energies

Article
Torque Vectoring Control as an Energy-Efficient Alternative to
Vehicle Suspensions Tuning
Michele Asperti * , Michele Vignati and Edoardo Sabbioni *

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Politecnico di Milano, Via La Masa 1, 20156 Milan, Italy
* Correspondence: michele.asperti@polimi.it (M.A.); edoardo.sabbioni@polimi.it (E.S.)

Abstract: With a shift in the automotive industry’s focus towards sustainability and energy efficiency,
optimizing vehicle handling dynamics has been put on a secondary level. Moreover, there is a growing
trend towards comfort-oriented design, conversely to the vehicle-handling one. Nevertheless, recent
advancements such as the integration of multiple independently controlled electric motors on a
vehicle is enabling torque vectoring, which offers a promising opportunity for reconciling these
conflicting objectives. This paper proposes a novel approach for jointly improving vehicle handling
and energy efficiency performance. Indeed, through advanced simulation techniques, the effects of
various suspension configurations are explored to strike a balance between cornering performance
and energy consumption. Then, a torque vectoring controller is designed in combination with a
meticulous tuning of the suspension setup. This innovative approach of considering the active control
design together with the suspensions’ setup allows to obtain superior performances. Indeed, the
desired vehicle cornering capabilities can be achieved while also guaranteeing a significantly more
efficient vehicle in straight-line running, which covers most of the usual road driving time.

Keywords: vehicle lateral dynamics; suspension setup optimization; torque vectoring; camber angle;
toe angle; energy consumption

1. Introduction
Citation: Asperti, M.; Vignati, M.;
Sabbioni, E. Torque Vectoring Control
Road vehicle users are always aiming at sporty and high-performance vehicles, even
as an Energy-Efficient Alternative to
though the automotive industry focus is now put on achieving sustainable and energy-
Vehicle Suspensions Tuning. Energies efficient solutions [1]. As a consequence, optimizing vehicle handling dynamics is pro-
2024, 17, 2903. https://doi.org/ gressively losing its paramount importance at the design stage. Indeed, for what concerns
10.3390/en17122903 suspensions, the industry is no longer concentrating on suspension optimization to improve
vehicle handling performance [2,3]. Conversely, the focus of suspension design has pivoted
Academic Editor: Giovanni
to comfort-centered vision, with several approaches aiming at improving the overall ride
Lutzemberger
comfort through suspension optimization [4–6]. In some cases, active contributions are
Received: 16 May 2024 added to the suspension system to improve the vehicle passengers’ comfort, where the
Revised: 3 June 2024 active part of the system is also optimized [7]. In this context, end users of sports vehicles
Accepted: 11 June 2024 strive to adopt aftermarket solutions with the objective of improving vehicle handling,
Published: 13 June 2024 which typically worsens the high-efficiency capability of the standard vehicle.
Even though car setup optimization [8] still remains a fundamental aspect, the current
advances allowing for the adoption of multiple electric motors in a single vehicle [9] allow
for much more advanced improvements. Indeed, thanks to the deployment of In-Wheel
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
Motors (IWMs) [10], it is possible to easily deploy torque vectoringTorque Vectoring (TV)
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
to vehicles for controlling their lateral dynamics through the application of a yaw moment.
This article is an open access article
Indeed, through the years, several TV controllers have been proposed [11,12] with the
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
objective of improving vehicle lateral dynamics by actively following a yaw rate and/or
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
sideslip angle reference. Conversely, there are also contributions that propose the use of TV
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ with the sole objective of improving the overall vehicle efficiency [13,14]. In between these
4.0/). two extremes, the most common approach is designing the TV controller to improve vehicle

Energies 2024, 17, 2903. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17122903 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2024, 17, 2903 2 of 17

lateral dynamics and then allocating the actuation torque to the motors by minimizing the
power losses [15], while achieving the required yaw moment. Moreover, TV controllers
also have the capability to adapt the vehicle behavior to the actual desires of the driver
by simply selecting a driving mode [16,17], which results in an on-demand modification
of the reference vehicle behavior, with the possibility of privileging vehicle handling or
energy efficiency.
This paper explores a novel approach to ensure good vehicle handling capabilities,
while also achieving high energy efficiency levels by jointly tuning vehicle suspensions
and designing the torque vectoring control system. This allows to handle the compro-
mise between vehicle cornering performance and energy efficiency improvements through
additional degrees of freedom. Thus, the research endeavors to address the inherent trade-
off between cornering performance and energy consumption through a comprehensive
investigation of integrated design solutions. Leveraging advanced simulation methodolo-
gies, various configurations of joint suspension tuning and torque vectoring designs are
evaluated to understand their impact on cornering dynamics and energy efficiency.

2. Suspensions Angles Effects on Vehicle Performance

Suspension angles such as camber and toe are typically set at rather neutral values
in standard road cars to prevent excessive tire consumption due to its scrubbing on the
road. Instead, these angles are typically tuned far from the neutral condition in sports
vehicles to improve their cornering response. It is thus fundamental to understand the
effects of these angles on vehicle performance for properly setting them for the specific
vehicle scope. For this purpose, a sweep of vehicle dynamic simulations varying toe and
camber angles both at the front and rear suspensions has been conducted. The considered
vehicle is an S-segment vehicle equipped with four independently controllable In-Wheel
Motors (IWMs), whose main characteristics are reported in Table 1. The vehicle model
for simulation purposes is developed using VI-Grade CarRealTime 2022 software, thus
accounting for 5 rigid bodies and 14 degrees of freedom. In particular, the vehicle model
for the present work is developed starting from the validated VI-CarRealTime SportCar
model, which is an internal combustion engine vehicle. The original powertrain is then
substituted with four IWMs, updating the inertial properties of both the vehicle chassis
and the wheel assemblies accordingly.

Table 1. Main S-segment vehicle data.

Description Symbol Unit Value

Vehicle mass m kg 1660
Vehicle yaw inertia moment Jz kg m2 1790
Wheelbase l mm 2740
Vehicle c.o.m to front axle distance lf mm 1520
Vehicle c.o.m to rear axle distance lr mm 1220
Front track half-width tF mm 839
Rear track half-width tR mm 846
Vehicle c.o.m height from ground hG mm 416
Maximum in-wheel motor power Pm,max kW 90
Maximum in-wheel motor torque Tm,max Nm 1250

For the present investigation about the effect of suspension angles, only negative
camber angles have been considered, meaning that the top part of the tire is more towards
the vehicle centerline with respect to the bottom part. This is because this condition is the
one improving the vehicle’s dynamic response thanks to a favorable condition of the outer
wheel during a turn. Instead, for what concerns the toe angle, both positive and negative
values are considered, with positive values meaning that the front part of the tire is more
towards the vehicle centerline as compared to its rear part, which is typically known as
toe-in condition. A steering pad constant speed maneuver at 90 km/h has been performed
 Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 17

Energies 2024, 17, 2903 values are considered, with positive values meaning that the front part of the tire is3 of more
17
towards the vehicle centerline as compared to its rear part, which is typically known as
toe-in condition. A steering pad constant speed maneuver at 90 km/h has been performed
by increasing
by increasing thethe steering
steering wheel
wheel angle
angle at aatrate
a rate of one
of one degree
degree per second
per second until until reaching
reaching the
the vehicle
vehicle handling
handling limits limits
for eachforofeach
the of the available
available configurations
configurations of toe
of toe and and camber
camber an-
angles at
gles
the at the
front andfront and rear suspensions.
rear suspensions. The effectsThe effects
of front of front suspension
suspension angles response
angles on vehicle on vehicle
response
are reportedare
in reported in Figure
Figure 1 both 1 both
in terms in terms
of yaw rate (r)ofand
yawsideslip
rate (𝑟)angle
and sideslip angleto(𝛽)
(β) responses there-
sponseswheel
steering to theangle
steering
(δSWwheel
) input.angle (𝛿 ) input.

Front Camber Effect ( f = 0°, r = 0°, r = 0°) Front Toe Effect ( f = 0°, r = 0°, r = 0°)
0.5 0.5

0.4 0.4

0.3 0.3
r [rad/s]

r [rad/s]
0.2 0.2

0.1 0.1
f
= 0° f
= 0°
= -2° = -1°
0 f 0 f

f
= -4° f
= 1°

-0.1 -0.1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

SW
[rad] SW
[rad]

Front Camber Effect ( f = 0°, r = 0°, r = 0°) Front Toe Effect ( f = 0°, r = 0°, r = 0°)
0.02 0.02
f
= 0° f
= 0°
0 = -2° 0 = -1°
f f

f
= -4° f
= 1°
-0.02 -0.02
[rad]

[rad]

-0.04 -0.04

-0.06 -0.06

-0.08 -0.08

-0.1 -0.1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

SW
[rad] SW
[rad]

Figure1.1.Front
Figure Frontsuspension
suspensionangles (Camberγ𝛾– –Toe
angles(Camber Toeτ) 𝜏) effects
effects onon vehicleyaw
vehicle yawrate
rate(r)(𝑟) and
and sideslip
sideslip
angle
angle (β)(𝛽) responses
responses during
during a steering
a steering pad
pad constant
constant speed
speed maneuver.
maneuver.

When
Wheninspecting
inspectingthe thevehicle
vehicle yaw rate rate response
responseininFigure
Figure1,1, it possible
it is is possible to notice
to notice how
how a more
a more negativenegative
cambercamberangleangle is sharpening
is sharpening the transition
the transition between between the linear
the linear and
and satura-
saturation
tion regions, regions,
whilewhile also increasing
also increasing the asymptotic
the asymptotic valuevalue achieved
achieved for high for high
steeringsteering
wheel
wheel angle inputs. Still looking at the yaw rate response, but now
angle inputs. Still looking at the yaw rate response, but now as a function of the front as a function of the front
toe
toe angle,
angle, it itisispossible
possibletotonotice
noticehow
how aa toe-out (τ (𝜏 f < 0) is deeply
deeply changing
changingthe theslope
slopeofofthethe
linear
linearregion
region ofof
thethe
response,
response, while
whilealso providing
also providing a smoother
a smoother transition
transition between
betweenthe linear
the lin-
and
earthe
andsaturation
the saturation regions. Instead,
regions. a toe-in
Instead, (τ f > (𝜏
a toe-in 0) is generating
0) is generating an opposite trend trend
an opposite but
with a significantly lower variation with respect to the neutral
but with a significantly lower variation with respect to the neutral toe (𝜏 toe (τ f = 0) setting. For what
0) setting. For
concerns the vehicle
what concerns sideslipsideslip
the vehicle angle response, which iswhich
angle response, fundamental for vehicle
is fundamental forstability, it
vehicle sta-
isbility,
possible to state that a more negative camber angle increases the
it is possible to state that a more negative camber angle increases the limit value limit value while also
providing
while also a faster transition
providing a fasterto that value.toAthat
transition toe-in (τ f >
value. A 0) lowers
toe-in (𝜏 the0) sideslip
lowersangle limit
the sideslip
value
anglewhile
limitproviding
value while a faster settling
providing to that
a faster value,towhile
settling a toe-out
that value, while (τ f a<toe-out
0) is doing
(𝜏 the 0) is
opposite, thus increasing the limit value by a similar quantity and making the transition
doing the opposite, thus increasing the limit value by a similar quantity and making the
towards that value much smoother. The smooth variation of the vehicle sideslip angle is a
transition towards that value much smoother. The smooth variation of the vehicle sideslip
desirable feature for ensuring vehicle stability and this is the reason why on standard road
angle is a desirable feature for ensuring vehicle stability and this is the reason why on
vehicles the front toe is slightly negative and the rear toe slightly positive. In addition to
standard road vehicles the front toe is slightly negative and the rear toe slightly positive.
the pure vehicle cornering response variation as a function of suspension angles presented
in Figure 1, it is also possible to inspect the effects these angles have on the maximum
achievable lateral acceleration (ay,max ), as reported in Figure 2. It is noteworthy to say that,
 Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 17
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 17

In addition to the pure vehicle cornering response variation as a function of suspension

Energies 2024, 17, 2903 In addition to the pure vehicle cornering response variation as a function of suspension 4 of 17
angles presented in Figure 1, it is also possible to inspect the effects these angles have on
angles presented in Figure 1, it is also possible to inspect the effects these angles have on
the maximum achievable lateral acceleration (𝑎 , ), as reported in Figure 2. It is note-
the maximum achievable lateral acceleration (𝑎 , ), as reported in Figure 2. It is note-
worthy to say that, in steady-state conditions and at a constant traveling speed (𝑣), the
worthy
inlateral to
steady-statesay that, in
conditions steady-state conditions
and at a constant and
traveling at a constant
(v), thetraveling speed (𝑣), is
the
acceleration is proportional to the yaw rate (𝑎 speed𝑟𝑣). lateral acceleration
lateral acceleration is proportional
proportional to the yaw rate (ay = rv). to the yaw rate (𝑎 𝑟𝑣).
2 2]

2 2]
[m/s

[m/s
]

]
[m/s

[m/s
a y,max

a y,max
a y,max

a y,max
Figure 2. Front suspension angles (Camber 𝛾 – Toe 𝜏 ) effects on vehicle maximum achievable
Figure2. 2.Front
Figure
steady-stateFront suspension
suspension
lateral angles
angles
acceleration (Camber
(𝑎 ,(Camber
). γ𝛾– –Toe
Toeτ)𝜏effects
) effectsonon vehicle
vehicle maximumachievable
maximum achievable
steady-state
steady-state lateral
lateral acceleration
acceleration (𝑎 , ). ).
(ay,max
When analyzing Figure 2, it is evident that a more negative camber angle both at the
Whenanalyzing
When analyzingFigureFigure 2,2,it it
is is evident
evident thata amore
that more negativecamber
negative camberangle
angleboth
bothatatthe
the
front and at the rear tires is able to improve the maximum achievable lateral acceleration.
front
front andandatatthe
therear
reartires
tiresisisable
abletotoimprove
improvethe themaximum
maximumachievable
achievablelateral
lateralacceleration.
acceleration.
For this reason, it would be completely out of sense to impose positive camber angles.
ForForthis
thisreason,
reason,it itwould
wouldbebecompletely
completelyout outofofsense
sensetotoimpose
imposepositive
positivecamber
camberangles.
angles.
Moreover, for the specific vehicle considered in this paper, the front camber angle is much
Moreover, for the specific vehicle considered in this paper, the
Moreover, for the specific vehicle considered in this paper, the front camber angle is much front camber angle is
more effective than the rear camber angle in increasing the maximum achievable vehicle
much
moremore effective
effective than than
the rearthe camber
rear camber angleangle in increasing
in increasing the maximum
the maximum achievable
achievable vehicle
lateral acceleration. In a similar way, a more negative toe angle also increases the maxi-
vehicle
laterallateral acceleration.
acceleration. In a similarIn a similar
way, a moreway, anegative
more negative
toe angle toe angle
also also increases
increases the maxi-
mum achievable vehicle lateral acceleration with similar effects if considering toe angle
themummaximum achievable
achievable vehicle vehicle lateral acceleration
lateral acceleration with effects
with similar similarifeffects if considering
considering toe angle
variations at the front or rear tires. The capability to increase the maximum lateral accel-
toe angle variations
variations at the frontat the front
or rear or rear
tires. The tires. The to
capability capability
increaseto theincrease
maximum the lateral
maximum accel-
eration is for sure beneficial for improving vehicle cornering; nevertheless, this is not the
lateral acceleration is for sure beneficial for improving vehicle cornering;
eration is for sure beneficial for improving vehicle cornering; nevertheless, this is not nevertheless, this
the
only aspect to investigate. Indeed, the vehicle responsiveness to the steering input is also
isonly
not the only aspect to investigate. Indeed, the vehicle responsiveness
aspect to investigate. Indeed, the vehicle responsiveness to the steering input is also to the steering
a fundamental aspect for improving vehicle cornering, which is represented by the under-
input is also a fundamental
a fundamental aspect for vehicle
aspect for improving improving vehiclewhich
cornering, cornering, which is represented
is represented by the under-
steering
bysteering coefficient
the understeering ( 𝐾 ). In particular, a smaller understeering coefficient means a
coefficient coefficient (KUS ). In particular,
( 𝐾 ). In particular, a smallera understeering
smaller understeering
coefficient coefficient
means a
prompter
means vehicle vehicle
a prompter response, which is
response, givenis by an increased slope slope
of the yaw the rate linear
prompter vehicle response, which which is given given
by an by an increased
increased slope of theofyaw yaw rate
rate linear
response
linear region
response as
regiona function
as a of
function the ofsteering
the wheel
steering angle
wheel input.
angle The
input. understeering
The coeffi-
understeering
response region as a function of the steering wheel angle input. The understeering coeffi-
cient variation
coefficient as a function
variation of both of front
both and rear
andsuspension angles angles
during the steering
cient variation as a as a function
function of both front front
and rear rear suspension
suspension angles duringduring the
the steering
pad
steeringconstant
pad speed
constant maneuver
speed is
maneuver reportedis in Figure
reported in 3.
Figure 3.
pad constant speed maneuver is reported in Figure 3.
[-] [-]

[-] [-]
K US

K US
K US

K US

Figure3.3. Front
Figure Frontsuspension
suspensionangles (Camber
angles 𝛾 – Toe
(Camber 𝜏) effects
γ – Toe on vehicle
τ) effects understeering
on vehicle coefficient
understeering (𝐾 ).
coeffi-
Figure 3. Front suspension angles (Camber 𝛾 – Toe 𝜏) effects on vehicle understeering coefficient (𝐾 ).
cient (KUS ).

The results in Figure 3 highlight that a more negative camber at the front or rear
suspensions generates an opposite variation of the understeering coefficient, which is
almost linear for the inspected range of camber angles. In particular, the decrease in the
 Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 17

Energies 2024, 17, 2903

The results in Figure 3 highlight that a more negative camber at the front or rear sus-
5 of 17
pensions generates an opposite variation of the understeering coefficient, which is almost
linear for the inspected range of camber angles. In particular, the decrease in the under-
steering coefficient caused by a negative camber angle at the front tires is slightly bigger
understeering coefficient caused by a negative camber angle at the front tires is slightly
than the increase in the understeering coefficient caused by the same negative camber an-
bigger than the increase in the understeering coefficient caused by the same negative
gle at the rear tires. This means that by imposing the same negative camber angle at both
camber angle at the rear tires. This means that by imposing the same negative camber
front and rear tires, the vehicle becomes slightly less understeering, while also being able
angle at both front and rear tires, the vehicle becomes slightly less understeering, while
to achieve a higher lateral acceleration limit, according to the results in Figure 2. Still ana-
also being able to achieve a higher lateral acceleration limit, according to the results in
Figure 2. Figure
lyzing 3, it is possible
Still analyzing toitnotice
Figure 3, that the
is possible same that
to notice variation of toe
the same angle atofthe
variation toefront
angleor
rear suspensions is also generating an opposite variation of the understeering
at the front or rear suspensions is also generating an opposite variation of the understeering coefficient.
In this case,
coefficient. Inthethisrear
case,toethe
variation
rear toeaffects the understeering
variation coefficient more
affects the understeering than the
coefficient front
more
toe variation, up to a point where an excessive toe-out (𝜏 0) at
than the front toe variation, up to a point where an excessive toe-out (τr > 0) at the rear isthe rear is causing the
vehicle to become oversteering (𝐾 0). As a result of this analysis
causing the vehicle to become oversteering (KUS < 0). As a result of this analysis of the of the effect of sus-
pension
effect angles on angles
of suspension vehicleon cornering performance,
vehicle cornering it is evident
performance, that
it is a proper
evident thatsuspension
a proper
suspension setup can deeply modify vehicle handling properties when movingalmost
setup can deeply modify vehicle handling properties when moving from neutral
from almost
angle angle
neutral setupssetups
to aggressive setups.
to aggressive Nevertheless,
setups. Nevertheless,this this
comes at the
comes costcost
at the of increased
of increased tire
wear due to the modification of the contact patch and the increased
tire wear due to the modification of the contact patch and the increased tire scrubbing over tire scrubbing over
theground.
the ground.Together
Togetherwith withincreased
increasedtiretire consumption,
consumption, energy energy losses
losses are are also
alsoexpected
expectedto
increase because of a change in suspension angles from their
to increase because of a change in suspension angles from their neutral position. For neutral position. Forthis
this
reason, a sweep of 90 km/h constant-speed straight-runs varying
reason, a sweep of 90 km/h constant-speed straight-runs varying toe and camber angles toe and camber angles
bothatatthe
both the front
front andand rear
rear suspensions
suspensions has
has been
been simulated
simulated with
with thethe same
same vehiclemodel
vehicle model
used
used forfor cornering
cornering analysis.The
analysis. Theoutcome
outcomeofofthesethesesimulations
simulationsinintermstermsofofspecific
specificenergy
energy
consumption
consumption (E(𝐸 ) is
sp ) is reported
reported inin Figure
Figure 4. 4.
E sp [Wh/km]
E sp [Wh/km]

Figure
Figure 4. 4. Front
Front suspension
suspension angles
angles (Camber γ – 𝛾Toe
(Camber – Toe 𝜏) effects
τ) effects on vehicle-specific
on vehicle-specific energy
energy consump-
consumption
(Etion
sp ) (𝐸constant
in ) in constant
speed speed straight-line
straight-line running.
running.

Fromthe
From theanalysis
analysisofofFigure
Figure4, 4,it it
is is evident
evident howhow anyany variation
variation ofof suspension
suspension angles
angles
fromthe
from theneutral
neutralposition
positionisiscausing
causingan an increased
increased energy consumption, with with thethetoe
toeangle
an-
gleeffect that
effect is almost
that is almost oneone
order of magnitude
order of magnitude bigger thanthan
bigger the one due due
the one to thetocamber angle.
the camber
In particular,
angle. front and
In particular, frontrear
andcamber angle variations
rear camber are causing
angle variations similar changes
are causing in specific
similar changes
inenergy
specificconsumption, while toewhile
energy consumption, changes toe at the rear
changes atgenerate a greateravariation
the rear generate in specific
greater variation
inenergy
specificconsumption as compared
energy consumption to the same
as compared to toe
thechanges
same toeatchanges
the front.atAsthea front.
direct conse-
As a
direct consequence,
quence, suspension suspension
angle tuninganglefortuning for improving
improving vehicle cornering
vehicle cornering may cause may cause an
an undesired
undesired
increase increase
in energy inconsumption
energy consumption
and thus and thus a reduction
a reduction in the in the vehicle
vehicle range,range,
whichwhich
is cur-
is rently
currently a widely
a widely discussed
discussed topic
topic for battery
for battery electric
electric vehicles.
vehicles.
The
The objective
objective ofof
this paper
this paperisistotodesign
designa atorque
torquevectoring
vectoringcontroller
controller able
abletotoguarantee
guarantee
the same vehicle cornering performances which can be obtained
the same vehicle cornering performances which can be obtained through suspension through suspension anglean-
tuning through
gle tuning the independent
through activeactive
the independent controlcontrol
of the of
fourthemotors drivingdriving
four motors the vehicle. This
the vehicle.
configuration allowsallows
This configuration to maintain a neutral
to maintain suspension
a neutral setup,setup,
suspension and thus it is expected
and thus to
it is expected
reduce the specific
to reduce energy
the specific consumption
energy consumption with respect to theto
with respect vehicle equipped
the vehicle with a with
equipped non- a
neutral suspension setup. In particular, a couple of suspension setups are considered in this
paper and presented in Table 2. The baseline setup is characterized by suspension angles
typical for road vehicles for ensuring proper drivability in all conditions, while the sporty
 Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 17

Energies 2024, 17, 2903 non-neutral suspension setup. In particular, a couple of suspension setups are considered6 of 17
in this paper and presented in Table 2. The baseline setup is characterized by suspension
angles typical for road vehicles for ensuring proper drivability in all conditions, while the
setup issetup
sporty is characterized
characterized by morebyaggressive
more aggressive suspension
suspension angles,angles,
as wellasaswell as a stiffened
a stiffened rear
rear anti-roll
anti-roll bar
bar for for improving
improving vehicle
vehicle handling.
handling.

Table2.2.Baseline
Table Baselineand
andsporty
sportyvehicle
vehiclesuspension
suspensionsetup
setupdetails.
details.

Parameter
Parameter Symbol
Symbol Baseline Setup
Baseline Setup SportySetup
Sporty Setup
Front camber angle 𝛾 −0.5 deg −4.5 deg
Front camber angle γf −0.5 deg −4.5 deg
Front toe toe
Front angleangle τf 𝜏 −−0.05 deg
0.05 deg −−0.15 deg
0.15 deg
Rear
Rear camber
camber angleangle γr 𝛾 −−0.5 deg
0.5 deg −−3.0 deg
3.0 deg
Rear
Reartoetoe
angle
angle τr 𝜏 0.05
0.05deg
deg 0.15
0.15deg
deg
Front roll-bar
Front stiffness
roll-bar stiffness k θ,𝑘f 7040
7040Nm/rad
Nm/rad 7040
7040Nm/rad
Nm/rad
,
Rear roll-bar stiffness k θ,r 21,450 Nm/rad 42,900 Nm/rad
Rear roll-bar stiffness 𝑘 , 21,450 Nm/rad 42,900 Nm/rad

3.3.Torque
TorqueVectoring
VectoringController
Controller
The
The torque vectoringcontroller
torque vectoring controllerdesigned
designedininthis thispaper
paperisistotobe beapplied
appliedon onthe
thevehicle
vehicle
featuring the baseline suspension setup with the objective
featuring the baseline suspension setup with the objective of reproducing the cornering of reproducing the cornering
capabilities
capabilities of
of the same vehicle
the same vehiclewhen whenfeaturing
featuringthe the sporty
sporty suspension
suspension setup.
setup. For For
this this
pur-
purpose,
pose, the single-track vehicle model represented in Figure 5 is adopted for a properproper
the single-track vehicle model represented in Figure 5 is adopted for a torque
torque vectoring controller design. In particular, the linearized equations of motion of the
vectoring controller design. In particular, the linearized equations of motion of the single-
single-track vehicle model at constant speed [18] are considered
track vehicle model at constant speed [18] are considered
  .
𝑘 ,y,r𝑙 r y,𝑘f f, 𝑙 r + k δ
    k l −k l 

⎧m V
𝑚 𝑉𝛽 𝑉𝑟
β + Vr = − k
𝑘 , y, f − k
𝑘 , 𝛽
y,r β + V 𝑟 y, f𝑘 , 𝛿
⎪ 𝑉

 2 2
−k y,r lr −k y, f l f (1)
. (1)
 
⎨ J r = k l − k l + 𝑘 𝑙 𝑘 𝑙
r + k l + M
 β δ
r y,r r y, f f , V , y, f f z

⎪𝐽 𝑟 𝑘 𝑙 𝑘 𝑙 𝛽 𝑟 𝑘 𝑙 𝛿 𝑀

, , ,
⎩ 𝑉
where the vehicle states are the yaw rate (r) and the sideslip angle (β), with the vehicle
where the vehicle states are the yaw rate (𝑟) and the sideslip angle (𝛽), with the vehicle
speed (V) set as constant; the vehicle inputs are the front wheel steering angle (δ) and the
speed (𝑉) set as constant; the vehicle inputs are the front wheel steering angle (𝛿) and the
additional yaw moment due to torque vectoring control (Mz ), while all the other terms
additional yaw moment due to torque vectoring control (𝑀 ), while all the other terms are
are vehicle characteristic parameters. In particular, m is the vehicle mass, Jz the vehicle
vehicle characteristic parameters. In particular, 𝑚 is the vehicle mass, 𝐽 the vehicle yaw
yaw moment of inertia, k y, f and k y,r are, respectively, the front and rear axles’ cornering
moment of inertia, 𝑘 and 𝑘 , are, respectively, the front and rear axlesʹ cornering stiff-
stiffnesses and l f and l,r are the distances of the vehicle center of mass from the front and
nesses and 𝑙 and 𝑙 are the distances of the vehicle center of mass from the front and
rear axles, respectively.
rear axles, respectively.

Figure5.5.Single-Track
Figure Single-TrackModel
Model(STM)
(STM)ofofaavehicle
vehicleininturn
turnwith
withtorque
torquevectoring
vectoringcapabilities.
capabilities.
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 1

Energies 2024, 17, 2903 7 of 17

The torque vectoring control architecture proposed in this paper is a multilayer cas
caded
Thecontrol
torque composed of three
vectoring control main blocks:
architecture the reference
proposed generator,
in this paper the high-level
is a multilayer cas- con
caded
trollercontrol
and the composed
low-level of controller,
three main as blocks: the reference
reported in Figuregenerator, the high-level
6. The reference generator ob
controller andinputs
tains driver the low-level
and vehiclecontroller,
statesas(𝑥)reported in Figure
to generate 6. The (𝑥
a reference reference
) for generator
the vehicle latera
obtains driver inputs and vehicle states (x) to generate a reference (xre f ) for the vehicle
dynamics. Then, the high-level controller takes as input the driver commands, the vehicl
lateral dynamics. Then, the high-level controller takes as input the driver commands, the
states, and the output quantities from the reference generator to define the total driving
vehicle states, and the output quantities from the reference generator to define the total
driving (𝑇 ) (T
torque torque and yaw moment (𝑀 ) to be applied to the vehicle. In the end, the low-leve
TOT ) and yaw moment (Mz ) to be applied to the vehicle. In the end, the
controller takes the
low-level controller takes totalthedriving torque
total driving and and
torque yawyawmoment
moment demand
demandasasinputs
inputs to
to define
torquea torque
define demand demandfor each motor
for each (𝑇 ,(T) m,i
motor and, if necessary,
) and, if necessary,aabraking pressureforfor
braking pressure each brak
each
brake caliper
caliper (pAll
(𝑝 , ). b,i ). All these
these three
three components of the
components thetorque
torquevectoring
vectoringcontrol are designed
control are designed fo
for
thethe presentstudy
present studyand and are
are thus
thus described
describedinindetail
detailin in
thethe
following paragraphs.
following paragraphs.

Figure6.6.Torque
Figure Torque vectoring
vectoring control
control architecture.
architecture.

3.1. Reference Generator

3.1. Reference Generator
The reference generator of a torque vectoring controller aims to define the desired
The
vehicle reference
lateral dynamics generator
behavior,of thereby
a torque vectoringa target
generating controller aims
for the to define
controller. Whenthe desired
dealing with vehicle lateral dynamics control, the most common approach considers When
vehicle lateral dynamics behavior, thereby generating a target for the controller.
dealinga with
tracking yaw ratevehicle lateral
reference. Thedynamics control,
simplest method the most common
for determining approach
the reference value forconsider
tracking
the a yaw
yaw rate rateonreference.
is based considering The thesimplest
linearizedmethod
equations forofdetermining
motion of the the reference valu
single-track
vehicle model at steady state. This approach results in the reference
for the yaw rate is based on considering the linearized equations of motion yaw rate (r re f ) being
of the single
expressed as a linear function of the input wheel steering angle (δ) and thus
track vehicle model at steady state. This approach results in the reference yaw rate (𝑟 reads
being expressed as a linear function of theVinput wheel steering angle (𝛿) and thus reads
rre f = δ (2)
l (1 + KUS V 2𝑉)
𝑟 𝛿 (2
where l is the vehicle wheelbase and KUS is the𝑙understeering
1 𝐾 𝑉 coefficient, which is, in turn,
function
where 𝑙ofisvehicle and tirewheelbase
the vehicle properties, and
and is𝐾defined
is the as follows.
understeering coefficient, which is, in
turn, function of vehicle and tire properties, and is ! defined as follows.
m lr lf
KUS = 2 − (3)
l k y,𝑚
f k𝑙 y,r 𝑙
𝐾 (3
𝑙 𝑘 , 𝑘 ,
However, the linear nature of this approach for defining the reference yaw rate is
However,
effective within thethe linear
linear nature
region of tiresofsince
thisitapproach
does not account for defining the friction,
for tire-road reference yaw rate i
which
physically
effective restricts
within thethemaximum attainable
linear region yawsince
of tires rate. For this reason,
it does the reference
not account yaw rate friction
for tire-road
should
which be upper-bounded
physically restrictsand
thethis is typically
maximum performed
attainable yawby rate.
introducing
For thisanreason,
exponential
the referenc
saturation function. The resulting reference yaw rate is thus expressed
yaw rate should be upper-bounded and this is typically performed by introducing an ex as follows
ponential saturation function.  The Vresulting reference yaw rate is thus expressed as fol

l (1+KUS V 2 )
δ=αδ IF δ ≤ δ∗
lows rre f = ∗ (4)
∗−r ( (−r α(δ−−δr∗)) )
r + ( r ) e max IF δ > δ∗
max
𝑉 max
𝛿 𝛼𝛿 IF 𝛿 𝛿 ∗
𝑟
where the maximum attainable yaw 𝑙 1
rate is 𝐾
the 𝑉
maximum achievable lateral acceleration (4
∗
normalized by the actual vehicle speed (rmax = ay,max /V), while∗
r ∗ is the yaw rate value
∗
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑒 IF 𝛿 with
at which the transition between the linear and saturation regions occurs, 𝛿 ∗ δ∗ = r∗ /α
being
wherethethe
wheel steering attainable
maximum angle valueyaw
at which
rate this transition
is the maximum happens. Given the
achievable reference
lateral acceleration
∗
yaw rate function, its three main parameters (rmax , α, δ ) must be defined for properly
∗
⁄𝑉), while 𝑟 is the yaw rate valu
normalized by the actual vehicle speed (𝑟 𝑎 ,
reproducing the sporty vehicle cornering response. In particular, instead of considering ∗ ∗
at which the transition between the linear and saturation regions occurs, with 𝛿 𝑟 /𝛼
being the wheel steering angle value at which this transition happens. Given the referenc
yaw rate function, its three main parameters (𝑟 , 𝛼, 𝛿 ∗ ) must be defined for properly
reproducing the sporty vehicle cornering response. In particular, instead of considering
the wheel steering angle, it is possible to use the steering wheel angle (𝛿 𝛿/𝜏 ) by
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 17
Energies 2024, 17, 2903 8 of 17

accounting for a constant transmission ratio (𝜏 ) between the two. For defining the yaw
the wheel steering angle, it is possible to use the steering wheel angle (δSW = δ/τSW ) by
rate reference
accounting forfunction
a constantcoefficients,
transmission a steering pad
ratio (τSW constantthe
) between speed
two. maneuver
For defining at the
several
yaw dif-
ferent constant speeds has been performed by increasing the steering
rate reference function coefficients, a steering pad constant speed maneuver at several wheel angle at a rate
ofdifferent
one degree per second until reaching the vehicle handling limits.
constant speeds has been performed by increasing the steering wheel angle at a Then, the reference
yaw
rate rate
of onefunction
degree percoefficients are reaching
second until obtainedthebyvehicle
fitting handling
the samelimits.
function
Then,to the
the reference
sporty vehi-
cle
yaw response for each
rate function available
coefficients arerunning
obtainedspeed. This
by fitting issame
the performed
function because all three
to the sporty param-
vehicle
∗
eters (𝑟 for
response , 𝛼,each
𝛿 ) available
characterizing
running the yaw rate
speed. This reference
is performedshape are function
because all three of vehicle trav-
parameters
eling , α, δ∗ ) characterizing
(rmaxspeed. The results of the theyaw rate reference
steering pad constantshapespeed
are function
maneuver of vehicle traveling
for a vehicle speed
ofspeed.
72 km/h Thefor results
bothofthethebaseline
steeringandpadthe
constant
sportyspeed maneuver
vehicle setups arefor areported
vehicle speed of 7,
in Figure
72 km/h for both the baseline and the sporty vehicle
where the fitted reference yaw rate function is also reported. setups are reported in Figure 7, where
the fitted reference yaw rate function is also reported.
r [rad/s]

Figure
Figure7.7.Steering
Steering pad constant speed
pad constant speedmaneuver
maneuvervehicle
vehicle handling
handling response
response at aattraveling
a traveling speed
speed of of
7272km/h with both baseline
km/h with both baseline and sporty suspension setup, together with the reference yaw rate fittedfitted
sporty suspension setup, together with the reference yaw rate
totothe
thesporty
sporty vehicle
vehicle response.
response.

Fromthe
From the results
results in
in Figure
Figure7,7,ititisisevident
evidenthowhowthe thesporty
sporty suspension
suspension setup cancan
setup achieve
achieve
aahigher
higheryaw yawraterate limit
limit value
value as as compared
comparedtotothe thebaseline
baseline suspension
suspension setup.
setup.Moreover,
Moreover,the the
sporty vehicle also shows a slightly increased slope of the linear response
sporty vehicle also shows a slightly increased slope of the linear response region, together region, together
withaa slightly
with slightly sharper
sharpertransition
transition towards
towards thethe
yawyaw rate rate
saturation region,
saturation as compared
region, to the to
as compared
baseline vehicle. For what concerns the yaw rate reference for the active vehicle, it is instead
the baseline vehicle. For what concerns the yaw rate reference for the active vehicle, it is
possible to appreciate how it closely tracks the response of the vehicle equipped with the
instead possible to appreciate how it closely tracks the response of the vehicle equipped
sporty suspension setup. Nevertheless, the yaw rate reference should be computed for any
with thespeed,
vehicle sportyincluding
suspension thosesetup. Nevertheless,
in between the currentlythe tested
yaw rate reference
values, of which should be com-
the results
puted for 7any
in Figure are vehicle speed, including
just an example. This is the those
reasonin whybetween the currently
the reference function tested values, of
characteristic
which
coefficients (rmax , α, δ ) are regularized through a proper fitting, as shown in Figurereference
the results in Figure
∗ 7 are just an example. This is the reason why the 8. In
function
particular, characteristic coefficients
Figure 8 reports the coefficient 𝛼, 𝛿 ∗ ) for
(𝑟 , values areeach
regularized through
single fitting a proper
together fitting,
with the
asline
shown in Figureand
representation 8. Intheparticular,
mathematical Figure 8 reports
expression of the
the coefficient
regularizingvalues
function.for In
each single
there,
it can together
fitting be appreciated how
with the both
line the maximumand
representation attainable yaw rate (rmax
the mathematical ) and the of
expression steering
the regu-
wheel angle ∗ ) at which there is the transition between linear and saturation regions
(δSW
larizing function. In there, it can be appreciated how both the maximum attainable yaw
of the
rate (𝑟 yaw rate response,
) and the steering are decreasing
wheel angle more(𝛿 ∗than
) atlinearly
which with thereincreasing vehicle speed.
is the transition between
Conversely, the slope (α) of the linear region of the yaw rate response
linear and saturation regions of the yaw rate response, are decreasing more than linearly has a non-monotonic
trend,
with with a maximum
increasing vehicle at approximately
speed. Conversely,130 the
km/h. slope (𝛼) of the linear region of the yaw
rate response has a non-monotonic trend, with a maximum at approximately 130 km/h.
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 17
Energies 2024, 17, 2903 9 of 17

r max [rad/s]
[1/s]
[rad]
SW
*

Figure
Figure8.8.Regularization
Regularizationof
ofreference
referenceyaw
yawrate
ratefunction
functioncoefficients
coefficientsas
asfunction
functionof
ofvehicle
vehiclespeed.
speed.

3.2.High‐Level
3.2. High-LevelController
Controller
The high-level
The high-levelcontroller
controllerisis designed
designed to
to define
define the
the proper
proper yaw yaw moment
moment (𝑀(Mz))to
to be
be
applied to the vehicle for tracking the yaw rate reference (r re f ) and it is composed
applied to the vehicle for tracking the yaw rate reference (𝑟 ) and it is composed of the of the
sum of a feedforward (M ) and a feedback (M ) contribution.
sum of a feedforward (𝑀 ,z,FF) and a feedback (𝑀 , z,FB
) contribution.
M𝑀z = M
𝑀z,FF
, +𝑀
Mz,FB
, (5)
(5)
Thefeedforward
The feedforwardcontribution
contributionisisaafunction
functionof ofthe
the wheel
wheel steering
steering angle
angle commanded
commanded
bythe
by the driver,
driver, while
while the
the feedback
feedback contribution
contributionisisthetheoutput
outputof
ofaa PI
PI controller
controller aiming
aimingat
at
minimizingthe
minimizing theyaw
yawrate
ratedeviation
deviationfrom
fromits
its reference
reference value.
value.

𝑀z,FF
M , = 𝑘k δ δ𝛿 (6)
(6)
  Z t 
M
𝑀,z,FB = k
𝑘 𝑟
P r re f − r
𝑟 + k
𝑘 0 𝑟
I r re f − r
𝑟 𝑑𝑡 dt (7)
(7)
For tuning the gain of the feedforward yaw moment contribution (k δ ), it is possible to
For tuning the gain of the feedforward yaw moment contribution (𝑘 ), it is possible
rely again on the single-track vehicle model equations, where the input yaw moment is
to rely again on the single-track vehicle model equations, where the input yaw moment is
the feedforward contribution only. By reverting this formulation to the frequency domain
the feedforward contribution only. By reverting this formulation to the frequency domain
through the Laplace transform, it is possible to obtain the yaw rate response as function of
through the Laplace transform, it is possible to obtain the yaw rate response as function
the input wheel steering angle.
of the input wheel
 steering  angle.h  i
mV 2 k l + k s + V k k l + k k + k
r𝑟 𝑚𝑉 𝑘 , 𝑙y, f f 𝑘 𝑠 𝑉𝑘 , 𝑘 , 𝑙 𝑘 𝑘 ,
δ y, f y,r δ y, f 𝑘 ,
y,r
(s)𝑠 = (8)
(8)
δ𝛿
h    i  
𝑚𝐽 𝑉2 𝑠
2 𝑉 𝑚 𝑘 𝑙
2 𝑘 𝑙
2 𝐽 𝑘 𝑘 𝑠 𝑘 𝑘
mJz V s + V m k y,r, lr + k y, f, l f + Jz k y,, f + k y,r, s + k y,, f k y,r, l + mV 𝑙2 𝑚𝑉2 𝑘k y,r, l𝑙r − k𝑘y, ,f l𝑙f
Energies 2024, 17, 2903 10 of 17

From the obtained transfer function, it is then possible to compute the static gain of
the yaw rate with respect to the input steering angle.
     
V k δ k y, f + k y,r k δ k y, f + k y,r
µr/δ = 1 +  = α 1 +  (9)
l (1 + KUS V 2 ) k y, f k y,r l k y, f k y,r l

Remembering that the objective of the present study is to obtain an active vehicle
featuring the baseline suspension setup that performs in cornering as the vehicle featuring
the sporty suspension setup, it is possible to impose the static gains equality for obtaining
the feedforward gain

k y, f k y,r l αSPORTY − α BASE

µr/δ,ACTIVE = µr/δ,SPORTY → kδ = (10)
k y, f + k y,r α BASE

where α BASE and αSPORTY are the slope of the linear yaw rate response region for the
baseline and the sporty vehicles, respectively. The feedback control gains (k P , k I ) are
instead tuned with a model-based approach based on the Maclaurin series expansion [19],
with the objective of obtaining a robust and stable controlled system that performs as
closely as possible to the sporty vehicle.

3.3. Low-Level Controller

The low-level controller is also designed to convert the total torque required by the
driver (Tm,D ) and the yaw moment required by the high-level controller (Mz ) into driving
or braking torque (Tm,i ) to be developed by IWMs. The driving torque required by the
driver is split among the two axles according to the static weight distribution with the same
torque applied at the left and right wheels of each axle. This guarantees a null yaw moment
while driving. The required yaw moment is instead generated by applying additional
driving moments of equal magnitude and opposite signs to the left and the right wheel of
each axle. The additional driving moment for generating the required is again split between
the two axles according to the static weight distribution of the vehicle. The resulting control
laws for IWMs torque allocation are reported in the following
 
1 Mz R w
Tm,FR = f WD Tm,D + (11)
2 t
 
1 Mz R w
Tm,FL = f WD Tm,D − (12)
2 t
 
1 Mz R w
Tm,RR = (1 − f WD ) Tm,D + (13)
2 t
 
1 Mz R w
Tm,RL = (1 − f WD ) Tm,D − (14)
2 t
where f WD is the weight distribution factor, Rw is the effective wheel radius and t is
the vehicle half-track width. The weight distribution factor ( f WD ) is defined as the ratio
between the static vertical forces acting at the front axle and the static vertical forces acting
at all four wheels.

4. Results
The effectiveness of the proposed control strategy applied on the vehicle with the base-
line suspension setup for tracking the lateral dynamics performance of the vehicle featuring
the sporty suspension setup is assessed through numerical simulations. The validated
vehicle model for simulation purposes is again implemented using VI-Grade CarRealTime
2022 software and is the same S-segment vehicle previously presented, whose main data
are reported in Table 1. The proposed results encompass both transient and steady-state
Energies 2024, 17, 2903 1111ofof
17 17
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW

maneuvers, spanning from open-loop to closed-loop modalities and considering a high

considering a high friction (µ = 1.0) condition. The results obtained with the proposed
friction (µ = 1.0) condition. The results obtained with the proposed actively controlled
actively
vehicle arecontrolled
comparedvehicle areofcompared
in terms corneringin terms of cornering
performance performance
and energy and energy
consumption with
consumption with the passive vehicles featuring the baseline and the sporty
the passive vehicles featuring the baseline and the sporty suspension setups, which suspension
are
setups, which
considered as theare considered reference.
conventional as the conventional reference.

4.1.
4.1. Straight‐Line
Straight-Line Constant
Constant Speed
Speed Maneuver
Maneuver
AA straight-line
straight-line constant
constant speed
speed maneuver
maneuver has
has been
been simulated
simulated toto evaluate
evaluate the
the effects
effects
ofof
thethe three
three different
different vehicle
vehicle configurations
configurations onon energy
energy consumption.
consumption. This
This maneuver
maneuver is is
performed
performed at at several
several speeds
speeds ranging
ranging from
from 5 m/s
5 m/s to to
5050m/s m/s with
with a discretization
a discretization of of 5 m/s.
5 m/s.
The
The results
results in in terms
terms of of specific
specific energy
energy consumption
consumption forfor
thethe straight-line
straight-line constant
constant speed
speed
maneuver
maneuver areare reported
reported in in Figure
Figure 9 for
9 for thethe different
different available
available running
running speeds.
speeds.

E sp [Wh/km]
E sp [Wh/km]

Figure
Figure 9. 9. Straight-line
Straight-line constant
constant speed
speed maneuver
maneuver vehicle-specific
vehicle-specific energy
energy consumption
consumption (𝐸) with
(Esp ) with
thethe
three available vehicle configurations and specific energy consumption variation (∆𝐸 ) with
three available vehicle configurations and specific energy consumption variation (∆Esp ) with respectrespect
to to
thethe baseline
baseline vehicle
vehicle configuration.
configuration.

FromFrom Figure
Figure 9, 9, it is
it is possible
possible toto appreciate
appreciate howhow the
the specific
specific energy
energy consumption
consumption (E(𝐸
sp )𝑠𝑝 )
increases
increases more
more than
than linearly
linearly with
with vehicle
vehicle speed
speed because
because ofof thethe aerodynamicresistance,
aerodynamic resistance,
while
while apparently
apparently notnot showing
showing significant
significant differences
differences forforthe the three
three inspected
inspected vehiclecon-
vehicle con-
figurations.
figurations. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, bybylooking
looking atat
thethevariation
variation ofofthe thespecific
specificenergy
energy consumption
consumption
(∆E sp )𝑠𝑝with
(∆𝐸 ) withrespect
respect totothethebaseline
baseline vehicle,
vehicle,it it
cancanbebe
noticed
noticed howhow the sporty
the sporty vehicle
vehicle requires
requires
more
more energy
energythanthan thethe
baseline
baseline vehicle
vehicleto to
maintain
maintain a constant
a constant speed
speed in in
a straight
a straightline, with
line, with
this variation reducing going towards high speeds. This phenomenon
this variation reducing going towards high speeds. This phenomenon could be explained could be explained
byby considering
considering that,
that,forforananincreasing
increasing vehicle
vehicle speed,
speed, thethe lateral
lateralslip velocity
slip velocitygenerating
generating
power
power losses at at
losses thethe
tire-ground
tire-ground contact
contacttends
tendsto to
decrease.
decrease. Instead,
Instead, thethe
active vehicle
active vehicle shows
shows
thethesame
same energy
energy consumption
consumption asas
the
thebaseline
baseline vehicle
vehicle when
when inina straight
a straight line because
line because itsits
torque
torque vectoring
vectoring capabilities
capabilities areare
notnot
used
usedin in
straight
straightrunning.
running.
4.2. Steering
4.2. Pad
Steering Constant
Pad Speed
Constant Maneuver
Speed Maneuver
The steady-state handling performance of the proposed vehicle configurations under
The steady-state handling performance of the proposed vehicle configurations under
high friction conditions is evaluated through an ISO 4138 [20] steering pad constant speed
high friction conditions is evaluated through an ISO 4138 [20] steering pad constant speed
maneuver, where the speed is kept constant and the steering wheel angle is progressively
maneuver, where the speed is kept constant and the steering wheel angle is progressively
increased at a constant rate. The selected constant speeds for the maneuver range from
increased at a constant rate. The selected constant speeds for the maneuver range from 5
5 m/s to 50 m/s with a discretization of 5 m/s. The maximum steering wheel angle
m/s to 50 m/s with a discretization of 5 m/s. The maximum steering wheel angle is selected
is selected through incremental adjustments in 5-degree steps until the baseline vehicle
through incremental adjustments in 5-degree steps until the baseline vehicle response
response achieves a minimum of 99% of the maximum achievable lateral acceleration. The
achieves a minimum of 99% of the maximum achievable lateral acceleration. The duration
duration for increasing the steering wheel angle from straight-ahead to the maximum
for increasing the steering wheel angle from straight-ahead to the maximum value is se-
value is selected based on the authors’ prior knowledge to comply with the steady-state
lected based on the authors’ prior knowledge to comply with the steady-state maneuver
maneuver limits outlined in the ISO 4138 standard [20]. The handling response results
limits outlined in the ISO 4138 standard [20]. The handling response results for the specific
for the specific maneuver at 126 km/h are reported in Figure 10 as an example, while
maneuver at 126 km/h are reported in Figure 10 as an example, while the results
 Energies
Energies 2024,
2024, 17,17, x FOR PEER REVIEW
2903 12 of 17
12 of 17

r [rad/s]

[rad]
summarizing
the the handling
results summarizing and energy
the handling andconsumption performance
energy consumption at all theatinspected
performance all the
speeds are
inspected reported
speeds in Figurein11.
are reported Figure 11.

Figure 10. Steering pad constant speed maneuver vehicle handling response (yaw rate 𝑟 and side-
slip angle 𝛽) at a traveling speed of 126 km/h with the three available vehicle configurations.
r [rad/s]

[rad]
Analyzing the results in Figure 10, it is evident how the active vehicle featuring
torque vectoring capabilities is able to track the yaw rate reference aiming at reproducing
the sporty vehicle configuration. Indeed, the active and the sporty vehicle yaw rate re-
sponses match, and they both show an improvement in vehicle cornering response. The
yaw rate response improvement of the active vehicle with respect to the baseline vehicle
is obtained thanks to the torque vectoring capabilities of the active vehicle, but this im-
provement comes at the expense of having a higher sideslip angle. Indeed, the sideslip
angle is pretty similar for the baseline and the sporty vehicle configurations, while it
shows
Figure
Figure aSteering
10.10.steeper
Steering variation
pad
pad with
constant
constant themaneuver
speed
speed input steering
maneuver wheel
vehicle
vehicle angle
handling
handling and settles
response
response (yaw(yaw atrate
rate 𝑟 sideslip
ar and
higher
andvalue
side-
slip angle
for the
angle a 𝛽)
β) atactiveat vehicle
a traveling
traveling speed of 126 with
configuration.
speed of 126 km/h km/hthe
with the available
three three available
vehiclevehicle configurations.
configurations.

Analyzing the results in Figure 10, it is evident how the active vehicle featuring
torque vectoring capabilities is able to track the yaw rate reference aiming at reproducing
the sporty vehicle configuration. Indeed, the active and the sporty vehicle yaw rate re-
sponses match, and they both show an improvement in vehicle cornering response. The
yaw rate response improvement of the active vehicle with respect to the baseline vehicle
E sp [Wh/km]
a y,max [m/s2 ]

is obtained thanks to the torque vectoring capabilities of the active vehicle, but this im-
provement comes at the expense of having a higher sideslip angle. Indeed, the sideslip
angle is pretty similar for the baseline and the sporty vehicle configurations, while it
shows a steeper variation with the input steering wheel angle and settles at a higher value
for the active vehicle configuration.

Figure
Figure 11.11. Steering
Steering padpad constant
constant speed
speed maneuver
maneuver vehicle
vehicle maximum
maximum achieved
achieved lateral
lateral acceleration
acceleration
(𝑎 ) with the three available vehicle configurations and specific energy consumption
(ay,max, ) with the three available vehicle configurations and specific energy consumption variationvariation
E sp [Wh/km]
a y,max [m/s2 ]

(∆𝐸 ) with respect to the baseline vehicle configuration.

(∆Esp ) with respect to the baseline vehicle configuration.

The results
Analyzing theinresults
Figurein11 about10,
Figure theit maximum achieved
is evident how lateral
the active acceleration
vehicle featuring during
torque the
steering pad constant speed maneuver suggest that both the sporty
vectoring capabilities is able to track the yaw rate reference aiming at reproducing the and the active vehicle
configurations
sporty can achieve superior
vehicle configuration. Indeed, theperformance
active andwith respectvehicle
the sporty to the yaw
baseline
rate vehicle
responses con-
figuration.
match, Moreover,
and they both show between the sporty and
an improvement the active
in vehicle vehicleresponse.
cornering configurations,
The yaw there
rate is
not oneimprovement
response prevailing over the active
of the other for improvement
vehicle with respect in to
cornering response.
the baseline vehicle Indeed, at low
is obtained
thanks
and highto the torque
speeds, thevectoring capabilities
sporty vehicle of thethe
is attaining active
highervehicle,
maximumbut this improvement
lateral acceleration,
comes at the expense of having a higher sideslip angle. Indeed, the sideslip angle is pretty
similar
Figure for
11. the baseline
Steering and thespeed
pad constant sporty vehicle vehicle
maneuver configurations,
maximumwhileachievedit shows
lateral a steeper
acceleration
variation
(𝑎 , withthe
) with thethree
input steering
available wheel
vehicle angle and settles
configurations at a higher
and specific energyvalue for the variation
consumption active
(∆𝐸 ) configuration.
vehicle with respect to the baseline vehicle configuration.
The results in Figure 11 about the maximum achieved lateral acceleration during the
steering The results
pad in Figure
constant speed11 about thesuggest
maneuver maximum that achieved lateral and
both the sporty acceleration
the active during
vehicle the
steering pad constant
configurations speedsuperior
can achieve maneuver suggest thatwith
performance bothrespect
the sporty andbaseline
to the the active vehicle
vehicle
configurations
configuration. can achieve
Moreover, superior
between performance
the sporty and thewith respect
active to the
vehicle baseline vehicle
configurations, therecon-
is
figuration.
not Moreover,
one prevailing over between
the otherthe for sporty and theinactive
improvement vehicle
cornering configurations,
response. Indeed, at there
lowis
and
nothigh
one speeds, theover
prevailing sporty thevehicle
other foris attaining
improvement the higher maximum
in cornering lateralIndeed,
response. acceleration,
at low
while
and inhighthespeeds,
intermediate speedvehicle
the sporty range,isthe active vehicle
attaining is achieving
the higher maximum thelateral
best performance.
acceleration,
 Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 17

Energies 2024, 17, 2903 13 of 17

while in the intermediate speed range, the active vehicle is achieving the best perfor-
mance. Figure 11 also reports the variation of specific energy consumption for the sporty
and active vehicle configurations with respect to the baseline one. Both the sporty and the
Figure 11 also reports the variation of specific energy consumption for the sporty and
active vehicle configurations appear to require more energy for performing a turn, with
active vehicle configurations with respect to the baseline one. Both the sporty and the
the specific energy increase for the active vehicle being almost four times the one for the
active vehicle configurations appear to require more energy for performing a turn, with the
sporty vehicle. Nevertheless, it is to point out that this increase in specific energy con-
specific energy increase for the active vehicle being almost four times the one for the sporty
sumption is taking place for the same steering wheel angle time histories but for different
vehicle. Nevertheless, it is to point out that this increase in specific energy consumption is
trajectories
taking because
place for of asteering
the same differentwheel
vehicle cornering
angle response.
time histories butFor
forthis reason,
different the energy
trajectories
consumption comparison in a turn could be better analyzed from the results
because of a different vehicle cornering response. For this reason, the energy consumption of a constant
radius cornering
comparison maneuver,
in a turn whereanalyzed
could be better all vehicle configurations
from the results ofare forced to
a constant follow
radius the same
cornering
trajectory.
maneuver, where all vehicle configurations are forced to follow the same trajectory.

4.3.
4.3. Constant
Constant Radius
Radius Cornering
Cornering Maneuver
Maneuver
The
The steady-state
steady-state handling
handling performance
performance ofof
thethe proposed
proposed vehicle
vehicle configurations
configurations under
under
high
high friction
friction conditions
conditions is also
is also evaluated
evaluated through
through an ISO
an ISO 41384138
[20][20] constant
constant radius
radius corner-
cornering
ing maneuver,
maneuver, wherewhere the speed
the speed is progressively
is progressively increased
increased at a constant
at a constant rate the
rate and andsteering
the steer-
ing wheel
wheel angle is angle is adjusted
adjusted in close-loop
in close-loop to followto afollow a circular
circular trajectory.
trajectory. The speed Theis speed is in-
increased
creased
starting starting
from fromup
10 km/h 10tokm/h up toleading
the value the valuetheleading
baselinethe baseline
vehicle vehiclea to
to achieve achieve a
minimum
ofminimum
99% of theofmaximum
99% of theachievable
maximumlateral achievable lateral acceleration
acceleration for the
for the selected selected
turn radius. turn
Thera-
increase
dius. The rateincrease
of the speed
rate ofisthe
selected
speed so as to guarantee
is selected so as to that the acceleration
guarantee rate is lower
that the acceleration rate
than 0.1 m/s 2 /s, as required
is lower than 0.1 m/s2/s, asbyrequired
the ISO by4138 standard
the ISO 4138 [20]. Three turn
standard [20].radii areturn
Three selected
radiifor
are
the present study, starting from the recommended one of 100 m and
selected for the present study, starting from the recommended one of 100 m and moving moving 50 m from
it,50
both in theit,increasing
m from both in theand decreasing
increasing anddirection.
decreasing Thedirection.
handlingThe response
handlingresults for there-
response
specific maneuver
sults for withmaneuver
the specific a 100 m turn withradius
a 100are
m reported
turn radiusin Figure 12 as aninexample,
are reported Figure 12 while
as an
the results summarizing
example, while the resultsthe handling
summarizing and the
energy consumption
handling and energyperformance
consumption for all the
perfor-
inspected
mance for turnall radii are reported
the inspected turninradii
Figure
are13.
reported in Figure 13.
[rad]

[rad]
SW

Figure
Figure 12.12. Constant
Constant radius
radius cornering
cornering maneuver
maneuver vehicle
vehicle handling
handling response
response (steering
(steering wheelwheel
angle δangle
SW
𝛿 and sideslip angle 𝛽) over a turn having a radius of 100 m with the three available vehicle
and sideslip angle β) over a turn having a radius of 100 m with the three available vehicle configurations.
configurations.
The results in Figure 12, representing the trend of the steering wheel angle as a func-
tion of The results in
the vehicle Figure
lateral 12, representing
acceleration, the trend
are again of the
showing an steering wheel angle
almost equivalent as a func-
cornering
tion of the vehicle
performance lateral acceleration,
of the sporty are again
and active vehicle showing an almost
configurations, equivalent
which are superiorcornering
to the
performance
baseline of the the
one. Indeed, sporty and active
baseline vehiclevehicle
requiresconfigurations, which
a higher steering are angle
wheel superior
inputto to
the
baseline
perform one. Indeed,
a turn having thethe same
baseline vehicle
radius requires aMoreover,
of curvature. higher steering wheel angle
if analyzing input to
the sideslip
perform
angle, a turn having
it is possible thehow
to notice sametheradius of curvature.
baseline Moreover,
and the active vehicleifconfigurations
analyzing theexhibit
sideslip
angle,
the sameitresponse,
is possiblewhile
to notice how the
the sporty baseline
vehicle andcapable
is also the active
of vehicle
reducingconfigurations exhibit
the sideslip angle.
This phenomenon can be attributed to the suspension angle configurations, especially
the same response, while the sporty vehicle is also capable of reducing the sideslip angle.
regarding the toe angle.
This phenomenon can be attributed to the suspension angle configurations, especially re-
garding the toe angle.
 Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 17
Energies 2024, 17, 2903 14 of 17

E sp [Wh/km]
[rad]
SW,max

Figure
Figure 13. 13. Constant
Constant radius
radius cornering
cornering maneuver
maneuver maximummaximum
commandedcommanded steering
steering wheel wheel
angle angle
(δSW,max )
(𝛿
with the ) with the three available vehicle configurations and specific energy consumption variation
, three available vehicle configurations and specific energy consumption variation (∆Esp ) with
(∆𝐸 )towith
respect respect tovehicle
the baseline the baseline vehicle configuration.
configuration.

The
The results
results inin Figure
Figure 1313 about
about thethe maximum
maximum steering
steering wheel
wheel angle
angle commanded
commanded forfor
successfully completing the maneuver
successfully completing the maneuver suggest suggest that the active vehicle is slightly
the active vehicle is slightly more more de-
manding than
demanding than the sporty one, one, while
whilethe thebaseline
baselinevehicle
vehicleisissignificantly
significantlymore moredemanding
demanding
than
than both
both the the other
other configurations
configurations inin terms
terms of of steering
steering input
input requirements.
requirements. Instead,
Instead, forfor
what
what concerns
concerns thethe
variation of specific
variation energy
of specific consumption
energy consumption for theforsporty and active
the sporty vehicle
and active ve-
configurations with respect
hicle configurations withto the baseline
respect to the one in Figure
baseline one 13, it is possible
in Figure 13, it to
is notice
possible how to both
notice
the
howsporty
bothand thethe active
sporty vehicle
and configurations
the active require lower require
vehicle configurations energy than lower the baseline
energy one
than the
forbaseline
runningone a constant radius turn. In particular, the energy savings of
for running a constant radius turn. In particular, the energy savings of the the sporty vehicle
are almost
sporty five times
vehicle those achieved
are almost five timeswith those theachieved
active vehicle.
with the This is mainly
active vehicle. due to aislower
This mainly
longitudinal
due to a lower slip oflongitudinal
the outer tiresslipofofthethe
sporty
outervehicle as the
tires of compared
sporty to those as
vehicle obtained
compared withto
the active
those vehicle,with
obtained which theincreases the longitudinal
active vehicle, forces the
which increases at the outer wheels
longitudinal of the
forces turnouter
at the to
improve
wheelsthe vehicle
of the turncornering
to improve response.
the vehicleMoreover,
corneringthe lower input
response. steering angle
Moreover, required
the lower input
bysteering
the sportyanglevehicle as compared
required to the active
by the sporty vehicle oneas reduces
compared the to
tirethe
slipactive
angles oneand thus the
reduces the
power losses due to the lateral slip speed at the tire-ground contact.
tire slip angles and thus the power losses due to the lateral slip speed at the tire-ground
contact.
4.4. Double-Lane-Change Maneuver
4.4.The transient performances
Double‐Lane‐Change Maneuverof the proposed vehicle configurations are assessed
through steering wheel close-loop simulations involving an ISO 3888 [21] double-lane-
The transient performances of the proposed vehicle configurations are assessed
change maneuver under high friction conditions. The maneuver starting speed is deter-
through steering wheel close-loop simulations involving an ISO 3888 [21] double-lane-
mined iteratively by incrementing it until the baseline vehicle strikes at least one cone
change maneuver under high friction conditions. The maneuver starting speed is deter-
of the ISO 3888 [21] test course. The results for the double-lane-change maneuver are
mined iteratively by incrementing it until the baseline vehicle strikes at least one cone of
reported in Figure 14, where the performances of the three available vehicle configurations
the ISO 3888 [21] test course. The results for the double-lane-change maneuver are re-
are compared.
ported in Figure 14, where the performances of the three available vehicle configurations
Upon examining the results in Figure 14, it is evident that the sporty and the active
are compared.
vehicle configurations are closely performing even in transient conditions, meaning a
proper Upon
designexamining
and tuningthe results
of the in Figure
torque 14, controller.
vectoring it is evident that the the
Moreover, sporty andidentified
trends the active
with the steady-state tests are confirmed. Indeed, the sporty and active vehicles are in a
vehicle configurations are closely performing even in transient conditions, meaning
properable
general design and tuning
to enhance of the cornering
the vehicle torque vectoring controller.
performance, Moreover,
with the the trends
active vehicle identi-
requiring
fied with the steady-state tests are confirmed. Indeed, the sporty and active
a slightly larger steering wheel angle input and showing a slightly higher sideslip angle vehicles are
in general able to enhance the vehicle
as compared to the sporty vehicle. For what concerns power consumption, the baselinere-
cornering performance, with the active vehicle
quiring
vehicle is athe
slightly
most larger steering
requiring wheel =
(Esp,BASE angle input
137.9 and showing
Wh/km), a slightly
with then highervehicle
the active sideslip
angle as compared to the sporty vehicle. For what concerns power consumption,
(Esp,ACTIVE = 132.4 Wh/km), which, in this case, is just slightly more energy-consuming the base-
line vehicle is the most requiring (𝐸
than the sporty one (Esp,SPORTY = 130.8 , Wh/km). 137.9 Wh/km), with then the active vehicle
(𝐸 , 132.4 Wh/km), which, in this case, is just slightly more energy-consuming
than the sporty one (𝐸 , 130.8 Wh/km).
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 17
Energies 2024, 17, 2903 15 of 17

Baseline Sporty Active

1.5 0.02

0.01
1

0
0.5
[rad]

[rad]
-0.01
SW

0
-0.02

-0.5
-0.03

-1 -0.04
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
s [m] s [m]
75 0.6

74 0.4

73 0.2
V [km/h]

r [rad/2]

72 0

71 -0.2

70 -0.4
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
s [m] s [m]

Figure 14.Double-lane-change
Figure 14. Double-lane-change maneuver
maneuver vehicle
vehicle handling
handling response
response on highon highconditions
friction friction conditions
with
with the three
the three available
available vehiclevehicle configurations.
configurations.

5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
The application of torque vectoring for improving vehicle lateral dynamics has been a
The application of torque vectoring for improving vehicle lateral dynamics has been
widely discussed topic for several years. Nevertheless, the design of a torque vectoring
a widely discussed topic for several years. Nevertheless, the design of a torque vectoring
controller, jointly with suspension parameters tuning for improving vehicle cornering
controller, jointly with suspension parameters tuning for improving vehicle cornering ca-
capabilities while retaining good energy efficiency, is still missing. In this paper, the effects
pabilities while
of suspension retaining
setup good on
parameters energy
both efficiency, is stillproperties
vehicle handling missing. In andthis paper,
vehicle the effects
specific
of suspension setup parameters on both vehicle handling properties
energy consumption have been analyzed. On this basis, a baseline and a sporty suspensionand vehicle specific
energy consumption have been analyzed. On this basis, a baseline and
setup have been defined and a torque vectoring controller has been designed for having an a sporty suspen-
sion
activesetup have
vehicle been defined
equipped and
with the a torque
baseline vectoringsetup
suspension controller has been designed
but reproducing for hav-
the handling
ing an active
properties vehicle
of the sportyequipped with the
vehicle. Several baseline suspension
steady-state and transientsetup but reproducing
maneuvers have been the
simulatedproperties
handling to demonstrate
of thethe effectiveness
sporty vehicle. of the proposed
Several method.
steady-state and In particular,
transient the
maneuvers
results of steady-state maneuvers confirm the fact that the actively controlled
have been simulated to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method. In partic- vehicle
is able
ular, to results
the closely oftrack the performance
steady-state maneuversof the sporty the
confirm vehicle
fact by leveraging
that its torque
the actively controlled
vectoring capabilities to enhance the baseline vehicle handling properties.
vehicle is able to closely track the performance of the sporty vehicle by leveraging In terms of its
energy savings, the active vehicle performs better than the sporty one for straight-line
torque vectoring capabilities to enhance the baseline vehicle handling properties. In terms
conditions, while slightly worse in turns. The results of transient maneuvers confirm the
of energy savings, the active vehicle performs better than the sporty one for straight-line
results of steady-state maneuvers for what concerns handling but with an energy saving
conditions, while slightly worse in turns. The results of transient maneuvers confirm the
of the active vehicle, which is significantly approaching the one attained by the sporty
results
vehicle. As expected, a maneuvers
of steady-state for what
trade-off is always concerns
required handling
between but with an
the cornering energy saving
performance
of the active vehicle,
improvement which consumption
and the energy is significantly approaching
savings from thethe onevehicle
active attained by the sporty
as compared
vehicle. As expected, a trade-off is always required between
to the sporty one. Consequently, a wide database of common road driving cycles the cornering performance
could
improvement and the energy consumption savings from the active vehicle as compared
to the sporty one. Consequently, a wide database of common road driving cycles could be
used in future applications of the proposed methodology to optimize vehicle energy con-
sumption under its typical usage.
Energies 2024, 17, 2903 16 of 17

be used in future applications of the proposed methodology to optimize vehicle energy

consumption under its typical usage.

Author Contributions: M.A.: methodology, software, formal analysis, writing—original draft prepa-
ration and writing—review and editing; M.V.: conceptualization and resources; E.S.: conceptualiza-
tion and supervision. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: The original contributions presented in the study are included in the
article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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