Chapter- 03: OPTICS

SHAHINUR AKTER
Lecturer in Physics
Department of SWE

1. What is the dual nature of light (Einstein’s quantum view) and how does it relate to both particle and
wave characteristics? How do ray view and wave view explain the behavior of light in different
situations?

The dual nature of light refers to the concept that light exhibits both wave-like and particle-like properties,
depending on the experimental conditions. This duality was a key result of Einstein's quantum view of light, which
was built on earlier work by physicists like Max Planck and Thomas Young. Here's how it all fits together:

1. Wave Nature of Light (Classical View)

Light behaves like a wave in many situations, particularly when interacting with materials that lead to phenomena
such as:

• Interference: When two or more light waves overlap, they can combine constructively or destructively, as
demonstrated in the famous Young’s double-slit experiment.

• Diffraction: Light waves bend around obstacles or through small openings, creating patterns of light and dark
bands, consistent with wave theory.

• Polarization: Light waves can oscillate in specific directions, and filters can block certain polarizations of light,
which is also a wave-like property.

The wave view of light is described by Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory, where light is an electromagnetic wave,
consisting of oscillating electric and magnetic fields.

2. Particle Nature of Light (Einstein's Quantum View of Light)

Einstein expanded on the idea of wave-particle duality by explaining the particle nature of light. He proposed that
light is composed of discrete packets of energy called photons. Each photon carries energy proportional to the
frequency of the light (given by 𝐸 = ℎ𝜗, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ℎ is Planck’s constant and 𝜗 is the frequency).

This particle view was essential in explaining the photoelectric effect, where light shining on a metal surface can
eject electrons only if the light's frequency is above a certain threshold, regardless of its intensity. The photoelectric
effect could not be explained by classical wave theory, as the energy of ejected electrons depended on the frequency
(not the intensity) of light, pointing to light acting as particles (photons) in this case.

Thus, Einstein’s quantum view supports the idea that light behaves as both a particle (in phenomena like the
photoelectric effect) and a wave (in phenomena like interference and diffraction).

How Duality Works:

Light’s behavior as a wave or a particle depends on the context:

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• Wave-like behavior dominates when light interacts with objects that are large relative to its wavelength, like
slits in a diffraction grating.

• Particle-like behavior is more apparent in interactions where light's energy is absorbed or emitted by atoms,
such as the photoelectric effect, or in high-energy processes like Compton scattering (where photons collide
with electrons).

3. Ray View vs. Wave View of Light

• Ray View (Geometric Optics): In this model, light is treated as traveling in straight lines (rays). This works
well for describing phenomena like reflection and refraction, where light travels through large-scale media
(such as lenses, mirrors, and prisms). For example, in everyday optics (like eyeglasses), the ray view is highly
useful, and we don’t need to consider light’s wave nature.

• Wave View (Physical Optics): When the size of obstacles or slits is comparable to the wavelength of light, the
wave nature of light becomes essential. This view is necessary to explain interference, diffraction, and
polarization. For example, diffraction through a small aperture or the rainbow colors seen in thin films (soap
bubbles) are wave phenomena.

How These Views Relate:

• Ray view simplifies light as traveling in straight paths and helps explain simple reflection and refraction but
doesn’t account for more complex wave interactions.

• Wave view helps understand light in situations where the wave nature, like interference and diffraction,
dominates.

• Particle view becomes crucial when dealing with energy exchanges, such as the absorption and emission of
photons.

Einstein’s quantum view unified the understanding of light by showing that both wave and particle models are
needed to fully describe the behavior of light in different contexts. The wave-particle duality is now a fundamental
concept in quantum mechanics.

2. Two independent monochromatic sources cannot act as coherent sources, why?

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Two independent monochromatic sources cannot act as coherent sources because coherence requires a fixed phase
relationship between the sources. In other words, for two sources to be coherent, they must emit light waves that
have a constant phase difference over time.

Monochromatic sources may produce light of the same frequency (wavelength), but independent sources have no
mechanism to synchronize their phases. Each source emits light based on its own internal mechanism, and their
phase relations fluctuate randomly. As a result, the light waves from two independent sources will not maintain a
stable phase difference, making them incoherent.

In contrast, coherent sources are typically derived from a single light source, often by splitting the light beam, so
that the two resulting beams share the same frequency and have a well-defined, stable phase relationship. This is
why two independent sources of light, even if monochromatic, cannot produce interference patterns typically
associated with coherent light.

3. Can you identify a natural occurrence of light involving dispersion, reflection, and refraction of light?
Please provide an explanation.

A natural occurrence that involves dispersion, reflection, and refraction of light is a rainbow. Rainbows form
when sunlight interacts with water droplets in the atmosphere, and the phenomena of dispersion, reflection, and
refraction all play crucial roles in this process. Here’s how:

1. Refraction

• When sunlight enters a water droplet, it refracts (bends) at the boundary between air and water because the
speed of light changes as it passes from air (a less dense medium) into water (a denser medium). This
bending of light causes the different colors of light to spread out because each wavelength of light refracts
by a slightly different amount (red light bends less than blue light).

2. Dispersion

• Dispersion occurs because white sunlight is made up of different colors (wavelengths), and each color
bends by a different angle when passing through the water droplet. This separation of colors due to varying
degrees of refraction is what causes the formation of the spectrum of colors seen in a rainbow—ranging
from red (at the top) to violet (at the bottom).

3. Internal Reflection

• After refraction, the light inside the droplet undergoes internal reflection. The light reflects off the inner
surface of the water droplet, and this reflection plays a critical role in the light's path and in forming the
circular shape of the rainbow. The more ideal the internal reflection, the more pronounced the rainbow will
be.

4. Refraction (again)

• As the reflected light exits the water droplet, it refracts again as it passes from water (denser medium)
back into air (less dense medium). This final refraction further separates the colors, making the rainbow
more distinct.

Overall Explanation:

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A rainbow is an example of sunlight being dispersed into its constituent colors by water droplets, with refraction
occurring when light enters and exits the droplet, and internal reflection happening inside the droplet. These
combined effects create the arc of colors that we see in the sky during or after rain, when the sun is shining. The
process relies on the wave-like properties of light and demonstrates how light behaves differently when interacting
with various media.

4. How does optical dispersion impact the behavior of light in different mediums, and what factors
contribute to the varying degrees of dispersion in different materials?

Optical dispersion is the phenomenon where light separates into its component colors as it passes through a material,
like a prism, due to the refractive index varying with wavelength. Dispersion explains why white light splits into a
rainbow when it passes through certain media and affects light behavior across various optical systems.

Impact of Optical Dispersion on Light Behavior

1. Color Separation: When light enters a material, its components (colors) bend at different angles depending
on their wavelength. Shorter wavelengths (blue/violet) typically bend more than longer wavelengths (red),
resulting in a spread of colors.
2. Chromatic Aberration: In lenses, dispersion causes different colors to focus on slightly different points.
This can lead to blurred or fringed images in optical systems like cameras and telescopes. Corrective lenses
or coatings are often used to counteract this.
3. Optical Fiber Communication: In optical fibers, dispersion causes pulses of light to spread over long
distances, potentially causing signal overlaps. Materials with low dispersion or dispersion compensation
techniques are used in fiber-optic communications to maintain signal integrity.

Factors Contributing to Dispersion Variation in Different Materials

1. Electronic Polarizability: Dispersion is linked to how readily a material's electrons can respond to an electric
field (such as light). Highly polarized materials tend to show greater dispersion.
2. Molecular and Atomic Structure: The material's composition affects how strongly different wavelengths
are refracted. For example, the different atomic structures of crown glass and flint glass cause different
levels of dispersion.
3. Resonance Effects: Dispersion is strongest near the material’s natural electronic resonances, where the
material absorbs light more readily. This is why certain materials, like quartz, show different dispersive
properties in ultraviolet light compared to visible light.
4. Temperature: The refractive index of a material (and therefore its dispersion) can vary with temperature,
although this effect is generally small in most solid materials.

Measuring Dispersion

• Abbe Number: This number quantifies a material’s dispersion, with lower values indicating stronger
dispersion. Materials with high dispersion, like flint glass, have low Abbe numbers and are often used where
light separation is needed.
• Empirical Dispersion Equations: Equations like Cauchy's or Sellmeier's provide formulas to describe
how refractive index changes with wavelength, enabling precise modeling of dispersion in optical systems.

In summary, optical dispersion impacts light behavior by causing different colors to refract at different angles,
resulting in phenomena like color separation and chromatic aberration. Factors such as electronic polarizability,
atomic structure, and resonances contribute to the degree of dispersion in different materials, and various
quantifications (like the Abbe number) help in assessing these effects for practical applications.

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5. Analyze the concept of total internal reflection in fiber optics. How does the critical angle relate to the
phenomenon, and what are the practical applications of total internal reflection in optical communication?

Total internal reflection (TIR) is fundamental to fiber optics, allowing light to be transmitted over long distances
with minimal loss. TIR occurs when light traveling within a denser medium, like the core of an optical fiber, hits
the boundary with a less dense medium (typically the fiber cladding) at an angle greater than the "critical angle."
This causes the light to reflect entirely within the core rather than refract out of the fiber, enabling efficient light
transmission.

Relationship Between Total Internal Reflection and the Critical Angle

1. Critical Angle Definition: The critical angle is the minimum angle of incidence at which total internal
reflection occurs. It depends on the refractive indices of the core (denser medium) and the cladding (less
dense medium). When light hits the interface at an angle greater than the critical angle, it reflects entirely
within the core, maintaining its energy within the fiber.

Mathematically, the critical angle θc is determined by:

𝒏
θc=arc sin (𝒏𝟐)
𝟏

where 𝑛1 is the refractive index of the core and 𝑛2 is the refractive index of the cladding. For total internal
reflection to occur, 𝑛1 must be greater than 𝑛2 , ensuring that light is continually reflected within the fiber.

2. Propagation of Light Through TIR: When light enters the fiber at an angle greater than the critical
angle, it reflects in a zigzag pattern along the length of the fiber, enabling it to travel long distances. This
controlled reflection is the principle behind optical fiber transmission, as it traps the light within the core
without significant energy loss.

Practical Applications of Total Internal Reflection in Optical Communication

Total internal reflection in optical fibers is the foundation of modern communication networks, enabling a wide
range of applications:

1. High-Speed Internet and Data Transmission: Optical fibers can transmit large volumes of data at high
speeds over long distances with minimal loss, crucial for high-speed internet, streaming, and cloud services.
This capability results from TIR, which maintains signal strength without the frequent need for amplification.

2. Telecommunication Networks: TIR enables the efficient transmission of voice, video, and data signals over
global telecommunications networks. Because optical fibers offer high bandwidth and low latency, they are
ideal for long-haul communication and transoceanic data cables.

3. Cable Television and Media Broadcasting: Optical fibers deliver television and media content to homes and
businesses. The high capacity and speed of fiber optics allow providers to offer HD and streaming services
with minimal lag, enhancing user experience.

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4. Medical Imaging and Endoscopy: In medical applications, fiber optics using TIR are utilized in endoscopes
to transmit light and images from within the body, allowing doctors to see internal structures without invasive
surgery. TIR ensures that light is retained within the fiber, providing clear and precise images.

5. Industrial Inspections and Imaging: Fiber-optic cables are used in fiberscopes for inspecting complex
machinery, pipelines, and inaccessible structures. TIR enables light to travel through flexible fibers,
illuminating hard-to-reach areas for visual inspection.

6. Secure Communication Channels: Optical fibers are difficult to tap or intercept without affecting the signal,
providing a secure communication medium for sensitive information. TIR confines light within the core,
making fiber-optic networks more secure than traditional copper wires.

6. What is wavefront and how does it differ from amplitude of wave? When a wave undergoes reflection at
a denser medium, what happens to its phase? Explain with figure. What is the principle behind Huygens'
wave theory, and how does it help explain the phenomenon of wavefront, propagation? Demonstrate the
laws of reflection and refraction by employing Huygens' principle.

Wavefront vs. Amplitude of a Wave

1. Wavefront: A wavefront is an imaginary surface that connects points on a wave that are in phase, meaning
they reach their maximum displacement simultaneously. For instance, in a ripple on water, wavefronts are
concentric circles spreading outward from a disturbance. Wavefronts represent the direction and phase
alignment of the wave.

2. Amplitude: Amplitude is the maximum displacement of points on a wave from the equilibrium position. It
represents the wave’s energy but does not convey information about the phase or direction. Amplitude
affects the intensity or loudness of sound waves and the brightness of light waves.

In summary, wavefront describes the phase relationship across the wave, while amplitude measures the wave's
energy.

Phase Change During Reflection at a Denser Medium:

When a wave reflects off a denser medium, it undergoes a phase change of 180 degrees (or π radians). This means
that the reflected wave will be inverted when compared to the incident wave. In other words, the amplitude of the
wave is reversed as it reflects off the interface of the denser medium. For example, if a light wave reflects off a
glass surface (denser medium), the wave will invert its phase upon reflection.

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Huygens' Principle and Wavefront Propagation

Huygens’ principle is a fundamental theory in wave optics. It states that:

1. Every point on a wavefront act as a source of secondary spherical wavelets that spread out in all
directions.

2. The new wavefront at a later time is the tangent to all these secondary wavelets.

This principle explains wave propagation by showing that each point on a wavefront contributes to the creation
of the next position of the wavefront. This approach helps explain phenomena like diffraction, reflection, and
refraction.

Explaining Reflection and Refraction with Huygens' Principle

• Reflection: According to Huygens’ principle, when a wavefront encounters a reflective surface, each point
on the wavefront reflects and generates secondary wavelets. These wavelets combine to form a reflected
wavefront at an angle equal to the incident angle.

o Law of Reflection: The angle of incidence i equals the angle of reflection r because the wavefront
maintains the same orientation relative to the reflecting surface.

• Refraction: When a wavefront passes from one medium to another, its speed changes, causing the
wavefront to bend. Huygens’ principle explains that the portion of the wavefront entering the denser
medium first slows down, bending the entire wavefront toward the normal.

o Law of Refraction (Snell's Law): The relationship between the angle of incidence i and the angle of
refraction r is governed by the equation 𝝑𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊 = 𝝑𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓, where 𝝑𝟏 and 𝝑𝟐 are the refractive
indices of the media. Huygens' principle explains this by showing how different parts of the wavefront
change speed at different times, resulting in the bending of the wave.

Figure: Laws of (a) reflection and (b) refraction using Huygens Principle.

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 Figure: Laws of (a) reflection and (b) refraction

7. Explain the concept of diffraction in optics and how it affects the behavior of light waves. How does
diffraction contribute positively to our daily experiences?

Diffraction in optics refers to the bending and spreading of light waves when they encounter an obstacle or pass
through a narrow aperture. This phenomenon occurs due to the wave nature of light, allowing it to interfere and
create patterns of intensity. Diffraction affects how we perceive light, making it possible to see around obstacles
and creating effects such as the colorful patterns observed with materials like CDs or the brilliant colors of certain
beetles, which are a result of light interacting with microstructures.

In our daily lives, diffraction contributes positively in several ways. For example, it allows us to perceive images
more clearly in various lighting conditions, enhances the quality of projections in cinema and presentations, and
plays a role in technologies like optical instruments and lasers. It also helps in natural phenomena, such as the
scattering of light in fog, which can create visually striking scenes.

8. What is polarization of light, and why is it important in applications such as LCD screens and 3D
glasses? Brewster angle, polarizer, analyzer, specific rotation, camera and polarization.

Polarization of light refers to the orientation of light waves in a specific direction, where the vibrations of the
waves occur in a single plane rather than in multiple planes. This property is crucial in various applications,
including LCD screens and 3D glasses. In LCD screens, polarizers are used to control the light passing through,
enhancing contrast and reducing reflections. In 3D glasses, polarization allows each eye to receive a different image,
creating a stereoscopic effect that gives the perception of depth.

A polarizer is an optical device that allows only light waves of a specific polarization to pass through while blocking
others. An analyzer, in the context of optics, is another polarizing device that is used to analyze the polarization
state of light after it has passed through the polarizer. Specific rotation refers to the measure of the degree to which
a substance can rotate the plane of polarized light, defined as the angle of rotation per unit path length and
concentration of the substance as light passes through it.

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Camera and Polarization: In photography, polarization plays a crucial role in managing light to improve image
quality, reduce glare, and enhance color saturation. A polarizing filter, often attached to a camera lens, selectively
blocks specific orientations of light waves, helping photographers control how light interacts with the camera sensor.
Here’s a breakdown of how polarization affects camera use and image quality:

How Polarizing Filters Work

A polarizing filter allows only light vibrating in a particular direction to pass through. In photography, the most
common type is the circular polarizing filter (CPL), which consists of two layers: a polarizing film and a quarter-
wave plate. As light passes through, the filter blocks certain orientations of light, especially the reflections from
horizontal surfaces.

Benefits of Using Polarizing Filters in Photography

➢ Reducing Reflections and Glare

➢ Enhanced Color Saturation
➢ Improved Contrast and Clarity
➢ Eliminating Unwanted Light

Interference of light
1. In Young's double slit experiment, the two slits are 0.15 mm apart. The light source has a wavelength of
450 nm. The screen is 2m away from the slits.
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(i) Find the distance of the second bright fringe and third dark fringe from the central maximum.
(ii) Find the fringe width.
(iii) How will the fringe pattern change if the screen is moved away from the slits?
(iv) What will happen to the fringe width if the whole setup is immersed in water of refractive index 4/3.

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2. The distance between the centers of two consecutive bright fringes in Young’s experiment is 0.75 mm.
The distance of the screen from the slit is 68 cm. The frequency of the light is 1.2×1010 Hz.
i. Find out the separation between the slit.
ii. Calculate the width of dark fringes.
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iii. What is the distance of 5th bright and dark fringes respectively from the central bright fringe?

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3. Two lights of wavelengths 500 mm and 420 mm are used in Young's double slit experiment. Find the least
distance from the central fringe where the bright fringe of the two wavelengths coincides. Given D = 1 m
and d = 3 mm.

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4. Derive expressions for the light intensity of both bright and dark fringes in Young's double-slit
experiment, and then discuss how altering the slit separation impacts the fringe width in the interference
pattern.

Expression for Intensity of light:

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Expression for Interference Fringes:

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5. Calculate the ratio between the maximum and minimum intensities resulting from the interference of
two light sources with amplitudes of 5 units and 3 units, respectively.

Here, A1 = 5units
A2 = 3 units

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SHORT QUESTIONS:

➢ Quantum Cryptography and Quantum Computers are significant outcomes of modes physics that are
reshaping the contemporary world. What are the key principles that form the foundation of their
operation.

Quantum cryptography and quantum computers are fundamentally based on the principles of quantum mechanics,
which include superposition, entanglement, and the no-cloning theorem.
1. Superposition allows quantum bits (qubits) to exist in multiple states simultaneously, enabling complex
calculations that classical bits cannot achieve.
2. Entanglement is a phenomenon where qubits become interconnected, allowing the state of one qubit to
instantly influence another, regardless of the distance separating them, which can enhance secure
communication.
3. No-cloning theorem states that it is impossible to create an identical copy of an arbitrary unknown quantum
state, providing a layer of security in quantum cryptography as any attempt to eavesdrop would disturb the
quantum states and reveal the presence of the interceptor.
These principles make quantum cryptography a more sophisticated and secure method of data transmission, distinct
from classical encryption methods based primarily on mathematical complexity.

Brewster angle: The Brewster angle (or Brewster's angle) is the angle of incidence at which light with a particular
polarization is perfectly transmitted through a transparent dielectric surface, with no reflection. It occurs when the
reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular to each other.

Where, θB is the Brewster angle, n1 is the refractive index of the incident medium (e.g., air), n2 is the refractive index
of the refractive medium (e.g., glass or water).

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