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31
Nuclear Physics
Nucleus
The entire positive charge and nearly the entire mass of atom is
concentrated in a very small space called the nucleus of an atom.
The nucleus consists of protons and neutrons. They are called
nucleons.

Terms Related to Nucleus


(i) Atomic Number The number of protons in the nucleus of an
atom of the element is called atomic number ( Z ) of the element.
(ii) Mass Number The total number of protons and neutrons
present inside the nucleus of an atom of the element is called
mass number ( A) of the element.
(iii) Nuclear Size The radius of the nucleus R µ A1/ 3
Þ R = R0 A1/ 3
where, R0 = 1.1 ´ 10-15 m is an empirical constant.
(iv) Nuclear Density Nuclear density is independent of mass
number and therefore same for all nuclei.
mass of nucleus 3m
r= Þr=
volume of nucleus 4pR30
where, m = average mass of a nucleon.
1
(v) Atomic Mass Unit It is defined as th the mass of
12
carbon-12 atom nucleus.
It is abbreviated as amu and often denoted by u. Thus,
1.992678 ´ 10-26
1 amu = kg
12
= 1.6 ´ 10-27 kg = 931 MeV
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338 Handbook of Physics

Isotopes
The atoms of an element having same atomic number but different
mass numbers are called isotopes. e.g. 1H1 , 1H 2 , 1H3 are isotopes of
hydrogen.

Isobars
The atoms of different elements having same mass numbers but
different atomic numbers are called isobars. e.g. 1H3 , 2He3 and
22 22
11Na , 10Ne are isobars.

Isotones
The atoms of different elements having different atomic numbers and
different mass numbers but having same number of neutrons are
called isotones. e.g. 1H3 , 2He4 and 6C14 , 8O16 are isotones.

Isomers
Atoms having the same mass number and the same atomic number
but different radioactive properties are called isomers.

Nuclear Force
The force acting inside the nucleus or acting between nucleons is
called nuclear force.
Nuclear forces are the strongest forces in nature.
It is a very short range attractive force.
It is non-central and non-conservative force.
It is independent of charge.
It is 100 times that of electrostatic force and 1038 times that of
gravitational force.
According to the Yukawa, the nuclear force acts between the nucleons
due to continuous exchange of meson particles.

Mass Defect
The difference between the sum of masses of all nucleons ( M ) and
mass of the nucleus ( m ) is called mass defect.
Mass defect ( Dm ) = M - m = [Zm p + ( A - Z )mn - mN ]
Mass Energy Relation
Einstein showed that mass is another form of energy and can convert
mass energy into other forms of energy.
Einstein-mass energy, E = mc2
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Nuclear Physics 339


Nuclear Binding Energy
The minimum energy required to separate the nucleons upto
an infinite distance from the nucleus is called nuclear binding
energy.
Binding energy, Eb = [Zm p + ( A - Z ) mn - mN ]c2
Nuclear binding energy
Nuclear binding energy per nucleon =
Total number of nucleons

Packing Fraction ( P )
(Exact nuclear mass) - (Mass number) M - A
P= =
Mass number M
The larger the value of packing friction, greater is the stability of
the nucleus.

Binding Energy Curve


Binding energy per nucleon (MeV) (Ebn)

10
56Fe 100Mo
16O 32S 127I
184W
12C 197Au 238U
8
4He 18O
14N
6
6Li

3H
2
2H
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Mass number (A)

Some features of this curve are given below as


(i) Nuclei having mass number 50 to 80 are most stable.
(ii) Nuclei having mass number more than 80, the average binding
energy per nuclei decreases. The nuclei of heavier atoms beyond
209
83 Bi are radioactive.
(iii) Nuclei having mass number below 20 are comparatively less
stable.
(iv) Even-Even nuclei are more stable than their intermediate
neighbours.
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340 Handbook of Physics

The nuclei containing even number of protons and even number of


neutrons are most stable.
The nuclei containing odd number of protons and odd number of
neutrons are most unstable.

Nuclear Reaction
The process by which the identity of a nucleus is changed when it is
bombarded by an energetic particle is called nuclear reaction. Its
general exprossion is
X + a ¾® c
(parent nucleus) (incident particle) (compound nucleus)
¾® Y + b + Q
(product nucleus) (daughter nucleus) (energy)

Q-Value
It means the difference between the rest mass energy of initial
constituents and the rest mass energy of final constituents of a
nuclear reaction.

Nuclear Energy
The energy released during nuclear reaction is nuclear energy. Two
distinct ways of obtaining energy from nucleus are as
(i) Nuclear fission (ii) Nuclear fusion

Nuclear Fission
The process of the splitting of a heavy nucleus into two or more
lighter nuclei is called nuclear fission.
When a slow moving neutron strikes with a uranium nucleus
( 92U 235 ), it splits into 56 Ba141 and 36Kr92 along with three neutrons
and a lot of energy.
235
92U + 0n1 ¾® 56Ba
141
+ 36Kr
92
+ 30 n1 + energy

Nuclear Chain Reaction


If the particle starting the nuclear fission reaction is produced as a
product and further take part in the nuclear fission reaction, then a
chain of fission reaction started, which is called nuclear chain
reaction.
Nuclear chain reaction are of two types
(i) Controlled chain reaction
(ii) Uncontrolled chain reaction
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Nuclear Physics 341


Nuclear Reactor
The main parts of a nuclear reactor are following
Coolant Superheated steam
Control rods
Shielding
Electric
Steam generator
turbine
Heat
exchanger
Water
Condenser
Fission Fuel User
chamber rods steam
Moderator
Pump
Water Cold water

(i) Fuel Fissionable materials like 92U 235 , 92U 238 , 94Pu239 are
used as fuel.
(ii) Moderator Heavy water, graphite and baryllium oxide are
used to slower down fast moving neutrons.
(iii) Coolant The cold water, liquid oxygen etc are used to remove
heat generated in the fission process.
(iv) Control rods Cadmium or boron rods are good absorber of
neutrons and therefore used to control the fission reaction.
Note Atom bomb’s working is based on uncontrolled chain reaction.

Nuclear Fusion
The process of combining of two lighter nuclei to form one heavy
nucleus is called nuclear fusion.
When three deuteron nuclei (1H 2 ) are fused, 21.6 MeV is energy
released and nucleus of helium ( 2He4 ) is formed.
2
1H + 1H 2 + 1H 2 ¾® 2He4 + 1H1 + 0n1 + 21.6 MeV
In this process, a large amount of energy is released.
Nuclear fusion takes place at very high temperature approximately
about 107 K and at very high pressure 106 atmosphere. Thus, the
energy released during nuclear fusion is known as thermonuclear
energy. Hydrogen bomb is based on nuclear fusion.
The source of sun’s energy is the nuclear fusion taking place in the
interior of sun.
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342 Handbook of Physics

Radioactivity
The phenomenon of spontaneous emission of radiations by nucleus of
some elements is called radioactivity.
This phenomenon was discovered by Henry Becquerel in 1896.
Radiations Emitted by a Radioactive Element
Three types of radiations emitted by radioactive elements are
(i) a-rays (ii) b-rays (iii) g-rays

S.No. Property a-particle b-particle g-rays


1. Nature Helium nucleus Fast moving Electromagnetic waves
electrons
2. Charge +2 – zero
-27 -31
3. Rest mass 6.67 ´ 10 kg 9.1 ´ 10 kg zero
4. Speed 1.4 ´10 to 7
1 to 99% of = 3 ´ 108 ms -1
2.2 ´ 107 ms -1 = 3 ´ 108 ms -1
5. Ionising 104 102 1
power
6. Penetrating 1 102 104
power

● When an a-particle is emitted by a nucleus its atomic number


decreases by 2 and mass number decreases by 4.
a- A -4
Z X A ¾¾¾® Z - 2Y +2 4

● When a b -particle is emitted by a nucleus its atomic number is


increases by one and mass number remains unchanged.
b-
Z X A ¾¾¾® Z + 1Y
A
+ e- + n
● When a g-particle is emitted by a nucleus its atomic number and
mass number remain unchanged.

Radioactive Decay Law


The rate of disintegration of radioactive nuclei at any instant is
directly proportional to the number of radioactive nuclei present in
the sample at that instant.
æ dN ö dN
Rate of disintegration ç - ÷ µ N or - = lN
è dt ø dt
where, l is the decay constant.
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Nuclear Physics 343


The number of nuclei present undecayed in the sample at any instant
N = N 0 e - lt .
where, N 0 is number of nuclei at time t = 0 and N is number of nuclei
at time t.

Half-life of a Radioactive Element


The time in which the half number of nuclei present initially in any
sample decays is called half-life (T ) of that radioactive element.
Relation between half-life and disintegration constant is given by
loge 2 0.6931
T1/ 2 = =
l l
Average Life or Mean Life (t )
Average life or mean life ( t ) of a radioactive element is the ratio of
total life time of all the nuclei and total number of nuclei present
initially in the sample.
1
Relation between average life and decay constant, t =
l
Relation between half-life and average life, t = 1.44 T1 / 2
The number of nuclei left undecayed after n half-lives is given by
t
n
æ1ö æ 1 öT
N = N 0 ç ÷ = N 0 ç ÷ 1/ 2
è 2ø è 2ø
t
where, n = , here t = total time.
T1/ 2
Activity of a Radioactive Element
The activity of a radioactive element is equal to its rate of
disintegration.
æ dN ö
Activity, R = ç - ÷
è dt ø
Activity of the sample after time t, R = R0 e- lt
Its SI unit is Becquerel ( Bq ).
Its other units are Curie and Rutherford.
1 Curie = 3.7 ´ 1010 decay/s
1 Rutherford = 106 decay/s

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