Smuggling

Smuggling is the illegal transportation of objects,

substances, information or people, such as out of a
house or buildings, into a prison, or across an
international border, in violation of applicable laws or
other regulations. More broadly, social scientists
define smuggling as the purposeful movement across
a border in contravention to the relevant legal
frameworks.[2]

There are various motivations to smuggle. These

include the participation in illegal trade, such as in the
drug trade, illegal weapons trade, prostitution, human British H.M. Revenue & Customs officers with
trafficking, kidnapping, heists, chop shops, illegal seized smuggled tobacco, 2014.[1]
immigration or illegal emigration, tax evasion, import
restrictions, export restrictions, providing contraband
to prison inmates, or the theft of the items being smuggled.

Smuggling is a common theme in literature, from Bizet's opera Carmen to the James Bond spy books
(and later films) Diamonds Are Forever and Goldfinger.

Etymology
The verb smuggle, from Low German smuggeln or Dutch smokkelen (="to transport (goods) illegally"),
apparently a frequentative formation of a word meaning "to sneak", most likely entered the English
language during the 1600s–1700s.[3]

History
Smuggling has a long and controversial history, probably dating back
to the first time at which duties were imposed in any form, or any
attempt was made to prohibit a form of traffic. Smuggling is often
associated with efforts by authorities to prevent the importation of
A book with cigarettes.
certain contraband items or non-taxed goods; however, there has also
been smuggling based on illegally exporting goods. In England
smuggling first became a recognised problem in the 13th century, following the creation of a national
customs collection system by Edward I in 1275.[4] Medieval smuggling tended to focus on the export of
highly taxed export goods — notably wool and hides.[5] Merchants also, however, sometimes smuggled
other goods to circumvent prohibitions or embargoes on particular trades. Grain, for instance, was usually
prohibited from export, unless prices were low, because of fears that grain exports would raise the price
of food in England and thus cause food shortages and civil unrest. Following the loss of Gascony to the
French in 1453, imports of wine were also sometimes embargoed during wars to try to deprive the French
of the revenues that could be earned from their main export.

Most studies of historical smuggling have been based on official sources — such as court records, or the
letters of Revenue Officers. A senior academic of the University of Bristol states that they only detail the
activities of those dumb enough to get caught.[6] This has led him and others, such as Prof. H. V. Bowen
of the University of Swansea to use commercial records to reconstruct smuggling businesses.[7] Jones'
study focuses on smuggling in Bristol in the mid-16th century, arguing that the illicit export of goods like
grain and leather represented a significant part of the city's business, with many members of the civic
elite engaging in it, whether by disguised/hidden transport or mis-description of goods.[8] Grain
smuggling by members of the civic elite, often working closely with corrupt customs officers, has also
been shown to have been prevalent in East Anglia during the later 16th century.[9]

In England wool was smuggled to the continent in the 17th century, under the pressure of high excise
taxes. In 1724 Daniel Defoe wrote of Lymington, Hampshire, on the south coast of England

I do not find they have any foreign commerce, except it be what we call smuggling and
roguing; which I may say, is the reigning commerce of all this part of the English coast, from
the mouth of the Thames to the Land's End in Cornwall.[10]

The high rates of duty levied on tea and also wine and spirits, and other luxury goods coming in from
mainland Europe at this time made the clandestine import of such goods and the evasion of the duty a
highly profitable venture for impoverished fishermen and seafarers. In certain parts of the country such as
the Romney Marsh, East Kent, Cornwall and East Cleveland, the smuggling industry was for many
communities more economically significant than legal activities such as farming and fishing. The
principal reason for the high duty was the need for the government to finance a number of extremely
expensive wars with France and the United States.

Before the era of drug smuggling and human trafficking,

smuggling had acquired a kind of nostalgic romanticism, in the
vein of Robert Louis Stevenson's Kidnapped:

Few places on the British coast did not claim to be the

haunts of wreckers or mooncussers.[11] The thievery
was boasted about and romanticized until it seemed a
kind of heroism. It did not have any taint of The Dying Contrabandista by John
criminality and the whole of the south coast had Phillip, 1858
pockets vying with one another over whose smugglers
were the darkest or most daring. The Smugglers Inn
was one of the commonest names for a bar on the
coast.[12]

In North America, smuggling in colonial times was a reaction to the heavy taxes and regulations imposed
by mercantilist trade policies. After American independence in 1783, smuggling developed at the edges of
the United States at places like Passamaquoddy Bay, St. Mary's in Georgia, Lake Champlain, and
Louisiana. During Thomas Jefferson's embargo of 1807-1809, these same places became the primary
places where goods were smuggled out of the nation in defiance of the law. Like Britain, a gradual
liberalization of trade laws as part of the free trade movement meant less smuggling. in 1907 President
Theodore Roosevelt tried to cut down on smuggling by establishing the Roosevelt Reservation along the
United States-Mexico Border.[13][14] Smuggling revived in the 1920s during Prohibition, and drug
smuggling became a major problem after 1970. In the 1990s, when economic sanctions were imposed on
Serbia, a large percent of the population lived off smuggling petrol and consumer goods from
neighboring countries. The state unofficially allowed this to continue or otherwise the entire economy
would have collapsed.

In modern times, as many first-world countries have struggled to contain a rising influx of immigrants,
the smuggling of people across national borders has become a lucrative extra-legal activity, as well as the
extremely dark side, people-trafficking, especially of women who may be enslaved typically as
prostitutes.

Types of smuggling

Goods
Much smuggling occurs when enterprising merchants attempt to supply
demand for a good or service that is illegal or heavily taxed. As a result,
illegal drug trafficking, and the smuggling of weapons (illegal arms trade),
as well as the historical staples of smuggling, alcohol (rum-running) and
tobacco,[15] are widespread. As the smuggler faces significant risk of civil
and criminal penalties if caught with contraband, smugglers are able to
impose a significant price premium on smuggled goods. The profits
involved in smuggling goods appear to be extensive. The iron law of
prohibition dictates that greater enforcement results in more potent alcohol
and drugs being smuggled.

Profits also derive from avoiding taxes or levies on imported goods. For
example, a smuggler might purchase a large quantity of cigarettes in a
place with low taxes and smuggle them into a place with higher taxes,
where they can be sold at a far higher margin than would otherwise be
possible. It has been reported that smuggling one truckload of cigarettes The International Anti-
within the United States can lead to a profit of US$2 million.[16] Opium Association, Peking
"The War Against Opium"
In October 2023, Spanish police arrested 11 individuals involved in
smuggling migrants hidden in trucks at Algeciras sea border, connected to
a network providing forged documents. In the same month, they dismantled another criminal organization
focused on supplying fake documents to migrants in Spain, primarily in the agricultural sector.[17]

People smuggling
With regard to people smuggling, a distinction can be made between
people smuggling as a service to those wanting to illegally migrate and the
involuntary trafficking of people. An estimated 90% of people who
illegally crossed the border between Mexico and the United States are
believed to have paid a smuggler to lead them across.[18]

People smuggling can be used to rescue a person from oppressive

circumstances. For example, when the Southern United States allowed
slavery, many slaves moved north via the Underground Railroad.
Similarly, during the Holocaust, Jewish people were smuggled out of
Germany by people such as Algoth Niska. Road sign at the Canada-
US border prohibiting
cannabis, Abercorn,
Human trafficking Québec (2018)
Trafficking of human beings — sometimes called human trafficking or, in
the case of sexual services, sex trafficking — is not the same as people
smuggling. A smuggler will facilitate illegal entry into a country for a fee,
and on arrival at their destination, the smuggled person is free; the
trafficking victim is coerced in some way. Victims do not agree to be
trafficked; they are tricked, lured by false promises, or forced into it.
Traffickers use coercive tactics including deception, fraud, intimidation,
isolation, physical threats and use of force, debt bondage or even force-
feeding drugs to control their victims.

While the majority of victims are women,[19] and sometimes children,

other victims include men, women and children forced or conned into
manual or cheap labor. Due to the illegal nature of trafficking, the exact
A poster warning the
extent is unknown. A U.S. government report published in 2003 estimates German women and girls
that 800,000-900,000 people worldwide are trafficked across borders each about the danger of human
year.[20] This figure does not include those who are trafficked internally. traffic in the USA (ca 1900)

Child trafficking
According to a study by Alternatives to Combat Child Labour Through Education and Sustainable
Services in the Middle East and North Africa Region (ACCESS-MENA) 30% of school children living in
border villages of Yemen had been smuggled into Saudi Arabia. Child trafficking is commonly referenced
as "transporting". Smuggled children were in danger of being sexually abused or even killed.[21] Poverty
is one of the reasons behind child trafficking and some children are smuggled with their parents' consent
via a transporter. As many as 50% of those smuggled are children. In the Philippines, between 60,000 and
100,000 children are trafficked to work in the sex industry.[22]

Human trafficking and migration

Each year, hundreds of thousands of migrants are moved illegally by highly organized international
smuggling and trafficking groups, often in dangerous or inhumane conditions. This phenomenon has been
growing in recent years as people of low income countries are aspiring to enter developed countries in
search of jobs. Migrant smuggling and human trafficking are two separate
offences and differ in a few central respects. While "smuggling" refers to
facilitating the illegal entry of a person into a State, "trafficking" includes
an element of exploitation.

The trafficker retains control over the migrant—through force, fraud or

coercion—typically in the sex industry, through forced labour or through
other practices similar to slavery. Trafficking violates the idea of basic
human rights. The overwhelming majority of those trafficked are women
and children. These victims are commodities in a multibillion-dollar
global industry. Criminal organizations are choosing to traffic human
beings because, unlike other commodities, people can be used repeatedly
and because trafficking requires little in terms of capital investment.
Actress and UNICEF
Smuggling is also reaping huge financial dividends to criminal groups Ambassador Lucy Liu
who charge migrants massive fees for their services. Intelligence reports spoke out against human
have noted that drug-traffickers and other criminal organizations are trafficking and lauded
USAID efforts to increase
switching to human cargo to obtain greater profit with less risk.[23]
awareness

It is acknowledged that the smuggling of people is a growing global

phenomenon.[24] It is a transnational crime. Currently, economic instability appears to be the main reason
for illegal migration movement throughout the world. Nevertheless, many of the willing migrants
undertake the hazardous travel to their destination country with criminal syndicates specialized in people
smuggling. These syndicates arrange everything for the migrants, but at a high price.

Very often the traveling conditions are inhumane: the migrants are overcrowded in trucks or boats and
fatal accidents occur frequently. After their arrival in the destination country, their illegal status puts them
at the mercy of their smugglers, which often force the migrants to work for years in the illegal labor
market to pay off the debts incurred as a result of their transportation.[25]

Wildlife
Wildlife smuggling results from the demand for exotic species and
the lucrative nature of the trade. The CITES (Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora) regulates the movement of endangered wildlife across
political borders.[26]

Economics of smuggling
A smuggler of rare birds arrested by
Research on smuggling as economic phenomenon is scant. Jagdish the U.S. Customs and Border
Bhagwati and Bent Hansen first forwarded a theory of smuggling Protection at a U.S. border
in which they saw smuggling essentially as an import-substituting
economic activity. Their main consideration, however, was the
welfare implications of smuggling. Against common belief that the private sector is more efficient than
the public sector, they showed that smuggling might not enhance social welfare though it may divert
resources from governments to the private sector.[27]
In contrast, Faizul Latif Chowdhury, in 1999, suggested a production-substituting model of smuggling in
which price disparity due to cost of supply is critically important as an incentive for smuggling.[28] This
price disparity is caused by domestic consumption-taxes and import duties. Drawing attention to the case
of cigarettes, Chowdhury suggested that, in Bangladesh, smuggling of cigarettes reduced the level of
domestic production. Domestic production of cigarettes is subject to value added tax (VAT) and other
consumption tax. Reduction of domestic taxes enables the local producer to supply at a lower cost and
bring down the price disparity that encourages smuggling.

However, Chowdhury suggested that there is a limit beyond which reducing domestic taxes on production
cannot confer a competitive advantage versus smuggled cigarettes. Therefore, government needs to
upscale its anti-smuggling drive so that seizures (taking possession of person or property by legal
process) can add to the cost of smuggling and thus render smuggling uncompetitive. Notably, Chowdhury
modeled the relationship of the smuggler to the local producer as one of antagonistic duopoly.

On the other hand, research by Tat Chee Tsui in 2016 suggests that even if increasing cigarette duty may
encourage smuggling, total cigarette-consumption still declines because the price of illicit goods, as
substitutes of taxed cigarettes, also increases because of higher tax rate.[29]

One economic view sees smuggling as monopoly-busting - as a challenge to state-sponsored restrictions

or taxes on trade.[30][31]

Methods
In smuggling, concealment can involve concealing the
smuggled goods on a person's clothing, luggage or inside a
body cavity. Some smugglers hide the whole transportation
vehicle or ship used to bring the items into an area. Avoiding
border checks, such as by small ships, private airplanes,
through overland smuggling routes, smuggling tunnels and
even small submersibles.[32][33] This also applies for illegally
passing a border oneself, for illegal immigration or illegal
emigration. In many parts of the world, particularly the Gulf of
Mexico, the smuggling vessel of choice is the go-fast boat.

Submitting to border checks with the goods or people hidden in

a vehicle or between (other) merchandise, or the goods hidden
in luggage, in or under clothes, inside the body (see body
cavity search, balloon swallower and mule), etc. Many
X-ray of an abdomen piled up with
smugglers fly on regularly scheduled airlines. A large number
cocaine
of suspected smugglers are caught each year by customs
worldwide. Goods and people are also smuggled across seas
hidden in containers, and overland hidden in cars, trucks, and trains. A related topic is illegally passing a
border oneself as a stowaway. The high level of duty levied on alcohol and tobacco in Britain has led to
large-scale smuggling from France to the UK through the Channel Tunnel. The combination of
acknowledged corruption at the border and high import tariffs led smugglers in the 1970s and '80s to fly
electronic equipment such as stereos and televisions in cargo planes from one country to clandestine
landing strips in another, thereby circumventing encounters at the frontier between countries.[34]
For illegally passing a border oneself, another method is with a false passport (completely fake, or
illegally changed, or the passport of a lookalike).

At Border checkpoints, especially for shipping cargo, Border agents must inspect cargo for smuggled and
illegal goods. However, because of what is called Gridlock a maximum of 5% inspections per cargo holds
worldwide.[35] Since it can take a proper and complete inspection four to six hours, major global trade
routes such as Singapore offer great opportunity for smugglers and traders alike. As the leading Cape
Town Customs Official argues, if a shipping port stops and inspects every ship it would cause a total
shipping grid lock, which is trade gridlock, which is also economic gridlock.[36] By under-declaring and
misrepresenting, even the most surprising goods is common practice when smuggling. What popular
culture does not communicate, is that illegal drugs and arms are not the bane of customs officers and the
ultimate threat to their economy. In reality, the most commonly smuggled items are everyday items one
believes to be common and thus causes higher losses in tax revenue. An anonymous shipping agent said
that smuggling becomes second nature to businessmen, taking finished products and misrepresenting
them to offer the cheapest possible rate. What the majority of people do not realize, is that the media and
popular culture focus on criminal organizations as primary smugglers, but in reality legitimate businesses
are the biggest offenders.[37] By incorporating their label on merchandise or products, it leaves bias
towards their goods as the popular media portrays them as reliable. Smuggling, however, is produced
through the very culture of the shipping industry and is affected by institutionalized tariffs and taxes
around the world.[38]

The existence of the Multi-Consignment Contraband (MCC) smuggling method (smuggling two or more
different types of contraband such as drugs and illegal immigrants or drugs and guns at the same time)
was verified following the completion of a study that found 16 documented cases of smugglers
transporting more than one type of contraband in the same shipment.[39] MCC shipments were frequently
associated with Phase II and Phase III smuggling organizations.

Use of animals
In addition to human couriers, smugglers have been known to transport illicit goods with the use of
trained animals.[40] One advantage to smugglers using animals is that unlike human couriers, who might
turn state's evidence if caught, an animal courier, if caught with any contraband on them, would be unable
to provide any verbal information to the authorities.

Dogs
One way that smugglers have used animals to transport contraband at times is through the use of dogs.
Often smugglers have been known to strap drugs onto the backs of canine and then use such dogs as pack
animals to transport the contraband across further distances or across borders.[41]

Cats
Another way smugglers have used to transport contraband on multiple occasions is cats. Usually the cats
are used to sneak drugs into prisons, where prison gangs can then sell the drugs to other inmates.[42]
Often a smuggler from the outside will attach small amounts of drugs to a cat and then the cat will either
be lured inside the prison by inmates with cat treats or the cat might be trained to enter the prison. In
addition to drugs, cats have also been used to smuggle other kinds of contraband into prison such as
cellphones, tools, batteries and phone chargers.[43] The reason why cats can make good drug couriers is
due to the fact that felines are naturally stealthy animals and because the prison guards are often less
likely to suspect that contraband might be on a cat.

Birds
Additionally smugglers have also used homing pigeons to transport contraband by air at times. Carrier
pigeons have been used to smuggle drugs into prisons[44] and across borders.[45] Additionally homing
pigeons have also been used to transport cellphones and SIM cards into prisons. The reason why pigeons
have been useful for smugglers, is that they can fly for long distances and because the birds are usually
unlikely to arouse much suspicion from authorities, due to the fact that pigeons are such widespread and
commonly witnessed birds, in both rural and urban areas.

Livestock
Smugglers have also been known to transport contraband with the use of livestock. One such example is
the use of horses, donkeys, mules and ponies.[46] The traffickers often strap the illicit goods to the
packhorses pack saddle, so that the animal can carry more loads of contraband further and across more
rugged terrain then a human courier. In addition to Packhorses, Smugglers have also been known to
transport contraband with the use of horse-drawn vehicles.[47] Additionally there are also livestock that
smugglers have used as living body couriers, in such instances the animals are either made to swallow the
drugs or the drugs are surgically implanted inside the animals before they are herded to another
destination, at a later date when the animals are slaughtered for their meat, the drugs are then removed
and given to associates. One such example is the use of cattle.[48] Cattle have been used as 'body couriers'
to transport contraband in multiple ways, often by inserting the drugs into the cattle, to be removed at a
later time after slaughter. Another animal that traffickers have used as body couriers are goats, which they
remove drugs from after slaughter.[49] Additionally another animal that has been used by smugglers to
transport contraband are sheep.[50] Often times, the traffickers either attach the drugs to the sheep's wool
or they insert the drugs inside the sheep to be removed at a later date after slaughter. What type of
livestock or pack animals do organized criminals use to carry contraband, often depends on availability
and region. For example, in parts of South America, traffickers have used llamas as pack animals to
transport drugs across rugged terrain or across borders.[51] In certain parts of Asia, elephants have been
used as pack animals to carry large amounts of drugs across wilderness areas or across borders.[52] In
Middle Eastern countries, smugglers have also been known to use camels as pack animals to transport
drugs across further distances or across borders.[53]

Legal definition
In popular perception smuggling is synonymous with illegal trade. Even social scientists have
misconstrued smuggling as illegal trade.[54] While the two have indeed identical objectives, namely the
evasion of taxes and the importation of contraband items, their demand and cost functions are altogether
different requiring different analytical framework. As a result, illegal trade through customs stations is
differently considered, and smuggling is defined as international trade through 'unauthorized route'.[55] A
seaport, airport or land port which has not been authorized by the government for importation and
exportation is an 'unauthorized route'. The legal definition of these occurs in the Customs Act of the
country. Notably, some definitions define any 'undeclared'
trafficking of currency and precious metal as smuggling.
Smuggling is a cognizable offense in which both the smuggled
goods and the goods are punishable.

See also
Illegal alcohol in confiscation,
Arms trafficking Finnish policemen and preventive
Battle of Mudeford – 1784 skirmish between smugglers officers on background. Prohibitory
and customs officers law against trade of alcoholic
Carding (fraud) – Crime involving the trafficking of credit beverages ("kieltolaki") was in force
card data during years 1919–1932 in Finland.

Counterfeiting
Daigou – Purchases of goods for Chinese consumers made overseas
French Connection – Infamous 20th-century crime scheme
Iron law of prohibition – Drug enforcement leads to higher potency
Pizza Connection Trial – Criminal trial against Mafia members
Rescates – Term for smuggling in 16th century Spanish Caribbean
Snakehead (gang) – Human smuggling gangs
The Yogurt Connection – American drug smuggling ring

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24. Angelis, Maria De (January 2012). Human Trafficking: Women's Stories of Agency (https://h
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26224304/http://www.deccanchronicle.com/channels/world/latin-america/snakes-plane-avert
ed-argentina-nabs-trafficker-628). Deccan Chronicle. December 26, 2011. Archived from the
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28. Chowdhury, F. L. 'Smuggling, Tax Structure and The Need for Anti-Smuggling Drive', Fiscal
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30. Stein, Stanley J.; Stein, Barbara H. (21 April 2000). "Spain, Europe, and the Atlantic System,
1500-1700". Silver, Trade, and War: Spain and America in the Making of Early Modern
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Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press (published 2000). p. 18. ISBN 9780801861352.
Retrieved 22 January 2022. "Since trafficking in smuggled goods was commonplace and
apparently beyond remedial action for over a century before 1700, how are we to explain
the persistence of legitimate monopoly paralleling this illegal activity? [...] monopoly (or
oligopoly) and smuggling - legal and illegal commerce, the formal and parallel economies -
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31. Makin, John H. (1997) [1997]. "Managing Unsustainable Tax Burdens in the US: A Historical
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Retrieved 22 January 2022. "Because of [...] difficulty in collecting excise taxes, the British in
the colonies were forced to fall back on high customs duties, which the colonists easily
avoided by smuggling. [...] The East India Company had received its monopoly on the tea
trade from the Crown, which then proceeded to tax tea so heavily that smuggling became
profitable, and the value of the franchise sold by the Crown eroded."
32. "Coast Guard hunts drug-running semi-subs - CNN.com" (http://www.cnn.com/2008/CRIME/
03/20/drug.subs/index.html). CNN. 2008-03-20. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2010
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Assessment of Sea Based Criminal Organizations and Terrorist Operations (http://www.hsaj.
org/?article=8.1.13) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20131103025210/http://www.hsa
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Consignment Contraband: Isolated Incidents or a New Trend?" Inside Homeland Security,
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40. "5 Animals Used to Smuggle Drugs in Latin America" (https://insightcrime.org/news/animals-
used-smuggle-drugs-latin-america/). 7 May 2021.
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ow-goats-can-turn-into-mules-236273). Retrieved 11 March 2023.
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20 May 2023.

Further reading
Andreas, Peter. Smuggler Nation: How Illicit Trade Made America. (New York: Oxford
University Press, 2013).
 Cohen, Andrew Wender. Contraband: Smuggling and the Birth of the American Century.
(New York: W.W. Norton, 2015).
Cole, W. A. “Trends in Eighteenth-Century Smuggling.” Economic History Review 10#3
1958, pp. 395–410. online (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2591260) in Britain
Díaz, George T. Border Contraband: A History of Smuggling across the Rio Grande
(University of Texas Press, 2015) xiv, 241 pp. excerpt (https://www.amazon.com/Border-Con
traband-History-Smuggling-Inter-America/dp/0292761066)
Graham, Frank, Smuggling in Cornwall (Newcastle upon Tyne, V. Graham, 1964).
Graham, Frank, Smuggling in Devon (Newcastle upon Tyne, Frank Graham, 1968).
Harper, Charles G., Smugglers: Picturesque chapters in the Story of an Ancient Craft
(Newcastle upon Tyne, Frank Graham, 1966)
Harvey, Simon, Smuggling: Seven Centuries of Contraband (London: Reaktion Books,
2016).
Jones, Evan T., 'Illicit business: accounting for smuggling in mid-sixteenth century Bristol' (ht
tps://web.archive.org/web/20121130223937/http://rose.bris.ac.uk/handle/1983/870),
Economic History Review, 54 (2001). Winner of the Economic History Society's "T.S. Ashton
Prize" in 2001, freely available online.
Jones, Evan T, Inside the Illicit Economy: Reconstructing the Smugglers' Trade of Sixteenth
Century Bristol (https://web.archive.org/web/20121114082602/http://www.ashgate.com/isbn/
9781409440192) (Ashgate, June 2012)
Karras, Alan. Smuggling: Contraband and Corruption in World History (Lanham, Rowman
and Littlefield, 2010) 199 pp.
Karson, Larry, American Smuggling and British white-collar crime: A historical perspective (h
ttps://www.britsoccrim.org/volume12/pbcc_2012_Karson.pdf) (PDF), British Society of
Criminology
Karson, Lawrence. American Smuggling as White Collar Crime. (New York: Routledge,
2014).
Morley, Geoffrey, Smuggling in Hampshire & Dorset 1700-1850 (Newbury: Countryside
Books, 1983). ISBN 0-905392-24-8.
Rattenbury, John, Memoirs of a Smuggler (Newcastle upon Tyne, V. Graham, 1964).
Smith, Joshua M., Borderland Smuggling: Patriots, Loyalists and Illicit Trade in the
Northeast, 1783–1820 (Gainesville, University Press of Florida, 2006). ISBN 0-8130-2986-4.
Waugh, Mary, Smuggling in Kent and Sussex 1700–1840 (Countryside Books, 1985,
updated 2003). ISBN 0-905392-48-5.

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