Illuminaton schemes

LIGHT ENERGY Light energy

❑ Light is simply a very small part of the
electromagnetic spectrum, sandwiched between
ultraviolet and infrared radiation.

❑ The visible portion of the electromagnetic

spectrum extends from about 380 to about 780
nanometers

❑ The Illuminating Engineering Society of North

America (IESNA) defines light as “radiant
energy that is capable of exciting the retina
and producing a visual sensation.”

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● Light:- it may be defined as that radiant energy
which produces a sensation of vision upon the
human eye.

● Luminous flux:- it is defined as the light energy

radiated per second from a luminous body

● Luminous intensity:- luminous intensity in any

particular direction is the luminous flux emitted by
per unit solid angle by a point source.

● Illuminance :- when the light falls on a surface it is

illuminated, the illuminance is defined as the
luminous flux received per unit area
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Design of Illumination Schemes
Light is a form of electromagnetic energy radiated from a
body which is capable of being perceived by human eye.

✔ Qualities of good lighting scheme

❑ Sufficient illumination level.

❑ Uniformity of illumination
❑ Contrast with surroundings and sunlight
❑ Correct colour effect
❑ Freedom from glare
❑ Aesthetic appearance
❑ Facility for easy maintenance and emergency lighting
❑ Economical
❑ No hazard of fire and accidents
❑ Free from pollution and corrosion
❑ No ageing and deterioration
❑ Modular in construction and replacement
❑ Free from noise and humming and no magnetic
radiations
● Terminology in Illumination

❑ Luminous flux(F):
The light rays are emitted from any source in all directions
universally if source is unobstructed.

Total quantity of radiation emitted by a source of light in all

directions in unit time is called luminous flux.

Luminous flux from a source of light is defined as rate of flow of

radiant energy.
Unit of flux is lumen.
❑ Luminous Intensity(I): The amount of
luminous flux emitted per unit solid angle in
any given direction is known as luminous
intensity.

❑ The unit of luminous intensity is candela.

Luminious intensity , I = F/W.

Where F = amount of flux emitted in given

direction in lumens
W = solid angle in steradian.
● (Steradian-Unit of solid angle)
❑ Illuminance (E) :A surface is said to be illuminated
when luminous flux is falling upon it.

❑ It is measured in terms of luminous flux falling on unit

area of the surface.

❑ That is lumens falling per square meter.(lumen/sq.m)

❑ It is measured in lux.

❑ Illumination of 1 lumen/sqm is called 1 lux where as

illumination of 1 lumen /sq feet is called one foot
candela.
E = F/A.
● Laws of Illumination
❑ Inverse Square Law
A source placed at a distance of 1m away from
the surface is to be illuminated.

The amount of light falling on the surface area

is a)directly proportional to the power of the
source and
b)inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between the source and the surface
to be illuminated.
This is formulated as Inverse Square Law.
●
●
This law can be applied to point sources where there
are no reflecting surfaces.

That is , this is applicable to outdoor lighting

● TYPES OF LIGHTING SCHEMES :

There are different types of lighting arrangements which

can be classified according to the proportion of light
directing upward or downward from the fittings.

❑ DIRECT LIGHTING: In a direct lighting , light in a room is

produced by fittings that do not let any of the light fall on
the ceiling and walls , instead throw all the light on the
area to be lighted.
This covers open type dispersive reflectors with
or without glass shades for reducing glare.

These systems have best efficiency and are

cheapest but contrast level is more.

Advantages and disadvantages: Most efficient

,but causes shadows and glare.

Mainly used for industrial and general outdoor

lighting
 Indirect lighting – When the light is produced by fittings that throw all
the light on the ceiling from where it is reflected to the area to be
lighted , the method is called indirect lighting

Advantages and disadvantages- Glare is minimum, illumination is

softer and appearance of the room is much improved. Less efficient

Used for decoration purpose in cinema halls, hotels etc and in

workshops where large machines may cause shadows if direct
lighting is used.
 Semi direct lighting: In semidirect lighting , most of the light
produced by the fittings is directed downwards and a certain
amount of light is directed upwards

Best suited for rooms with high ceilings where a high level of uniformly
distributed illumination is desirable

● Semi indirect lighting: In semi indirect lighting , most of the light

produced by the fittings is directed upwards and a certain amount of light
is directed downwards.

.
General diffusing lighting: In general lighting , the light
produced is equally distributed upwards and downwards .
 AVERAGE LUMEN METHOD
This method is applicable in cases where the sources
of light are such as to produce an approximate uniform
illumination over the working plane.
Lumen on working plane = No.of lamps x wattage of
each lamp x efficiency of each lamp in terms of
lumens/watt x coeff. of utilisation x maintenance factor.
● Depreciation factor :
ratio of net illumination output after a certain gap of
time to illumination output under normal condition of
new installation.
 This takes into account the depreciation of
illumination due to deposit of dust on lamp and its
reflector and diffuser ie, due to soiling and
depreciation in the light output of lamp or reflection
characteristic of diffuser or reflector due to ageing .

This is also known as soiling factor or loss factor.

This is not only due to evaporation of filament

material and reflector coating but due to fluctuation
of voltage also.
●

● Maintenance factor
Is the reciprocal of depreciation factor. It dependent
on soiling effect and also on the cleaning
schedule.
●
● Absorption factor:
In case of places having smoke, steam, dust, fumes,
fogs etc , light flux emitted is partially absorbed by
these contaminations present in the air.
●

Absorption factor for various types of atmospheres

• For clean atmosphere = 1

• Fog laden atmosphere = 0.75
• Steam / fume/ contaminated atmosphere in factories = 0.5
●

Reflection factor:
● Is the ratio of reflected luminous flux to total
incidental luminous flux.
●
❑ Ceiling reflection factor values
● 70% for very light colours and white
● 50% for light colours
● 30% for medium shades
❑ Wall reflection factor values
● 50% for very light colours and white
● 10% for light colours
● 30% for medium shades
●

Coefficient of Utilization(Utilization factor)

All light flux emitted by a lamp or luminaire does not reach

surface or working plane being illuminated.

A major portion of light output goes to the wall and ceiling

and will be reflected back to the working plane.
●

●
 The ratio of effective luminous flux reaching working table to total luminous flux
emitted is known as utilization factor or coefficient of utilization
Average illumination method:
● The emperical formula to calculate the illumination is

● Number of Lamps:- N=(AxE)/(CUxOxMF)

● or
● N=(AxExDF)/(CUxO)
● or
● N=(A x E x DF )/( CU x wattage of the lamp x luminous efficiency of the
lamps)
● where N = no. of fittings needed.

● E= required illumination(lux)

● A-working area (sqm)

● O-luminous flux produced per lamp(lumens)

● Cu-coefficient of utilization

● MF- maintenance factor.

● DF-Depreciation factor
● Lighting system considerations for different occupancies
✔ The purpose of lighting scheme is that it should provide good
lighting, give proper illumination, have absence of glare .
✔ It depends on the kind of occupancy, type of lighting fixtures,
arrangement of fittings , size of the room , number of fittings used
etc.
✔ Every lighting installation should serve a specific purpose.
✔ In the home ,lighting system should facilitate domestic activities.
Decorative arrangement can also be selected to make the interior
attractive.
✔ In store or shop , lighting depends on the goods that are stored .
✔ In factory , lighting arrangements are planned to increase
productivity and improve the quality of production. Safety should
be given importance.
✔ In offices ,glare should be minimum.
✔ In hospitals, good distribution of light is required. In operation
theatres , minimum glare should be taken into consideration. In
case of failure of supply , alternative arrangements should be
immediately available.
Design considerations of a good lighting scheme-
In designing good lighting scheme , we have to consider mainly

Selection of required lamp and fitting

Size of the room

Conditions under which the illumination is used

Mounting heights and spacing of fittings

❑ Selection of luminaries – A luminaire is the apparatus which

distributes , filters , transforms the light given by a lamp.

❖ It includes all the items necessary for fixing and protecting these
lamps and for connecting them to the supply circuit.
❖ The choice of lamps for different types of ocupancies differ.
1)For small premises tubular flourescent lamps or tungsten filament
lamps can be used .

2)In large premises , lighting can be carried out by using high intensity
sources such as mercury or sodium discharge lamps.

3)Depending on the type of illumination required,( direct ,indirect etc )

reflector types can be selected

● Size of the room – The lumen output of the sources is not fully utilised
at the work place.

● Part of it is lost in the fittings , part is directed to walls and ceilings

where part will be absorbed and part will be reflected.

● This is taken into account by a factor called coefficient of utilization.

● Coefficient of utilization depends on the lumen output of the
fitting , size and shape of the room , reflection factors of wall ,
ceiling , height of the ceiling , arrangement of fittings etc.

● Mounting heights and spacing of fittings: Distance of light source

from the wall should be equal to one half the distance between 2
adjacent light sources. Also distance between light fittings should
not exceed 1.5 times the mounting height.

● Conditions of use: In different types of installations , conditions of

use of light fittings vary. Dust and dirt of the surroundings may get
deposited on the light fittings and hence deteriorate the lamp
efficiency.
If regular periodic cleaning and assuming good atmospheric
conditions , the value of maintenance factor may be taken as 0.8.
But for dusty atmospheres, the factor may be assumed as 0.4.

Depreciation factor = 1/(maintenance factor)

● Luminance(Brightness ):
The luminous intensity per square meter of an
illuminated area is known as luminance.
Its unit is one cd/sqm.
Luminance is different from the term
illuminance.
Illuminance is indicative of the amount of
luminous flux falling on unit area of any object
whatever may be its reflecting characteristics or
colour.
But luminance is the amount of flux contained in unit
solid angle which is impingent upon unit area and
which is reflectable from that particular object.
 Various types of light sources:
Lamps can be mainly classified into incandescent lamps and
discharge lamps

❑ Incandescent lamps or filament lamps:

When electric current is passed through a fine metallic wire , heat
is produced and the temperature of the wire increases.

At low temperature, the wire radiates heat energy .

As the temperature of the wire increases due to heating it radiates
heat as well as light energy.
The higher the temperature of the wire, higher is the amount of
light energy radiated.

The incandescent or filament type lamp consists of a glass globe

completely evacuated and a fine wire, known as filament within it .
✔ The glass globe is evacuated to prevent oxidation and also to
prevent the temperature being lowered by radiation.
✔ The material which can be used for the filaments must possess
the properties of high melting point , low vapour pressure, high
resistivity, low temperature coefficient and sufficient
mechanical strength to withstand vibrations during use.
✔ The materials which can be used for the filaments are carbon ,
osmium, tantalum and tungsten.
Advantages of tungsten: High melting point (3440 deg celsius),high
resistivity, low temp coeff, low vapour pressure, mechanically
strong to withstand vibration during use.
Avg efficiency is 10lumes/watt.
Ageing effects:The light output of an incandescent lamp decreases
gradually.
● Gas filled lamps: A metal filament can work in an evacuated bulb
upto 2000 deg Celsius without oxidation and if it is worked beyond this
temperature , it vaporises and blackens the lamp.

✔ For higher efficiency, it is necessary to use working temperature more

than 2000 deg celsius keeping down the evaporation , which is
possible by filling the bulb with an inert gas argon with a small
percentage of nitrogen.

✔ The tungsten filament can safely burn at temperature 2400 to 2750

deg celsius.

✔ Coiled coil filaments, which take less space than coiled filaments are
used .
● Gaseous Discharge lamps: Incandescent lamps suffers from 2
disadvantages – low efficiency and coloured light.
Gaseous discharge lamps have been developed to overcome
these drawbacks.

❑ Principle- Gases are normally poor conductors specially at

atmospheric and higher pressure.

But application of suitable voltage called the ignition voltage,

across the 2 electrodes result in discharge through the gas which
is accompanied by electromagnetic radiation.

Argon gas and sodium and mercury vapours are used in such
lamps.
HID Lamps: High intensity discharge lamps
● Flourescent tubes: Flourescent lighting has a great advantage
over other light sources.
● The tube can be obtained in various lengths.
● It is possible to achieve high lighting intensities without excessive
temperature rise.
The flourescent tube consists of a glass tube.
The inside surface is coated with a thin layer of flourescent
material in the form of a powder.
This powder transforms short wave invisible radiations into
visible light.
Tube also contains small qty of argon gas and one or two drops
of mercury.
It is provided with 2 electrodes coated with electron emissive
material.
The electrodes are made of coiled tungsten.
The light output of a flourescent lamp is 70 lumens /watt and has
an average life of 7500 hours.
● Compact Flourescent Lamps:

✔ Generates light on the same principle as flourescent tubes.

✔ An electric discharge is passed through mercury vapours
between 2 electrodes
✔ The electric field causes the vapour to emit invisible UV
radiations.
✔ Flourescent material applied to the inside of the glass tube
converts UV radiation into visible light.
✔ By bending each tube back on itself, overall length of CFL can
be reduced.
✔ Provides energy saving upto 80%. ( eg- A 60W incandescent
lamp can be replaced by 11W CFL.)
✔ Space saving when compared to Fluorescent tubes
✔ 8 to 10 times the average life of incandescent lamps
✔ Flicker free operation
Norms for Interior Comfort Lighting :
1)Contrast:
If there is a vast difference between luminance ( brightness) of visual
task, working plane, surrounding light source and background, it
results in fatigue to eyes and loss of details later on.
For continuous sighting ,contrast in brightness of various items has
to be limited.
2)Glare:
A condition of vision in which there is discomfort or disabilty is
known as glare.
If lamp luminaries, windows or illuminated windows or illuminated
areas are too bright as compared to general brightness in the interior.
The source of light or any illuminated object having brightness(
luminance) more than 0.15 cd/sqm is viewed continuously , it causes
fatigue to human eyes.
Such objects should be isolated from direct sight to avoid strain due to
glare .
● Colour rendering of a light source:
Colour rendering relates to the way objects appear under a given
light source.
In another way ,the colour rendering of a light source is an indicator
for its ability to realistically reproduce the colour of an object
The measure is called the "colour rendering index", or CRI. (an
index between 0 and 100).
A low CRI indicates that objects may appear unnatural under the
source, while a light with a high CRI rating will allow an object's
colours to appear more natural.
● General Rules for Interior Lighting:

Aesthetics and comfort is given more importance than

efficiency of illumination.

Hospital Lighting:
Illumination levels required at various places will
be different.
Artificial light will be required more during night.
In patients wards, illumination for evening hours
should be between 100 to 200 lux.
The luminaires should be screened type mounted
on walls rather than suspended or ceiling
mounted.
 At night after ‘lights out’ the wards cannot be left
in complete darkness.
So night lighting in wards should be screened type
creating average illuminance of 0.5 lux.
In all service and circulation areas ,it should be
(0.5 – 1.0) lux in night hours.
❑ Patients examination room:
This need general and localised lighting.

Flourescent lamps of colour 36 or 37 are suggested.

In certain emergencies it is required to examine the

patient in the ward itself for which an examination
light capable of providing 1000 lux will be required.
❑ Operation theatre:
It is recommended that the illumination level for
lighting on the operating tables should be
between 2000 and 10000 lux.
Lower levels than this may be more comfortable
for the surgeon where fine detail does not have
to be discriminated like in labor rooms.

❑ ICU:
General illuminance should be intensity controllable
so that illuminance can be varied from 0 – 300 lux.
● Industrial lighting:
❑ Multistoreyed buildings:In such buildings, fluorescent
lighting arranged in continuous broken rows having tray type
reflectors should be used.
The distance between 2 rows should not be more than 1.5 x
Hight(m).
High intensity lamps cannot be used in such buildings since
colour rendering is not important.
Fluorescent tube with more output and less colour rendition
can be preferred.
❑ Single storeyed building without skylight:
For buildings of height upto 5m , a narrow type luminaires
mounted on ceiling or suspended from it can be used.
For height above 6m , HPMV metal halide lamps with
metallic reflectors can be used.
❑ Single storeyed buildings with skylight:All buildings
having skylight arrangements will also need artificial
lighting.
This is done by industrial trough type fittings.
No. Of rows of lighting arrangements will have to be
kept equal to the no of rows of skylight windows so
that contrast of artificial light in maximum daylight
conditions does not affect the uniformity of
illumination inside.
High intensity metal halide lamps are used.
❑ High bay industrial buildings:
In high bay buildings( buildings over 7m ht), luminaires
are to be mounted high up to keep them clear off
overhead travelling equipments or stationary apparatus
of high heights .
Either dispersive or narrow beam luminaires having
HPMV(High pressure mercury vapour lamp) , metal
halide of HPSV lamps are used.
 ● Street Lighting

❑ The main objectives of street lighting are

a) To make the traffic and obstructions on the road clearly
visible in order to promote safety and convenience.
b) To make the street more attractive
c) To increase the community value of the street.

❑ The principles employed for street lighting are different

from that of interior lighting .

There are no walls and ceilings which reflect or diffuse

light. Hence only direct lighting scheme can be employed.
High level of illumination is not required
Glare is to be avoided.
❑ General principles are usually employed in the design of
street lighting installations namely

1)diffusion principle 2) specular reflection principle

Diffusion principle:

In this, light is directed downwards from the lamp with

the intention of producing a uniform illumination on
the road surface.
This is possible by use of suitably designed reflectors.
The filament of the lamp is almost invisible except
from beneath it. This eliminates the glare.
The road surface has a diffusing nature due to which
it diffuses some portion of the light towards the
observer.
This make the road surface bright for the observer.
Specular Reflection principle

❑ In street lighting , a pedestrian expects the adjoining

areas to be seen properly by sufficient illumination ,while
the vehicle drivers require to see the obstruction 25-30m
away on the road.
❑ This requirement is met by using specular reflection
principle.
❑ When a ray of light falls on the road at a very high angle
of incidence , the specular reflection takes place.
❑ The angle of incidence is the angle between the incident
light and the normal to the surface.
❑ This light obtained by specular reflection gives proper
brightness to the road surfaces.
Figure shows an observer viewing an obstruction in the roadway.
The rays of lamps from L2 and L1 will fall at a very high angle of
incidence and will be reflected to the observer with a fairly high
efficiency therefore undergo the specular reflection which help
driver to see the obstruction quite clearly by contrast.
The rays from L3 falls at a very small angle of incidence and will
not be reflected to the observer to any large extend and does not
show the specular reflection and hence fail to reach to vehicle
driver.
But the reflected rays due to diffusion of lamp L3 are useful for
pedestrian who is very near to the obstruction.
So pedestrians can observe obstructions due to diffusion
principle while vehicle drivers can observe obstruction due to
specular reflection principle.
Flood Lighting
Flood lighting means flooding of large surfaces with light from
powerful projections. It is employed to serve one or more of
the following purposes.

1)Aesthetic flood lighting: It is used for enhancing the beauty

of buildings at night , ancient buildings , monuments,
churches, gardens etc.

2)Industrial and commercial flood lighting: It is used for

illuminating railway yards, art stadiums , car parking areas
etc
3)Advertising: It is used for illuminating advertisements.
Projector:
Projector called flood light projector concentrates the
light from the lamp into a narrow beam.
The most important part of a projector is its reflecting
surface.
This may be of silvered glass, stainless steel or
chromium plates.
Success of the flood lighting depends on the choice of
the suitable sites for the projectors.
It has to be tough and weather proof as it has to be
installed outside.
The source of the light must be invisible to the
observer and projector must be invisible during the day
time.
There are two possible locations of projectors in
practice , symmetrical and unsymmetrical.
❖ Symmetrical projectors are kept 20 to 35 m away from the
surface to be flooded and provide approximately parallel
beam having beam spread of 25 degree to 30 degree.

❖ Sometimes , when the projector cannot be located away

from the building , then asymmetric reflector mounted in the
basement area or on a bracket attached to the building is
used which directs intense light towards the tip of the
building.
❑ The projectors of flood lighting schemes are
classified according to the light beam spread
1)Narrow beam projectors:
Light beam with such projectors spread between 12 degree
and 25 degree.
They can be employed for a distance of 70m.
 2)Medium beam projectors:
Projectors with beam spread between 25degree and 40
degree.
These are employed for a distance of 30-70m.

● 3)Wide angle projectors:

Projectors with beam spread between 40 degree and 90
degree.
They can be employed for a distance of 30m or below.

● Economically , the wide angle projectors with high

wattage lamps are more preferred than narrow beam
projectors with low wattage lamps.
Flood lighting Calculations
❑ While calculating the number of projectors required for the
flood lighting, it is necessary to know the level of illumination
required
Illumination level required:
The illumination level in lux (lm/sqm) required depends on the
type of the building, purpose of flood lighting, amount of
reflecting light in the vicinity etc.
Waste light factor:
When several projectors are illuminating a surface there is
bound to be a certain amount of overlap and also some of the
light will fall beyond the area to be illuminated .
These 2 effects are taken into account by multiplying the
theoretical lumens by waste light factor.
This is generally taken as 1.2 for rectangular areas and 1.5 for
irregular objects like statues.
Depreciation factor:
Ratio of illumination under ideal condition to the
illumination under normal condition.

This depreciation is due to the dust and dirt

accumulated on the reflector surfaces.

Coefficient of utilisation:
Also called the beam factor, is defined as the ratio
of beam lumen to lamp lumen.

Its value lies between 0.3 and 0.5.

Number of Lamps:
N=(A x E x DF x Waste light factor)/( CU x wattage
of the lamp x luminous efficiency of the lamps)

N- no.of lamps.
A- Area of surface to be illuminated in sqm
E-illumination level required in lm/sqm
DF - Depreciation factor
Cu - Coefficient of utilisation
Gross lumen required from lamps= A x E x Waste
light factor x DF / CU
Q) The front of a building 45m x 20m is illuminated by
20,1000W lamps arranged so that uniform illumination
on the surface is obtained. Assuming a luminous
efficiency of 18 lumens/Watt, CU = 0.4 , waste light
factor 1.2, DF – 1.3, Determine the illumination on the
surface.

N=(A x E x DF x Waste light factor)/( CU x wattage of

the lamp x luminous efficiency of the lamps)
20 = 45 x 20 x E x 1.3x 1.2/ 0.4 x 1000 x 18
E = 0.4 x 1000 x 18 x 20 /900 x 1.3 x 1.2 = 102.56 lux
Design and Safety aspects for cinema theatres
The electric lighting of the premises shall have at least
three separate distinct main circuits as follows:—
(a) for the projection room and a dimming regulator to the
central lighting of the auditorium.
(b) for approximately one-half of the auditorium, passage
ways, stairways, exits and parts of the building open to the
public; and
(c) for the remaining half of the auditorium, passage ways,
stair-ways, exits and parts of the building open to the public.
Sufficient number of emergency lights shall be provided
in the auditorium as prescribed by the Licensing
Authority.
No open flames shall be allowed within the auditorium or
in the projection room.
The installation conforms to the provisions of and Indian Electricity
Rules, 1956 in the matter of entire electrical installation.

Separate permanent circuit should be wired up with suitable switch fuse

control for the outdoor wiring.

The outdoor lighting fitting should be water tight type.

The electrical installations both in the auditorium and the projection room
in the same theatre shall be done only in conduit.

All the electrical apparatus, main and sub distribution boards, metal
clad switches and the earth leads of the circuits shall be effectively
earthed.

A minimum of two earth electrodes has to be provided for a Theatre,

conforming to the provisions of I.S.I. Standard in this respect.
Emergency lighting system working with batteries should be provided in

the projection room and auditorium and in case of any failure of the

electric supply the emergency light should be switched on immediately.

The wiring for lighting should be done in conduit system and all cables

should be enclosed in screwed metal conduits connected to the earth.

The conduits should be firmly fixed with proper saddles and clips.

The cables used for wiring the light circuit inside the projection room,

auditorium, etc. should not be of size less than 2.5 sq.m. (1/1.8) or its

equivalent.
Cables with two insulations (sheathing and insulation) or one
insulation and weather-proof covering should be used for wiring in
auditorium and projection room.
In all cinema theatres licensed as Air Conditioned Theatres,
standby power supply of adequate capacity, as determined by
the Chief Electrical Inspector to Government or his nominee in
conformity with I.S.I. Standards, shall be installed to ensure
adequate circulation of cooled fresh air.
The temperature, the velocity of movement and the humidity of
the air as well as the proportion of fresh air in the circulated air
shall conform to the standards prescribed by the Chief Electrical
Inspector to Government.
In all cinema theatres licensed as Air Conditioned Theatres,
separate metering shall be provided to measure the energy
consumed by the air conditioning system, consisting of the
compressors, pumps, air handling units and the air circulating
system, if any.
The Licensee shall be responsible for the proper maintenance
of the electrical installation including the air conditioning system.