CH07A

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FIRST AND SECOND-ORDER

TRANSIENT CIRCUITS
IN CIRCUITS WITH CAPACITORS AND INDUCTORS, VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS
CANNOT CHANGE INSTANTANEOUSLY.
EVEN THE APPLICATION, OR REMOVAL, OF CONSTANT SOURCES CREATES A
TRANSIENT BEHAVIOR.

LEARNING GOALS
FIRST ORDER CIRCUITS
Circuits that contain a single energy storing elements.
Either a capacitor or an inductor.

SECOND ORDER CIRCUITS


Circuits with two energy storing elements in any combination.
ANALYSIS OF LINEAR CIRCUITS WITH INDUCTORS AND/OR CAPACITORS
THE CONVENTIONAL ANALYSIS USING MATHEMATICAL MODELS REQUIRES THE DETERMINATION
OF (A SET OF) EQUATIONS THAT REPRESENT THE CIRCUIT.
ONCE THE MODEL IS OBTAINED, ANALYSIS REQUIRES THE SOLUTION OF THE EQUATIONS FOR
THE CASES REQUIRED.
FOR EXAMPLE, IN NODE OR LOOP ANALYSIS OF RESISTIVE CIRCUITS, ONE REPRESENTS THE
CIRCUIT BY A SET OF ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS.

THE MODEL

WHEN THERE ARE INDUCTORS OR CAPACITORS, THE MODELS BECOME LINEAR ORDINARY
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS (ODEs). HENCE, IN GENERAL, ONE NEEDS ALL THOSE TOOLS
IN ORDER TO BE ABLE TO ANALYZE CIRCUITS WITH ENERGY STORING ELEMENTS.
AN INTRODUCTION
INDUCTORS AND CAPACITORS CAN STORE ENERGY. UNDER SUITABLE CONDITIONS THIS ENERGY
CAN BE RELEASED. THE RATE AT WHICH IT IS RELEASED WILL DEPEND ON THE PARAMETERS
OF THE CIRCUIT CONNECTED TO THE TERMINALS OF THE ENERGY STORING ELEMENT.

With the switch on the left, the capacitor


receives charge from the battery.

Switch to the right


and the capacitor
discharges through
the lamp.
Natural Response
• The result shows that the
voltage response of the R
C circuit is an
exponential decay of the
initial voltage.
• Since this is the response
of the circuit without any
external applied voltage
or current, the response is
called the natural
response.
Time Constant 1

• The speed at which the voltage decays can be characterized by


how long it takes the voltage to
• drop to 1/ e • of the initial voltage.
• This is called the time constant and is represented by .
• By selecting 1/ e • as the reference voltage:  = RC
• After five time constants the voltage on the capacitor is less
than one percent.
• After five time constants a capacitor is considered to be
either fully discharged or charged.
• A circuit with a small time
constant has a fast response and
vice versa.
GENERAL RESPONSE: FIRST ORDER CIRCUITS WITH
CONSTANT SOURCES
Including the initial conditions,the model for the
capacitor voltage or the inductor current is of the form:
dx
(t ) + ax (t ) = f (t ); x (0+) = x0
dt
The form of the solution is:
t −t 0
− TIME
x(t ) = K1 + K 2e 
; t  t0 CONSTANT

TRANSIENT

Any variable in the circuit is of the form:


t −t 0

y(t ) = K1 + K2e 
; t  t0
Only the values of the constants K1 & K2 will change
THE TIME CONSTANT t

t e 
The following example
illustrates the physical  0.368 With less than 1%
meaning of time constant error the transient
2 0.135 is negligible after
Charging a capacitor 3 0.0498 five time constants.
vC − v S KCL@a :
4 0.0183
RS dv v − v S
C c+ C =0
5 0.0067
dt RS
The model
dvC dvC
C RTH C + vC = vTH
dt dt
Assume
v S = V S , v C ( 0) = 0
 = RTH C
The solution can be shown to
be t

vC (t ) = VS − VS e
transient

 = RTH C
For practical purposes the
capacitor is charged when the
transient is negligible.
CIRCUITS WITH ONE ENERGY STORING ELEMENT
THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION APPROACH
CONDITIONS
1. THE CIRCUIT HAS ONLY CONSTANT INDEPENDENT SOURCES.
2. THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION FOR THE VARIABLE OF INTEREST
IS SIMPLE TO OBTAIN. NORMALLY USING BASIC ANALYSIS TOOLS;
e.g., KCL, KVL. . . OR THEVENIN.
3. THE INITIAL CONDITION FOR THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
IS KNOWN, OR CAN BE OBTAINED USING STEADY STATE ANALYSIS.
FACT: WHEN ALL INDEPENDENT SOURCES ARE CONSTANT
FOR ANY VARIABLE, y(t ), IN THE CIRCUIT THE
SOLUTION IS OF THE FORM
( t − tO )

y( t ) = K 1 + K 2 e 
, t  tO

SOLUTION STRATEGY: USE THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION AND THE


INITIAL CONDITIONS TO FIND THE PARAMETERS K1, K 2 , .
If the diff eq for y is known Use the initial condition to get
in the form one more equation
dy K 2 − t   − 
t
y(0+) = K1 + K 2
a1  − + a0ey =  f+ a We
 K1can e  this
+ K 2use = f
dt   0 
info to find  K 2 = y(0+) − K1
   unknowns 
y (0 + ) = y0 the

Use the diff eq to find two


more equations by replacing
the form of solution into the
differential equation
SHORTCUT: WRITE DIFFERENTIAL
t t EQ.IN NORMALIZED FORM WITH
− dy K2 −

y (t ) = K1 + K 2e , t  0  =− e COEFFICIENT OF VARIABLE = 1.
dt 
 K2 − t  −
t
 a1
dy a dy
+ a0 y = f  1 +y=
f
a1  − e   + a 0  K1 + K 2 e  = f dt a0 dt a0
    
     K1
f
a0 K1 = f  K1 =
a0
t
 a1  − a1
 − + a 0  K 2e
 = 0  =
   a0
LEARNING EXAMPLE VS −
t
FIND v (t ), t  0. ASSUME v (0) = x ( t ) = K1 + K 2 e  ,t  0
2
K1 = x (); K1 + K 2 = x (0+ )
STEP 2 STEADY STATE ANALYSIS
t

SOLUTION IS v (t ) = K1 + K 2e  , t 0
for   0 and t → , v(t) → K1 (steady state value)
IN STEADY STATE THE SOLUTION IS
A CONSTANT. HENCE ITS DERIVATIVE
MODEL FOR t  0. USE KCL @ v (t ) IS ZERO. FROM DIFF EQ.
v (t ) − VS dv
+C (t ) = 0 */ R dv
R dt = 0  v = VS Steady state value
dt from diff. eq.
initial condition v (0) = VS / 2
 (equating steady state values)
(DIFF. EQ. KNOWN, K1 = VS
INITIAL CONDITION KNOWN)
dy
IF THE MODEL IS  + y = f THEN K1 = f
STEP 1 TIME CONSTANT dt
dy STEP 3 USE OF INITIAL CONDITION
 +y= f
dt AT t = 0
dv v ( 0) = K 1 + K 2  K 2 = v ( 0) − K 1
RC (t ) + v (t ) = Vs
dt K 2 = v (0) − f v (0) = VS / 2  K 2 = −VS / 2
t
Get time constant as −
coefficient of derivative ANSWER : v (t ) = VS − (VS / 2)e RC , t 0
LEARNING EXAMPLE FIND i (t ), t  0 −
t
x ( t ) = K1 + K 2 e  ,t  0
+ vR − K1 = x (); K1 + K 2 = x (0+ )
t

KVL + i(t ) = K1 + K 2e  , t  0
vL MODEL. USE KVL FOR t  0
i (t )

di
VS = v R + v L = Ri (t ) + L (t )
dt
INITIAL CONDITION
t  0  i (0 −) = 0 
i ( 0 + ) = 0
inductor  i (0−) = i (0+ )
STEP 1 L di VS  = L
(t ) + i (t ) =
R dt R R
STEP 2 STEADY STATE i () = K = VS
1
R
STEP 3 INITIAL CONDITION  −
t

VS  L 
ANS : i (t ) = 1 − e R
i (0+) = K1 + K 2 R  

 
LEARNING BY DOING

t

i(t ) = K1 + K 2e  , t  0 v (t )

MODEL. KCL FOR t  0

v (t )
IS = + i (t )
R
di L di
v (t ) = L (t )  I S = (t ) + i (t )
dt R dt
INITIAL CONDITION : i (0+) = 0
L
STEP 1  =
R  t


 L 
STEP 2 i () = I S  K1 = I S ANS : i (t ) = I S 1 − e R 
 
STEP 3 i (0+) = 0 = K1 + K 2  
t

i (t ) = K1 + K 2e  , t  0

INITIAL CONDITIONS
CIRCUIT IN STEADY STATE FOR t  0

MODEL FOR t  0
3k
vC (0−) = (12) = 4V  v (0+) = 4V
3k + 6k
v (t )
i (t ) = STEP 1
R2
 = RP C = (2 103 )(100 10−6 F ) = 0.2 s
STEP 2 v () = K1 = 0
DETERMINE MODEL FOR CAPACITOR − t
4
VOLTAGE; USE IT TO FIND ], t  0 3 v (0+) = K1 + K 2 = 4V  K 2 = 4V
ANS : i (t ) = e 0.2 [mASTEP
3 t
v (t ) dv v (t ) −
+ C (t ) + = 0; RP = R1 || R2 v (t ) = 4e 0.2 [V ], t  0
R1 dt R2
dv v (t ) RP = 3k || 6k = 2k t
4 − 0.2
C (t ) + =0 ANS : i (t ) = e [mA ], t  0
dt RP 3
t
LEARNING EXAMPLE FIND vO (t ), t  0 −

x ( t ) = K1 + K 2 e ,t  0
K1 = x (); K1 + K 2 = x (0+ )
t

i (t ) vO (t ) = K1 + K 2e  , t  0
STEP 2: FIND K1 USING STEADY
STATE ANALYSIS
KVL(t>0)
dvO
0.5 (t ) + vO (t ) = 6  vO () = 6V
dt
vO () = K1
 K1 = 6V
THE NEXT STEP REQUIRES THE INITIAL
VALUE OF THE VARIABLE, vO (0+)
MODEL FOR t  0. USE KVL
di FOR THE INITIAL CONDITION ONE NEEDS
− VS1 + R1i (t ) + L (t ) + R3i (t ) = 0
dt THE INDUCTOR CURRENT FOR t<0 AND
di USES THE CONTINUITY OF THE INDUCTOR
2 (t ) + 4i (t ) = 12 vO (t ) = 2i (t )[V ] CURRENT DURING THE SWITCHING.
dt
di
0.5 (t ) + i (t ) = 3[ A] THE STEADY STATE ASSUMPTION FOR t<0
dt SIMPLIFIES THE ANALYSIS
dvO STEP 1
0.5 (t ) + vO (t ) = 6V
dt  = 0.5
CIRCUIT IN STEADY STATE (t<0)
a
RTH = 2 || 2 = 1
iL I1 − 12 + 4 I1 − 4 = 0
I1 = 4[ A]
t 0 KVL
KVL VTH = VOC = 2 I1 − 4
VTH = 4[V ]

b 4
i L (0−) = i (0+) = [ A]
3
MUST FIND i L (t ) 4 8
i (0+) =  vO (0+) = [V ]
FOR EXAMPLE USE THEVENIN 3 3
88 8 8 1010
ASSUMING INDUCTOR IN STEADY K=1 +==
KK1 1++KK2 2= =KK
K6162−+− K222=
=−K
6K =2K26=2=−KK 2 =
2 
STATE 33 3 3 33
t

vO (t ) = K1 + K 2e  , t  0
t
10 − 0.5
vO (t ) = 6 − e [V ], t  0
3
USING THEVENIN TO OBTAIN MODELS
Obtain the voltage across the capacitor
or the current through the inductor

a
Circuit RTH a
with Inductor
resistances or Inductor
and Capacitor VTH +
sources or
Thevenin − Capacitor
b

Representation of an arbitrary b
circuit with one storage element

KCL@ node a RTH a Use KVL


ic ic + iR = 0 + vR − + vR + vL = vTH
iR VTH +
ic = C C
dv

L
vL vR = RTH iL
dt iL − diL
v −v vL = L
iR = C TH Case 1.2
b dt
RTH Current through inductor diL
L + RTH iL = vTH
dvC vC − vTH dt
C + =0
dt RTH  L  diL
dvC vTH
RTH C + vC = vTH   + iL = = iSC
dt  RTH  dt RTH
EXAMPLE Find iO (t), t  0
vTH = 6V
6k 100 F 6k RTH = 6k || 6k = 3k
iO (t ) + vC −  = 3 *103  *100 *10−6 F = 0.3s
12V +
6k
-
6k t =0
Model for v C
For t  0 iO =
vC dvC
6k 0.3 + vC = 6
dt t
Hence, if the capacitor voltage −
is known the problem is solved. vC = K1 + K 2e 0.3

Model for Vc K1 = 6
dvC
RTH C + vC = vTH
dt Now we need to determine
6k a 6k the initial value Vc(0+)
+ vTH − b using continuity and the
iO (t ) steady state assumption.
12V +
-
6k t 0 6k
circuit in steady state
before the switching
6k 6k
+ vC (0−) −
iO (t )
12V +
6k
-
6k t 0

vC (0−) = 6V
Continuity of capacitor voltage

vC (0+ ) = 6V
K1 + K 2 = vC (0+)
K1 = 6  K 2 = 0
t

vC = K1 + K 2e 0.3

vC
vC (t ) = 6V ; t  0  iO (t ) = = 1mA; t  0
6k
Ideal pulse waveform
NONZERO INITIAL TIME AND REPEATED SWITCHING
dx
 + x = fTH ; x (t0 +) = x0
dt
t −t0 t−x

 1t −

x (t ) = e x (t0 ) +  e fTH ( x )dx
t 0

t −t 0

x(t ) = K1 + K 2e 
; t  t0
RESPONSE FOR CONSTANT SOURCES
This expression will hold on ANY interval where the sources are
constant. The values of the constants may be different and must be
evaluated for each interval.
The values at the end of one interval will serve as initial
conditions for the next interval.
LEARNING EXAMPLE FIND THE OUTPUT VOLTAGE vO (t ); t  0
t  0.3  v (t ) = 0 to = 0.3 −
0.3
vo (0.3+) = 4(1 − e 0.4 )

( t −0.3)
−  ' = 0.4
vO (t ) = K1" + K 2" e  '

vo () = 0  K1" = 0 K 2" = vo (0.3+) = 2.11(V )

t −0.3

vo (t ) = 2.11e 0.4 ; t  0.3

t  0  v (t ) = 0  vO (t ) = 0 vO (0+) = 0
t  0  v (t ) = 9V −
t
' '
vo (t ) = K1 + K 2e 
 = RTH C = (6k || 12k ) 100 F = 0.4s
8 ' v (0+ ) = K ` + K ' = 0
v o ( ) = (9) = K1 o 1 2
10 + 8
 −
t


vo ( t ) = 4 1 − e 0. 4 
 
 
EXAMPLE THE SWITCH IS INITIALLY FOR 0  t  0.5 (switch at b) to = 0
AT a. AT TIME t=0 IT MOVES TO b t

AND AT t=0.5 IT MOVES BACK TO a. vO (t ) = K1' + K 2' e  v (0+) = 12[V ] = K1' + K 2'
FIND vO (t ) , t  0
vO () = 0 = K1'  = (10k)(20 F ) = 0.2 s
a 10k −
t

+ vO (t ) = 12e 0.2 , 0  t  0.5


b+
+
- v S (t ) 20 F vO FOR t  0.5 (switch at a ) to = 0.5
12V − − 0.5

vs (t ) vO (0.5+) = vO (0.5−) = 12e 0.2 = 0.985
( t −0.5)
12 vO (t ) = K1" + K 2" e

'

vO (0.5+) = 0.985 = K1" + K 2 "

0.5 t (s) vO () = 12 = K1" K 2" = 0.985 − 12 = −11.015


Piecewise constant source t −0.5

vO (t ) = 12 − 11.015e 0.2 , t  0.5
ON EACH INTERVAL WHERE THE SOURCE
IS CONSTANT THE OUTPUT IS OF THE FORM The constants are determined
t − tO in the usual manner.

vO (t ) = K1 + K 2e 

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