵 = 4𝑖⃗ − 𝑗⃗ − 6𝑘⃗⃗
𝑂𝐶 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Then the required normal vector is given by
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝑖⃗ + 3𝑗⃗ − 7𝑘⃗⃗) × (4𝑖⃗ − 𝑗⃗ − 6𝑘⃗⃗) = ⋯ = −25𝑖⃗ − 22𝑗⃗ − 13𝑘⃗⃗.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐵𝐶
𝑛⃗⃗ = 𝐵𝐴
 Page 78 of 80

To find the equation of the plane, we pick a point 𝑃 = (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) in the plane, then
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is the vector on the plane and thus is perpendicular to the normal
the vector 𝐵𝑃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑛⃗⃗ must 0 i.e., 𝐵𝑃
vector. Thus the scalar product of 𝐵𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝑛⃗⃗ =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗||𝑛⃗⃗| cos 90° = 0.
|𝐵𝑃
Note that
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝑃 𝑂𝐵 = (𝑥 + 3)𝑖⃗ + (𝑦 + 2)𝑗⃗ + (𝑧 − 4)𝑘⃗⃗ .
𝑂𝑃 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Thus the equation of the plane is given by
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝑛⃗⃗ = 0
𝐵𝑃
⇒ −25(𝑥 + 3) − 22(𝑦 + 2) − 13(𝑧 − 4) = 0
⇒ 25𝑥 + 22𝑦 + 13𝑧 + 67 = 0.
 Page 79 of 80

Review Example 5
Let 𝐴 = (1, 2, 0), 𝐵 = (3, −1, −2) and 𝐶 = (−2, 0, 1) be three points in the plane
(a) Determine if the line 𝐴𝐵 is perpendicular to the line 𝐴𝐶.
(b) Find the area of Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶.
(c) Let 𝑎⃗ be a vector with same magnitude as that of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐶 and it is perpendicular to
both vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐴𝐵 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶 . Find the vector 𝑎⃗.
Solution
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑂𝐴 = 2𝑖⃗ − 3𝑗⃗ − 2𝑘⃗⃗,
𝑂𝐵 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Note that {
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑂𝐴 = −3𝑖⃗ − 2𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗.
𝑂𝐶 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(a) Let 𝜃 be the angle between 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐴𝐶 (i.e. ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶), then 𝜃 satisfies
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶 (2)(−3) + (−3)(−2) + (−2)(1) −2
cos 𝜃 = = =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗||𝐴𝐶
|𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | √22 + (−3)2 + (−2)2 √(−3)2 + (−2)2 + 12 √17√14
⇒ 𝜃 ≠ 90°
Thus 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐴𝐶 are not perpendicular.
(b) The area of Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 is
1 1
𝐴𝐶 | = |(2𝑖⃗ − 3𝑗⃗ − 2𝑘⃗⃗) × (−3𝑖⃗ − 2𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗)|
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝐴𝐵
2 2
 Page 80 of 80

1
= |−6 (⏟
𝑖⃗ × 𝑖⃗) − 4 (⏟ ⃗ × 𝑘⃗⃗) + 9 (⏟
𝑖⃗ × 𝑗⃗) + 2 (𝑖
⏟ 𝑗⃗ × 𝑖⃗) + 6 (⏟ ⃗ × 𝑘⃗⃗) + 6 (𝑘
𝑗⃗ × 𝑗⃗) − 3 (𝑗
⏟ ⏟⃗⃗ × 𝑖⃗)
2
⃗0⃗ ⃗𝑘⃗ −𝑗⃗ ⃗⃗
−𝑘 ⃗0⃗ 𝑖⃗ 𝑗⃗

⏟⃗⃗ × 𝑗⃗) − 2 (𝑘
+ 4 (𝑘 ⏟⃗⃗ × 𝑘⃗⃗)|
−𝑖⃗ ⃗⃗
0
1 1 √234
⃗⃗
= |−7𝑖⃗ + 4𝑗⃗ − 13𝑘| = √(−7) + (4) + (−13) =
2 2 2 .
2 2 2
(c) Note that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐶 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑂𝐵 = −5𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 3𝑘⃗⃗ and recall that the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐶 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐴𝐵 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶 is
perpendicular to both ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶 . Then
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √(−5)2 + 12 + 32 = √35.
 Magnitude of 𝑎⃗ = |𝐵𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ×𝐴𝐶
𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
−7𝑖⃗+4𝑗⃗−13𝑘
 Direction of 𝑎⃗ = = .
⏟⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ×𝐴𝐶
|𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | √234
unit vector‼
Thus the vector 𝑎⃗ is found to be
−7𝑖⃗ + 4𝑗⃗ − 13𝑘⃗⃗ 7√35 4√35 13√35
𝑎⃗ = (√35)
⏟ =− 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ − 𝑘⃗⃗.
⏟ √234 √234 √234 √234
magnitude
direction