Ancient Indian Literature

ANCIENT INDIAN LITERATURE:
In the Hindu tradition, the Vedas have the status of shruti (literally, ‘that which has been heard’). The
category of smriti (literally, ‘remembered’) texts includes the Vedanga, Puranas, epics, Dharmashastra,
and Nitishastra. The word Veda comes from the root vid and means ‘knowledge’. There are four
Vedas—Rig, Sama, Yajur, and Atharva. The Rig Veda contains the world’s oldest surviving poetry. Each
Veda has four parts, the last three of which sometimes blend into each other—the Samhita, Brahmana,
Aranyaka, and Upanishad.
The Rig Veda Samhita is a collection of 1,028 hymns (suktas) arranged in 10 books (Mandalas). The
Sama Veda consists of 1,810 verses, mostly borrowed from the Rig Veda. The Yajur Veda deals with the
details of the performance of rituals. The Atharva Veda is the latest Veda and contains hymns (some
from the Rig Veda), but also spells and charms which reflect aspects of popular beliefs and practices. The
Brahmanas are prose explanations of the Samhita portions and give details and explanations of
sacrificial rituals and their outcome. The Aranyakas interpret sacrificial rituals in a symbolic and
philosophical way. The Upanishads contain a great variety of philosophical ideas about sacrifice, the
body, and the universe, but are most closely associated with the concepts of atman and brahman.
The Vedanga, known as limbs of Veda aimed at helping the proper recitation, use, and understanding of
the Vedas. These include works on phonetics (shiksha), metre (chhanda), grammar (vyakarana),
etymology (nirukta), ritual (kalpa), and astronomy (jyotisha).
The two Sanskrit epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana, fall within the category of smriti as well as
itihasa, although the Ramayana is sometimes classified as kavya (poetry). The Ramayana in turn
mentions the Kurus, Hastinapura, and Janamejaya, although it does not mention the Mahabharata war.
The two epics were clearly aware of each other, at least in their later stages of development. The
composition of the Mahabharata can be placed between c. 400 BCE and c. 400 CE, and the Ramayana
between the 5th/4th century BCE and the 3rd century CE.
The Mahabharata consists of 18 Parvas (books) and has two main recensions—a northern and southern.
The core story concerns a conflict between two sets of cousins—the Kauravas and the Pandavas—and a
great war that was fought between them at Kurukshetra. The epic consists of seven Kandas (books), of
which the first (Bala Kanda) and last (Uttara Kanda) are later interpolations. The basic story is about
Rama, prince of Kosala; his banishment to the forest due to the intrigues of his wicked stepmother; the
abduction of his wife Sita by Ravana, the king of Lanka; Sita’s rescue; and Rama’s return to the capital,
Ayodhya, to become king.
The word ‘Purana’ means ‘old’. The Puranas were composed by Vyasa, but it is clear that in the form in
which they have come down to us, they were not the work of one person nor of one age. There are 18
Mahapuranas, and many more Upapuranas.
The conception of time in the Puranas is mind-boggling. There are four ages or yugas—krita, treta,
dvapara, and kali. These four yugas make up a mahayuga, and 1,000 mahayugas constitute a kalpa. The
Puranas have accounts of mountains, rivers, and places, which are useful for the study of historical
geography. The Puranas had a very important function in the Brahmanical tradition as vehicles of
Brahmanical social and religious values.
The Sanskrit word dharma (from the root dhri, meaning ‘to maintain or sustain’) is very rich in meaning
and difficult to translate. Dharma refers to the proper, ideal conduct of a person living in society, a
course of action which leads to the fulfilment of the goals of human life. These goals, known as
purusharthas, are dharma (righteous conduct), artha (material well-being), kama (sensual pleasure), and
moksha (deliverance from the cycle of rebirth). A special group of Sanskrit texts dealing specifically with
dharma are collectively known as the Dharmashastra. These texts can be subdivided into three groups.
The first two are the Dharmasutras and the Smritis
Early Buddhist literature is generally divided into canonical and non-canonical texts. The various
Buddhist schools classify their canonical literature in different ways, some into 9 or 12 Angas, others into
3 Pitakas.
The Tipitaka consists of three books—the Sutta, Vinaya, and Abhidhamma. The Sutta Pitaka contains the
Buddha’s discourses on various doctrinal issues in dialogue form. The Vinaya Pitaka has rules for monks
and nuns of the sangha (monastic order). The Abhidhamma Pitaka is a later work, and contains a
thorough study and systemization of the teachings of the Sutta Pitaka through lists, summaries, and
questions and answers.
The sacred books of the Jainas are collectively known as the Siddhanta or Agama. The Jaina monastic
order came to be divided into the Shvetambara and Digambara schools, perhaps in about the 3rd
century ce. The Jaina Puranas (the Shvetambaras call them Charitas) are hagiographies of the Jaina
saints known as tirthankaras (literally ‘ford makers’), but they contain other material as well. Jaina
literature offers information regarding the history and doctrines of Jainism, the doctrines of rival
schools, the life stories of the saints, and the life of monks and nuns in the sangha.

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ANCIENT INDIAN LITERATURE:

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