CHPATER-1- UNDERSTANDING SOURCES

Chivaka-chintamani, Manimekalai, Shilappadikaram

palm leaf manuscript-talapatra in Sanskrit, olai in Tamil- talipot leaves. practice of niyoga (levirate;
various dialects of Prakrit—e.g., Maharashtri, Shauraseni, and Magadhi.
Textual sources-Shams Siraj Afif’s Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi (14th century), 16th century Razmnama is a
Persian telling of the Mahabharata,
GRAMMER-Panini- Ashtadhyayi- 5th/4th BC, Patanjali’s Mahabhashya (2nd century BCE),oldest surviving
Prakrit grammar-Vararuchi’s Prakritaprakasha, Tolkappiyam-oldest surviving Tamil grammar(1st ad), Yaska’s
Nirukta-5TH BCE
VEDAS-Veda has four parts, the last three of which sometimes blend into each other—the Samhita,
Brahmana, Aranyaka, and Upanishad. Shakala shakha is the only surviving recension of the Rig Veda.
recensions of the Shukla (also known as Vajasaneya) Yajur Veda are the Madhyandina and Kanva. The Black
school is represented by the Kathaka, Kapishthala, Maitrayani, and Taittiriya recensions. The main
difference between the texts of the two schools is that the Samhitas of the White school contain only the
mantras (prayers and sacrificial formulae), while in the texts of the Black school the mantras are
accompanied by a commentary describing and discussing various aspects of the sacrificial rituals. The
Kauthuma, Ranayaniya, and Jaiminiya (or Talavakara) are recensions of the Sama Veda, and the Shaunaka
and Paippalada of the Atharva Veda.
Book 7 of the Rig Veda Samhita refers to a battle of 10 kings.
VEDANG-phonetics (shiksha), metre (chhanda), grammar (vyakarana), etymology (nirukta), ritual (kalpa),
and astronomy (jyotisha)- PART OF SMRITI
RAMAYANA-Rama’s story include the Buddhist Dasharatha Jataka in Pali, the Jaina Paumachariu of
Vimalasuri in Prakrit, Kamban’s Tamil Iramavataram, and Tulsidas’ 16th-century Ramcharitmas in Awadhi.
PURANAS- 18 Mahapuranas-the Vishnu, Narada, Bhagavata, Garuda, Padma, Varaha, Matsya, Kurma,
Linga, Shiva, Skanda, Agni, Brahmanda, Brahmavaivarta, Markandeya, Bhavishya, Vamana, and Brahma. five
characteristics (pancha-lakshanas), i.e., they are supposed to discuss five topics—the creation of the world
(sarga); re-creation (pratisarga); the periods of the various Manus (manvantaras); the genealogies of gods
and rishis (vamsha); and an account of royal dynasties (vamshanucharita).
DHARMASHASHTRA- The Manu Smriti forbids marriage between a man and the daughter of his
maternal uncle or paternal aunt. Medatithi, the 10th century commentator on the text, states that such
cross-cousin marriages are against dharma. But Madhava, the 14th century commentator on the Parashara
Smriti, gives detailed arguments to show that there was nothing wrong with such marriages, citing Vedic
passages and custom.
BUDDHIST TEXTS-Buddhist schools classify their canonical literature in different ways, some into 9 or 12
Angas, others into 3 Pitakas-5th-6th BCE. Pali Tipitaka of the Theravada school is the oldest of them all.
Tipitaka consists of three books-the Sutta, Vinaya, and Abhidhamma. In the Buddhist context, sutta (from
the Sanskrit sutra) refers to texts that are supposed to contain what the Buddha himself said. The Sutta
Pitaka contains the Buddha’s discourses on various doctrinal issues in dialogue form. The Vinaya Pitaka has
rules for monks and nuns of the sangha (monastic order). It includes the Patimokkha—a list of
transgressions against monastic discipline and atonements for these. The Abhidhamma Pitaka is a later
work, and contains a thorough study and systemization of the teachings of the Sutta Pitaka through lists,
summaries, and questions and answers. Three pitakas divided into Nikayas-Sutta Pitaka consists of five
Nikayas—the Digha, Majjhima, Samyutta, Anguttara, and Khuddaka Nikayas(stories of previous birth of
buddha. And it contains-Dhammapada, Therigatha-WOMEN EXPERIENCE OF RENUINCIATION and
Theragatha(SONG of nun and monks)). Sri Lanka under the patronage of a king named Vattagamani,
NON-CANONICAL TEXT- Milindapanha (1st century BCE–1st century CE-PALI) which consists of a
dialogue on various philosophical issues between king Milinda—no doubt the Indo-Greek Menander—and
the monk Nagasena. Nettigandha or Nettipakarana (The Book of Guidance) belongs to the same period
and gives a connected account of the teaching of the Buddha.
first connected life story of the Buddha occurs in the Nidanakatha (1st century). e Pali or Sri Lankan
chronicles—the Dipavamsa (4th–5th centuries) and the Mahavamsa (5th century)—contain a historical
cum-mythical account of the Buddha’s life, the Buddhist councils, the Maurya emperor Ashoka, the kings of
Sri Lanka, and the arrival of Buddhism on that island. Mahavastu contains a hagiography (sacred biography)
of the Buddha and describes the emergence of the monastic order in Buddhist hybrid Sanskrit.
Lalitavistara (1st/2nd century), a hagiography of the Buddha associated with the Sarvastivada school but
strongly tinged with Mahayana elements, is in Sanskrit and Buddhist hybrid Sanskrit. Ubbiri was a woman
of Shravasti, who attained nibbana (enlightenment) as an upasika. Mitta was a Sakya woman of Kapilavastu.
The first verse of her song speaks of the observances she followed as a lay-woman, the second of her life
after she became a nun. Sanskrit Buddhist texts include Ashvaghosha’s Buddhacharita (1st/2nd century)
and the Avadana texts. The latter contain stories of noteworthy deeds with a moral; they include the
Avadanashataka (2nd century) and the Divyavadana (4th century) which have stories connected with the
Buddha and the Maurya emperor Ashoka. The 1st century Ashtasahasrika-prajnaparamita and
Saddharma-pundarika offer accounts of the various future Buddhas known as bodhisattvas (the word is
also spelt bodhisatva) and Mahayana doctrines. Later works of Mahayana thinkers such as Nagarjuna,
Vasubandhu, Asanga, Aryadeva, Buddhapalita, and Dignaga are in Sanskrit.
JAINA TEXTS- sacred books of the Jainas are collectively known as the Siddhanta or Agama. The
language of the earliest texts is an eastern dialect of Prakrit known as Ardha-Magadhi. Shvetambara canon
includes the 12 Angas, 12 Uvamgas (Upangas), 10 Painnas (Prakirnas), 6 Cheya Suttas (Cheda Sutras), 4
Mula Suttas (Mula Sutras), and a number of individual texts such as the Nandi Sutta (Nandi Sutra) and
Anugodara (Anuyogadvara). According to Shvetambara tradition, the Angas were compiled at a council
held at Pataliputra. The compilation of the entire canon is supposed to have taken place in the 5th or 6th
century at a council held in Valabhi in Gujarat, presided over by Devarddhi Kshamashramana. Some of the
material in the canon may go back to the 5th or 4th century BCE. genealogical lists in the Jaina Pattavalis
and the Theravalis contain very precise chronological details about the Jaina saints. Jaina Puranas (the
Shvetambaras call them Charitas) are hagiographies of the Jaina saints known as tirthankaras (literally ‘ford
makers’), Adi Purana (9th century) narrates the life of the first tirthankara Rishabha, also known as
Adinatha. The 8th century Harivamsha Purana gives a Jaina version of the stories of the Kauravas,
Pandavas, Krishna, Balarama, and others. Trishashtilakshana Mahapurana by Jinasena and Gunabhadra
(9th century) has life stories of various Jaina saints, kings, and heroes. It also has sections on topics such as
life-cycle rituals, the interpretation of dreams, town planning, the duties of a warrior, and how a king
should rule. Parishishtaparvan (12th century) by Hemachandra gives a history of the earliest Jaina
teachers and also mentions certain details of political history. A number of Prabandhas (12th century
onwards) from Gujarat offer semi-historical accounts of saints and historical characters.
SANAGM LITERATURE AND TAMIL WORKS-3RD BCE TO 3RD AD- A tradition recorded in post-7th
century works speaks of three Sangams or literary gatherings in ancient times. The first-Madurai for 4,440
years, the second at Kapatapuram for 3,700 years, and the third in Madurai for 1,850 years. The Sangam
corpus includes six of the eight anthologies of poems included in the Ettutokai (The Eight Collections), and
nine of the ten pattus (songs) of the Pattuppattu (The Ten Songs). The earliest parts of the first two books
of the Tolkappiyam can also be included in Sangam literature. The Tolkappiyam is essentially a work on
grammar, but it also includes a discussion of phonology, semantics, syntax, and literary conventions. two
kinds of Sangam poems—akam and puram. Akam poems have love as their theme, while puram poems
are mostly about war. A. K. Ramanujan (1999) describes puram poetry as ‘public poetry’ which dealt with
all kinds of themes other than love, such as good and evil, community and kingdom. The anthologies
include a total of 2,381 poems ascribed to 473 poets, 30 of whom were women and include diverse
professional peoples. Tiruvalluvar’s Tirukkural, a work on ethics, polity, and love (5th–6th centuries). The
author Tiruvalluvar may have belonged to a community of weavers or drummers. The Tirukkural contains
didactic poems which offer advice on many matters, including virtue, love, friendship, kingship, honour, and
nonviolence. Of the several Tamil epics, two of the best known are the Silappadikaram-(The Song of the
Anklet) by Ilankovatikal (‘prince ascetic’) consists of 30 cantos arranged in three books. and
Manimekalai-(The Jewel Belt) of Sattanar consists of 30 cantos and a preamble. composed in about the
5th/6th century CE.
Manimekalai is often considered somewhat inferior to the Silappadikaram in terms of its formal literary
features. While the Silappadikaram has a Jaina flavour, the Manimekalai has a strong, strident Buddhist
tone. Vaishnava saints (Alvars) and Shaiva saints (Nayanars or Nayanmars) and their hagiographies.
Vaishnava poetry took off with the compositions of Peyalvar, Puttalvar, and Poikaialvar. In the 10th
century, Nathamuni collected the Alvar hymns into the canon known as the Nalayira Divya Prabandham.
The Alvarvaipavam is a sacred biography of the Vaishnava saints. Shaiva devotional literature began with
the compositions of Tirumular and Karaikal Ammaiyar. The hymns of the Nayanmar saints were compiled
in the 10th century by Nambi Andar Nambi and this compilation formed the core of the Shaiva canon, the
Tirumurai. Nambi also wrote a work called the Tiruttondar Tiruvantati about the saints. In the 12th
century, the accounts of the Shaiva saints were collected in a text called the Periyapuranam.
The Kalampakams were poetic compositions in which the last line, word, foot, or syllable of the preceding
poem formed the beginning of the succeeding one. Kovai were poems in which the verses are arranged in a
thematic sequence. the Pantikkovai, a 6th/7th century work written in honour of the Pandya king
Netumaran; Manikkavachakar’s Tirukkovaiyar (9th century) in praise of the god Shiva; and Poyyamolip
Pulavar’s Tanchaivanan Kovai (13th century) about Tanchaivanan, a minister and general of a Pandya
king. Ula literature comprised songs in praise of gods, sung when the image of the deity was taken out in
procession. Tutu poetry consisted of poems in which a message is delivered to a god, lover, or someone
else. The moral aphorisms and sayings of Avvaiyar (9th/10th century), the second of three poetesses by
this name, are still popular among Tamil-speaking people today.
Early Kannada and Telugu texts- oldest surviving piece of literature in this language is the
Kavirajamarga (The Royal Road of the Poets), a 9th century work on poetics. best known poets of the 10th
century were Pampa, Ponna, and Ranna, all of whom wrote Jaina Puranas. Pampa, author of the Adi
Purana (an account of the life of the first tirthankara Rishabha or Adinatha), also wrote the
Vikramarjunavijaya, based on the Mahabharata story. Ponna wrote both in Sanskrit and in Kannada, and
was given the title of Ubhaya-kavi-chakravarti (imperial poet in both languages). Chavunda Raya, a
general and minister under the Ganga kings, wrote a Kannada version of Jinasena and Gunabhadra’s
Sanskrit Trishashtilakshana Mahapurana, an account of the 24 Jaina saints, in continuous prose. In the
12th century, Nagachandra or Abhinava Pampa wrote the Ramachandracharitra Purana, one of many
Jaina versions of Rama’s story. The interesting Kannada works of the 12th century include Neminatha’s
Lilavati, in mixed verse and prose, which tells the love story of a Kadamba prince and a beautiful princess.
earliest surviving work of Telugu literature is Nannaya’s 11th century rendering of the first two-and-a-half
books of the Mahabharata in mixed verse and prose. This work was written at the request of the eastern
Chalukya king Rajarajanarendra. Nannaya laid the foundations of Telugu poetic style, and Telugu tradition
gave him the epithet Vaganushasanundu (Maker of Speech). Tikkana, a minister associated with the court
of Manumasiddhi, a ruler based in the Nellore area, added 15 Parvas to Nannaya’s Mahabharata and set
new trends in narrative style. He also composed a work called the Uttararamayanamu. Nanne Choda—
author of the Kumara-sambhavamu— who describes himself as a ruler of a small principality called
Orayuru. Telugu literature reached a level of maturity in the 14th century during the Kakatiya period and
its highest point of achievement during the reign of the Vijayanagara king Krishnadevaraya (1509–29 CE).

Ashvaghosha-Buddhacharita (which he describes as a mahakavya), Sariputraprakarana, and

Saundarananda. Bhasa wrote several dramas, including the Pancharatra, Dutavakya, Balacharita, and
Svapna-Vasavadatta. Sanskrit writers-Kalidasa (4th 5th centuries), author of the dramas
Abhijnanashakuntala, Malavikagnimitra, Vikramorvashiya, and poetic works such as the Raghuvamsha,
Kumarasambhava, and Meghaduta. The many early medieval poets and writers include Bharavi,
Rajashekhara, and the poetess Vijayanka. Vishakhadatta’s Mudrarakshasa (5th/6th century) revolves
around the manoeuvres of Chanakya to win over Rakshasa, a minister of the Nandas, to Chandragupta’s
side. Narrative literature such as the Panchatantra (3rd/4th century) and the Kathasaritsagara (Ocean of
Streams of Stories, 11th century) are based on popular folk tales.
Patanjali’s Mahabhashya, Aryabhata’s Aryabhatiya and Varahamihira’s Brihatsamhita are important
astronomical texts. Natyashastra (on drama and the performing arts), Kamasutra (on sensual pleasure),
the Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita (on medicine), and the Shilpashastras (on architecture and
sculpture). Sanskrit biographies include Banabhatta’s Harshacharita (7th century) about king
Harshavardhana as well as Kadambari-prose romance.. Vakpati wrote the Prakrit Gaudavaho (8th
century) about Yashovarman of Kanauj. Bilhana’s Vikramankadevacharita (12th century) is woven around
the Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI.
Nandikkalambakkam (9th century), a long poem about the events of the reign of the Pallava king
Nandivarman III, An 11th century work, the Kalinkattupparani by Cheyankontar, is based on the war
between the Chola king Kulottunga and Anantavarman Chodaganga, the ruler of Kalinga.
Sandhyakara Nandi’s Ramacharita is a Sanskrit work with double meaning, simultaneously narrating the
story of the Ramayana and of Ramapala, an 11th/12th century king of Bengal. The 12th century
Kumarapalacharita by Hemachandra is a long poem in Sanskrit and Prakrit, which tells the story of the
Chaulukya kings of Gujarat and simultaneously illustrates the rules of Sanskrit and Prakrit grammar. The
Prithvirajaraso by Chand Bardai is an epic poem in Braj-bhasha, woven around the Rajput king Prithviraja
Chauhan. Kalhana’s Rajatarangini (River of Kings) is a 12th century Sanskrit text which offers a connected
account of the kings of Kashmir. Nilamatapurana.
Accounts of India from outside the subcontinent- Indica of Ktesias-4TH BCE, Indica of
Megasthenes- 5th BCE,Periplus Maris Erythraei (Periplus of the Erythraean Sea), Faxian (c. 337–422 CE)
and Xuanzang (c. 600–664 CE), Xuanzang spent over 10 years travelling the length and breadth of the
country. Yijing (c. 635–713 CE), another Chinese monk, took the sea route both ways and spent ten years in
the great monastery of Nalanda. Al-Biruni-Tahqiq-i-Hind, Shahnama of Firdausi, Gulistan by the famous
poet Saadi.
ARCHEOLOGY-H. D. Sankalia (1908–89), a pioneer of Indian archaeology, A CUNNINGHUM
A brief history of Indian coinage- pg no 210