Eukaryote

The eukaryotes (/juːˈkærioʊts, -əts/ yoo-KARR-ee-ohts,

-⁠əts)[4] constitute the domain of Eukaryota or Eukarya, Eukaryota
organisms whose cells have a membrane-bound nucleus. Temporal range: Statherian–Present
All animals, plants, fungi, seaweeds, and many unicellular
organisms are eukaryotes. They constitute a major group of
life forms alongside the two groups of prokaryotes: the
Bacteria and the Archaea. Eukaryotes represent a small
minority of the number of organisms, but given their Cryptista Viridiplantae
generally much larger size, their collective global biomass
is much larger than that of prokaryotes.

The eukaryotes seemingly emerged within the Asgard

archaea, and are closely related to the Heimdallarchaeia.[5]
This implies that there are only two domains of life,
Bacteria and Archaea, with eukaryotes incorporated among
the Archaea. Eukaryotes first emerged during the Discoba Amoebozoa
Paleoproterozoic, likely as flagellated cells. The leading
evolutionary theory is they were created by symbiogenesis
between an anaerobic Asgard archaean and an aerobic
proteobacterium, which formed the mitochondria. A second
episode of symbiogenesis with a cyanobacterium created Rhizaria Alveolata
the plants, with chloroplasts.

Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles such

as the nucleus, the endoplasmic reticulum, and the Golgi
apparatus. Eukaryotes may be either unicellular or
multicellular. In comparison, prokaryotes are typically Animalia Fungi
unicellular. Unicellular eukaryotes are sometimes called
Scientific classification
protists. Eukaryotes can reproduce both asexually through
mitosis and sexually through meiosis and gamete fusion Domain: Eukaryota
(fertilization). (Chatton, 1925) Whittaker &
Margulis, 1978

Etymology Subgroups

Diaphoretickes

TSAR
Haptista
CAM clade (including plants)
The word 'Eukaryote' is derived from the Greek words "eu" Provora[1]
(εὖ) meaning "true" or "good" and "karyon" (κάρυον)
Hemimastigophora
meaning "nut" or "kernel," referring to the nucleus of a
cell.[6] Jakobea
Tsukubea
Discicristata
Diversity
Euglenozoa
Eukaryotes are organisms that range from microscopic
Percolozoa
single cells, such as picozoans under 3 micrometres
across,[7] to animals like the blue whale, weighing up to Scotokaryotes
190 tonnes and measuring up to 33.6 metres (110 ft)
Podiata (including fungi and
long,[8] or plants like the coast redwood, up to 120 metres
(390 ft) tall.[9] Many eukaryotes are unicellular; the animals)
informal grouping called protists includes many of these, Metamonada
with some multicellular forms like the giant kelp up to 200
Malawimonadida
feet (61 m) long.[10] The multicellular eukaryotes include
the animals, plants, and fungi, but again, these groups too Ancyromonadida
contain many unicellular species.[11] Eukaryotic cells are Synonyms
typically much larger than those of prokaryotes—the
bacteria and the archaea—having a volume of around Eucarya Woese et al. 1990[2]
10,000 times greater.[12][13] Eukaryotes represent a small
Eukarya Margulis 1996[3]
minority of the number of organisms, but, as many of them
are much larger, their collective global biomass (468
gigatons) is far larger than that of prokaryotes (77 gigatons), with plants alone accounting for over 81%
of the total biomass of Earth.[14]

Eukaryotes range in size from single-celled organisms to huge whales

 Prokaryotes (small cylindrical
cells, bacteria, on left) and a
single-celled eukaryote,
Paramecium Coast redwood

Blue whale

The eukaryotes are a diverse lineage, consisting mainly of microscopic organisms.[15] Multicellularity in
some form has evolved independently at least 25 times within the eukaryotes.[16][17] Complex
multicellular organisms, not counting the aggregation of amoebae to form slime molds, have evolved
within only six eukaryotic lineages: animals, symbiomycotan fungi, brown algae, red algae, green algae,
and land plants.[18] Eukaryotes are grouped by genomic similarities, so that groups often lack visible
shared characteristics.[15]

Distinguishing features

Nucleus
The defining feature of eukaryotes is that their cells have a well-defined, membrane-bound nuclei,
distinguishing them from prokaryotes that lack such a structure. Eukaryotic cells have a variety of
internal membrane-bound structures, called organelles, and a cytoskeleton which defines the cell's
organization and shape. The nucleus stores the cell's DNA, which is divided into linear bundles called
chromosomes;[19] these are separated into two matching sets by a microtubular spindle during nuclear
division, in the distinctively eukaryotic process of mitosis.[20]

Biochemistry
Eukaryotes differ from prokaryotes in multiple ways, with unique biochemical pathways such as sterane
synthesis.[21] The eukaryotic signature proteins have no homology to proteins in other domains of life,
but appear to be universal among eukaryotes. They include the proteins of the cytoskeleton, the complex
transcription machinery, the membrane-sorting systems, the nuclear pore, and some enzymes in the
biochemical pathways.[22]

Internal membranes

Prokaryote,
to same
scale

Eukaryotic cell with endomembrane system

Eukaryotic cells are some 10,000 times larger than prokaryotic cells by volume, and contain membrane-
bound organelles.

Eukaryote cells include a variety of membrane-bound structures, together forming the endomembrane
system.[23] Simple compartments, called vesicles and vacuoles, can form by budding off other
membranes. Many cells ingest food and other materials through a process of endocytosis, where the outer
membrane invaginates and then pinches off to form a vesicle.[24] Some cell products can leave in a
vesicle through exocytosis.[25]

The nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane known as the nuclear envelope, with nuclear pores that
allow material to move in and out.[26] Various tube- and sheet-like extensions of the nuclear membrane
form the endoplasmic reticulum, which is involved in protein transport and maturation. It includes the
rough endoplasmic reticulum, covered in ribosomes which synthesize proteins; these enter the interior
space or lumen. Subsequently, they generally enter vesicles, which bud off from the smooth endoplasmic
reticulum.[27] In most eukaryotes, these protein-carrying vesicles are released and further modified in
stacks of flattened vesicles (cisternae), the Golgi apparatus.[28]

Vesicles may be specialized; for instance, lysosomes contain digestive enzymes that break down
biomolecules in the cytoplasm.[29]

Mitochondria
Mitochondria are organelles in eukaryotic cells. The mitochondrion is commonly called "the powerhouse
of the cell",[30] for its function providing energy by oxidising sugars or fats to produce the energy-storing
molecule ATP.[31][32] Mitochondria have two surrounding membranes, each a phospholipid bilayer, the
inner of which is folded into invaginations called cristae where aerobic respiration takes place.[33]
Mitochondria contain their own DNA, which has
close structural similarities to bacterial DNA, from
which it originated, and which encodes rRNA and
tRNA genes that produce RNA which is closer in
structure to bacterial RNA than to eukaryote
RNA.[34]

Some eukaryotes, such as the metamonads Giardia

and Trichomonas, and the amoebozoan Pelomyxa,
appear to lack mitochondria, but all contain
mitochondrion-derived organelles, like
hydrogenosomes or mitosomes, having lost their Mitochondria are essentially universal in the
mitochondria secondarily.[35] They obtain energy by eukaryotes, and with their own DNA somewhat
enzymatic action in the cytoplasm.[36][35] It is resemble prokaryotic cells.

thought that mitochondria developed from

prokaryotic cells which became endosymbionts
living inside eukaryotes.[37]

Plastids
Plants and various groups of algae have plastids as well as
mitochondria. Plastids, like mitochondria, have their own
DNA and are developed from endosymbionts, in this case
cyanobacteria. They usually take the form of chloroplasts
which, like cyanobacteria, contain chlorophyll and produce
organic compounds (such as glucose) through
photosynthesis. Others are involved in storing food.
Although plastids probably had a single origin, not all
plastid-containing groups are closely related. Instead, some
eukaryotes have obtained them from others through
secondary endosymbiosis or ingestion.[38] The capture and
sequestering of photosynthetic cells and chloroplasts,
kleptoplasty, occurs in many types of modern eukaryotic The most common type of plastid is the
organisms.[39][40] chloroplast, which contains chlorophyll and
produces organic compounds by
photosynthesis.
Cytoskeletal structures
The cytoskeleton provides stiffening structure and points of attachment for motor structures that enable
the cell to move, change shape, or transport materials. The motor structures are microfilaments of actin
and actin-binding proteins, including α-actinin, fimbrin, and filamin are present in submembranous
cortical layers and bundles. Motor proteins of microtubules, dynein and kinesin, and myosin of actin
filaments, provide dynamic character of the network.[41][42]

Many eukaryotes have long slender motile cytoplasmic projections, called flagella, or multiple shorter
structures called cilia. These organelles are variously involved in movement, feeding, and sensation. They
are composed mainly of tubulin, and are entirely distinct from prokaryotic flagella. They are supported by
a bundle of microtubules arising from a centriole,
characteristically arranged as nine doublets surrounding two
singlets. Flagella may have hairs (mastigonemes), as in many
stramenopiles. Their interior is continuous with the cell's
cytoplasm.[43][44]

Centrioles are often present, even in cells and groups that do not
have flagella, but conifers and flowering plants have neither. They
generally occur in groups that give rise to various microtubular
roots. These form a primary component of the cytoskeleton, and
are often assembled over the course of several cell divisions, with
one flagellum retained from the parent and the other derived from The cytoskeleton. Actin filaments
it. Centrioles produce the spindle during nuclear division.[45] are shown in red, microtubules in
green. (The nucleus is in blue.)

Cell wall
The cells of plants, algae, fungi and most chromalveolates, but not animals, are surrounded by a cell wall.
This is a layer outside the cell membrane, providing the cell with structural support, protection, and a
filtering mechanism. The cell wall also prevents over-expansion when water enters the cell.[46]

The major polysaccharides making up the primary cell wall of land plants are cellulose, hemicellulose,
and pectin. The cellulose microfibrils are linked together with hemicellulose, embedded in a pectin
matrix. The most common hemicellulose in the primary cell wall is xyloglucan.[47]

Sexual reproduction
Eukaryotes have a life cycle that involves sexual reproduction,
alternating between a haploid phase, where only one copy of each
chromosome is present in each cell, and a diploid phase, with two
copies of each chromosome in each cell. The diploid phase is
formed by fusion of two haploid gametes, such as eggs and
spermatozoa, to form a zygote; this may grow into a body, with its
cells dividing by mitosis, and at some stage produce haploid
gametes through meiosis, a division that reduces the number of
chromosomes and creates genetic variability.[48] There is
considerable variation in this pattern. Plants have both haploid and
diploid multicellular phases.[49] Eukaryotes have lower metabolic
rates and longer generation times than prokaryotes, because they
are larger and therefore have a smaller surface area to volume Sexual reproduction requires a life
ratio.[50] cycle that alternates between a
haploid phase, with one copy of
The evolution of sexual reproduction may be a primordial each chromosome in the cell, and a
characteristic of eukaryotes. Based on a phylogenetic analysis, diploid phase, with two copies. In
Dacks and Roger have proposed that facultative sex was present in eukaryotes, haploid gametes are
produced by meiosis; two gametes
the group's common ancestor.[51] A core set of genes that function
fuse to form a diploid zygote.
in meiosis is present in both Trichomonas vaginalis and Giardia
intestinalis, two organisms previously thought to be
asexual.[52][53] Since these two species are descendants of lineages that diverged early from the
eukaryotic evolutionary tree, core meiotic genes, and hence sex, were likely present in the common
ancestor of eukaryotes.[52][53] Species once thought to be asexual, such as Leishmania parasites, have a
sexual cycle.[54] Amoebae, previously regarded as asexual, may be anciently sexual; while present-day
asexual groups could have arisen recently.[55]

Evolution

History of classification
In antiquity, the two lineages of animals and plants were recognized by Aristotle and Theophrastus. The
lineages were given the taxonomic rank of kingdom by Linnaeus in the 18th century. Though he included
the fungi with plants with some reservations, it was later realized that they are quite distinct and warrant a
separate kingdom.[56] The various single-cell eukaryotes were originally placed with plants or animals
when they became known. In 1818, the German biologist Georg A. Goldfuss coined the word Protozoa to
refer to organisms such as ciliates,[57] and this group was expanded until Ernst Haeckel made it a
kingdom encompassing all single-celled eukaryotes, the Protista, in 1866.[58][59][60] The eukaryotes thus
came to be seen as four kingdoms:

Kingdom Protista
Kingdom Plantae
Kingdom Fungi
Kingdom Animalia
The protists were at that time thought to be "primitive forms", and thus an evolutionary grade, united by
their primitive unicellular nature.[59] Understanding of the oldest branchings in the tree of life only
developed substantially with DNA sequencing, leading to a system of domains rather than kingdoms as
top level rank being put forward by Carl Woese, Otto Kandler, and Mark Wheelis in 1990, uniting all the
eukaryote kingdoms in the domain "Eucarya", stating, however, that " 'eukaryotes' will continue to be an
acceptable common synonym".[2][61] In 1996, the evolutionary biologist Lynn Margulis proposed to
replace kingdoms and domains with "inclusive" names to create a "symbiosis-based phylogeny", giving
the description "Eukarya (symbiosis-derived nucleated organisms)".[3]

Phylogeny
By 2014, a rough consensus started to emerge from the phylogenomic studies of the previous two
decades.[11][63] The majority of eukaryotes can be placed in one of two large clades dubbed Amorphea
(similar in composition to the unikont hypothesis) and the Diphoda (formerly bikonts), which includes
plants and most algal lineages. A third major grouping, the Excavata, has been abandoned as a formal
group as it is paraphyletic.[64] The proposed phylogeny below includes only one group of excavates
(Discoba),[65] and incorporates the 2021 proposal that picozoans are close relatives of rhodophytes.[66]
The Provora are a group of microbial predators discovered in 2022.[1]

⁠Eukaryotes ⁠ ⁠
 ⁠ Ancyromonadida
⁠ Malawimonada
⁠

⁠ CRuMs
⁠

Amoebozoa
⁠

⁠ ⁠ Breviatea
⁠ ⁠
⁠
⁠ ⁠ Apusomonadida
⁠ ⁠
⁠ morphea
A
⁠1500 mya Tree ⁠ofHolomycota (inc.major
eukaryotes showing fungi)
subgroups and
⁠Obazoa
thumbnail
⁠ diagrams of representative members of
⁠
each group, based on 2023 phylogenomic
⁠ ⁠Opisthokonta [62]
reconstructions.
Holozoa (inc. animals)
⁠1300 mya
⁠
⁠
⁠ ? Metamonada
⁠
⁠
⁠ ⁠ Discoba
⁠

⁠ Cryptista
⁠

⁠2200 mya ⁠ Rhodophyta (red algae)

⁠
⁠
⁠ ⁠
Picozoa
⁠ ⁠
⁠ ⁠Archaeplastida
⁠1600 mya ⁠ Glaucophyta
⁠1100 mya
⁠
⁠ Viridiplantae (plants)
⁠
⁠ iphoda
D ⁠1000 mya
⁠Bikonts
⁠ Hemimastigophora
⁠Diaphoretickes ⁠
⁠
⁠ Provora
⁠
⁠ ⁠ Haptista
⁠
⁠ SAR
T ⁠ Telonemia
⁠
⁠ ⁠ ⁠
⁠ ⁠SAR ⁠ Rhizaria
 ⁠ ⁠550 mya
⁠ ⁠ Alveolata
⁠ ⁠
⁠Halvaria
⁠ ⁠ Stramenopiles
One view of the great kingdoms and their stem groups.[65][67][68][15] The Metamonada are hard to place,
being sister possibly to Discoba or to Malawimonada[15] or being a paraphyletic group external to all
other eukaryotes.[69]

Origin of eukaryotes

The origin of the eukaryotic cell, or

eukaryogenesis, is a milestone in the evolution of
life, since eukaryotes include all complex cells
and almost all multicellular organisms. The last
eukaryotic common ancestor (LECA) is the
hypothetical origin of all living eukaryotes,[71]
and was most likely a biological population, not a
single individual.[72] The LECA is believed to
have been a protist with a nucleus, at least one
centriole and flagellum, facultatively aerobic
mitochondria, sex (meiosis and syngamy), a
dormant cyst with a cell wall of chitin or
cellulose, and peroxisomes.[73][74][75]
In the theory of symbiogenesis, a merger of an
archaean and an aerobic bacterium created the
An endosymbiotic union between a motile eukaryotes, with aerobic mitochondria; a second
anaerobic archaean and an aerobic merger added chloroplasts, creating the green
alphaproteobacterium gave rise to the LECA and plants.[70]
all eukaryotes, with mitochondria. A second,
much later endosymbiosis with a cyanobacterium
gave rise to the ancestor of plants, with chloroplasts.[70]

The presence of eukaryotic biomarkers in archaea points towards an archaeal origin. The genomes of
Asgard archaea have plenty of eukaryotic signature protein genes, which play a crucial role in the
development of the cytoskeleton and complex cellular structures characteristic of eukaryotes. In 2022,
cryo-electron tomography demonstrated that Asgard archaea have a complex actin-based cytoskeleton,
providing the first direct visual evidence of the archaeal ancestry of eukaryotes.[76]

Fossils
The timing of the origin of eukaryotes is hard to determine, but the discovery of Qingshania magnificia,
the earliest multicelluar eukaryote from North China which lived 1.635 billion years ago, suggests that
the crown group eukaryotes originated from the late Paleoproterozoic (Statherian). The earliest
unequivocal unicellular eukaryotes, Tappania plana, Shuiyousphaeridium macroreticulatum,
Dictyosphaera macroreticulata, Germinosphaera alveolata, and Valeria lophostriata from North China,
lived approximately 1.65 billion years ago.[77]
Some acritarchs are known from at least 1.65 billion years ago, and a fossil, Grypania, which may be an
alga, is as much as 2.1 billion years old.[78][79] The "problematic"[80] fossil Diskagma has been found in
paleosols 2.2 billion years old.[80]

The Neoarchean fossil Thuchomyces shares similarities with

eukaryotes, specifically fungi. It especially resembles the
problematic fossil Diskagma,[80] with hyphae and multiple
differentiated layers.[81] However, it is over 600 million years
older than all other possible eukaryotes, and many of its
"eukaryote features" are not specific to the clade, meaning it is
almost certainly a microbial mat instead.[82]
Reconstruction of the
problematic[80] Diskagma buttonii, a
Structures proposed to represent "large colonial organisms" have
terrestrial fossil less than 1mm high,
from rocks around 2.2 billion years
been found in the black shales of the Palaeoproterozoic such as the
old Francevillian B Formation, in Gabon, dubbed the "Francevillian
biota" which is dated at 2.1 billion years old.[83][84] However, the
status of these structures as fossils is contested, with other authors
suggesting that they might represent pseudofossils.[85] The oldest fossils than can unambiguously be
assigned to eukaryotes are from the Ruyang Group of China, dating to approximately 1.8-1.6 billion years
ago.[86] Fossils that are clearly related to modern groups start appearing an estimated 1.2 billion years
ago, in the form of red algae, though recent work suggests the existence of fossilized filamentous algae in
the Vindhya basin dating back perhaps to 1.6 to 1.7 billion years ago.[87]

The presence of steranes, eukaryotic-specific biomarkers, in Australian shales previously indicated that
eukaryotes were present in these rocks dated at 2.7 billion years old,[21][88] but these Archaean
biomarkers have been rebutted as later contaminants.[89] The oldest valid biomarker records are only
around 800 million years old.[90] In contrast, a molecular clock analysis suggests the emergence of sterol
biosynthesis as early as 2.3 billion years ago.[91] The nature of steranes as eukaryotic biomarkers is
further complicated by the production of sterols by some bacteria.[92][93]

Whenever their origins, eukaryotes may not have become ecologically dominant until much later; a
massive increase in the zinc composition of marine sediments 800 million years ago has been attributed
to the rise of substantial populations of eukaryotes, which preferentially consume and incorporate zinc
relative to prokaryotes, approximately a billion years after their origin (at the latest).[94]

See also
Eukaryote hybrid genome
List of sequenced eukaryotic genomes
Parakaryon myojinensis
Vault (organelle)

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External links
"Eukaryotes" (http://www.tolweb.org/Eukaryotes/3) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20
120129074456/http://www.tolweb.org/Eukaryotes/3) 29 January 2012 at the Wayback
Machine (Tree of Life Web Project)
"Eukaryote" (https://web.archive.org/web/20230000000000/http://www.eol.org/pages/29082
56). The Encyclopedia of Life.

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