Article

The Effects of Reverse Nordic Exercise Training on Measures

of Physical Fitness in Youth Karate Athletes
Raja Bouguezzi 1 , Senda Sammoud 1,2 , Yassine Negra 1,3 , Younés Hachana 1,3 and Helmi Chaabene 2,4, *

1 Research Laboratory (LR23JS01) “Sport Performance, Health & Society”, Manouba 2010, Tunisia;
rajabouguezzi@hotmail.com (R.B.); senda.sammoud@gmail.com (S.S.); yassinenegra@hotmail.fr (Y.N.);
hachanayounes@gmail.com (Y.H.)
2 Institut Supérieur de Sport et de l’Éducation Physique du Kef, Université de Jendouba, Le Kef 7100, Tunisia
3 Higher Institute of Sport and Physical Education of Ksar Saïd, University of “La Manouba”,
Manouba 2037, Tunisia
4 Department of Sport Science, Chair for Health and Physical Activity, Otto-von-Guericke University
Magdeburg, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany
* Correspondence: helmi.chaabene@ovgu.de

Abstract: Background: In karate, the ability to execute high-velocity movements, particularly kicks
and punches, is heavily dependent on the strength and power of the lower limb muscles, espe-
cially the knee extensors. As such, this study aimed to evaluate the effects of an 8-week eccentric
training program utilizing the reverse Nordic exercise (RNE) integrated into karate training com-
pared with regular karate training only on measures of physical fitness in youth karate athletes.
Methods: Twenty-seven youth karatekas were recruited and allocated to either RNE group (n = 13;
age = 15.35 ± 1.66 years; 7 males and 6 females) or an active control group ([CG]; n = 14; 7 males
and 7 females; age = 15.30 ± 1.06 years). To track the changes in measures of physical fitness before
and after training, tests to assess linear sprint speed (i.e., 10 m), change of direction (CoD) speed
(i.e., modified 505 CoD), vertical jumping (i.e., countermovement jump [CMJ] height) and horizontal
jumping distance (i.e., standing long jump [SLJ]), and lower-limb asymmetry score (i.e., the difference
between SLJ-dominant and non-dominant legs) were carried out. Results: The results indicated
significant group-by-time interactions in all measures of physical fitness (effect size [ES] = 1.03 to 2.89).
Citation: Bouguezzi, R.; Sammoud, S.; Post-hoc analyses revealed significant changes in the RNE group across all performance measures
Negra, Y.; Hachana, Y.; Chaabene, H.
(effect size [ES] = 0.33 to 1.63). Additionally, the asymmetry score exhibited a moderate decrease
The Effects of Reverse Nordic Exercise
from pre to posttest (∆46.96%, ES = 0.64). In contrast, no significant changes were observed in the
Training on Measures of Physical
CG across all fitness measures. Moreover, the individual response analysis indicated that more
Fitness in Youth Karate Athletes. J.
karatekas from the RNE group consistently achieved improvements beyond the smallest worthwhile
Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2024, 9, 265.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
change threshold across all fitness measures. Conclusions: In summary, RNE training is an effective
jfmk9040265 approach to enhance various physical fitness measures besides lower-limb asymmetry scores in
youth karatekas and is easy to incorporate into regular karate training. Practitioners are therefore
Academic Editor: Peter Hofmann
encouraged to consistently integrate RNE training to enhance essential physical fitness components
Received: 18 November 2024 in young karatekas.
Revised: 3 December 2024
Accepted: 6 December 2024 Keywords: combat sport; athletic performance; eccentric training; physical conditioning; injury
Published: 10 December 2024

1. Introduction
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. Karate is a dynamic sport that requires a combination of strength, power, flexibility,
This article is an open access article agility, and endurance for optimal performance [1,2]. The ability to execute high-velocity
distributed under the terms and movements, particularly kicks and punches, is heavily dependent on the strength and
conditions of the Creative Commons power of the lower limb muscles, especially the knee extensors [1,3]. Thus, incorporating
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// strength training, especially targeting the knee extensors, is essential for performance
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ enhancement in karate.
4.0/).

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2024, 9, 265. https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk9040265 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/jfmk

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2024, 9, 265 2 of 10

Eccentric training, characterized by the lengthening of muscles under tension, is a well-

established method for improving muscle strength and physical fitness [4–7]. It has been shown
to produce greater gains in muscle mass and strength compared with other forms of muscle
action (e.g., concentric only, isometric only, or concentric–eccentric) [4,5,8,9]. This appears to
be, in some part, due to higher anabolic signaling, as reflected by the greater satellite cell
activation following eccentric compared with concentric muscle actions [10]. Additionally,
eccentric training places high mechanical stress on muscles, promoting adaptations that
enhance muscle tendon properties and boost overall physical fitness [4,11]. This makes
it an effective means for athletes aiming to increase their general physical conditioning.
Moreover, eccentric training has been recognized as an effective tool for reducing both the
frequency and severity of sports-related injuries [12–14].
Previous eccentric training studies have primarily been conducted with young adults [4].
Douglas and Pearson [4] indicated that the range of age of participants included across
their 40 considered studies was between 18 and 35 years, with the vast majority of studies
(80%) including untrained participants and only 20% including either resistance-trained
or moderately/highly trained participants. This highlights a substantial void in the litera-
ture in terms of the lack of studies involving youth athletes. A recent systematic review
advocated for the inclusion of eccentric training into youth athletes’ training programs
to improve a wide range of physical fitness measures such as muscle strength, jumping,
linear sprint speed, and CoD (change of direction) speed [15]. The same authors indicated
that Nordic hamstring exercises and flywheel inertial training are currently the most used
eccentric resistance training methods in youth athletes [15], highlighting the limited choice
of (accentuated) eccentric exercises available and the need for a more varied selection
of effective exercises. Moreover, the use of a flywheel device per se cannot consistently
guarantee the achievement of an eccentric overload as many factors come into play like
the type of exercise, inertial load used, training experience, and braking techniques [16],
substantiating the need for alternative, more accessible eccentric exercises.
Despite the proven efficacy of eccentric training in various sports [4,7,17], the ap-
plication of specific eccentric exercises like the reverse Nordic exercise (RNE) remains
underexplored [15]. The RNE is a specific, easy-to-implement eccentric exercise targeting
the quadriceps muscles, which are vital for many lower-limb movements in karate [1,3].
To date, only one study has examined the effects of the RNE on the architectural adap-
tations of the rectus femoris in young adults aged 24 years [18]. The findings indicated
that after 8 weeks, two sessions per week of RNE training generated a large increase in
muscle fascicle length, muscle thickness, pennation angle, and cross-sectional area [18].
The structural adaptations indicated in the study of Alonso-Fernández and Fernández-
Rodríguez [18] imply that the RNE has the potential to improve general physical fitness
attributes, such as lower-limb muscle power and CoD speed, that are beneficial across
many athletic disciplines, including karate. However, this is yet to be empirically proved.
In this context, incorporating eccentric exercises like the RNE into training routines can
help karate athletes improve key physical fitness components. As such, this study aimed
to evaluate the effects of an 8-week intervention utilizing the RNE compared with regular
training only on measures of physical fitness in youth karate athletes. Building on findings
from previous investigations [15,17], it was hypothesized that an 8-week intervention using
the RNE would improve measures of physical fitness and reduce asymmetry scores in
youth karate athletes.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Experimental Approach to the Problem
This study examined whether 8 weeks of a biweekly in-season RNE training program
would enhance various measures of physical fitness in youth karate athletes relative to
their peers who maintained their customary in-season training regimen. Two groups from
two regional karate teams were recruited. Both groups underwent four karate training
sessions per week. Two weeks before baseline testing, two familiarization sessions were
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2024, 9, 265 3 of 10

performed to get participants acquainted with the applied tests. Several tests were used to
track changes in physical fitness before and after the training program. These included tests
for linear sprint speed (i.e., 10 m), CoD speed (i.e., modified 505 CoD), vertical jumping
(i.e., countermovement jump [CMJ] height), horizontal jumping (i.e., standing long jump
[SLJ], SLJ-dominant leg, and SLJ-non-dominant leg), and lower-limb asymmetry score. All
tests were scheduled at least 48 h after the last training session at the same time of day
(19:00–20:30).

2.2. Participants
With reference to a previous study [17], an a priori power analysis using G*Power
software (version 3.1.9.7) was conducted, setting a type I error rate at 0.05 and aiming
for 80% statistical power. The analysis indicated that overall, 14 participants would be
sufficient to detect a significant effect, with an effect size (Cohen’s d) of 0.85 for the CMJ
height. To account for potential participant attrition, 27 youth karatekas were recruited
and allocated to either an RNE group (n = 13; 7 males and 6 females) or an active control
group ([CG]; n = 14; 7 males and 7 females) (Table 1). All participants were experienced
karatekas, with an average of 6.0 ± 1.2 years of systematic karate training. Furthermore, all
participants were in good health and had been free of musculotendinous injuries for the six
months preceding the study. The biological age of participants was estimated using the
maturity offset method by applying the following prediction equations [19]:

Males: maturity offset = −7.999994 + (0.0036124 × age × height)

Females: maturity offset = −7.709133 + (0.0042232 × age × height)

Table 1. Anthropometric characteristics of the included participants.

RNE Group (n = 13) CG (n = 14)

Age (years) 15.35 ± 1.66 15.30 ± 1.06
Body height (cm) 1.67 ± 0.07 1.69 ± 0.08
Body mass (kg) 63.85 ± 6.70 65.11 ± 8.88
Maturity offset (years) * 1.41 ± 1.58 2.07 ± 1.27
APHV (years) 13.39 ± 0.81 13.27 ± 1.18
Notes: Data are presented as means and standard deviations; RNE = reverse Nordic exercise group; CG = control
group; *: as years from peak height velocity. APHV = age at peak height velocity.

All experimental procedures and potential risks were thoroughly explained to both
participants and their parents/legal guardians. Before the study began, written informed
consent and assent from the parents and participants were obtained. The experimental
procedure was approved by the local Institutional Review Committee of the “blinded for
review” (LR23JS20) and conducted per the latest version of the Declaration of Helsinki.

2.3. Linear Sprint Speed Time

An electronic timing system assessed 10 m linear sprint performance (Wittygate,
Microgate, SRL, Bolzano, Italy). Participants began in a standing split stance position, with
their lead foot positioned 0.3 m behind the first infrared photoelectric gate, which was set
0.75 m above the ground to capture trunk movement and minimize false signals caused by
limb motion. A total of two single-beam photoelectric gates were used. Participants were
instructed not to rock or take false steps before starting the sprint. A recovery time of three
minutes was allowed between trials, and the best performance out of two trials was used
for further analysis. The between-trial intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC3,1 ) was 0.91.
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2024, 9, 265 4 of 10

2.4. The Modified 505 Change of Direction Speed

During the modified 505 CoD speed test, karatekas were instructed to perform a 5 m
sprint from a starting line, place their preferred foot on the 5 m line, turn 180◦ , and sprint
back 5 m through the start/finish line. Single-beam infrared photocell gates (Wittygate,
Microgate, SRL, Bolzano, Italy) were positioned 0.75 m above the ground at the start line.
A resting period of three minutes was provided between trials. The best performance out
of two trials was used for further analysis. The between-trial ICC3,1 was 0.88.

2.5. Countermovement Jump Height

During the CMJ, participants started from a standing position and executed a fast
downward movement by flexing the knees and hips before rapidly extending the legs
and performing a maximal vertical jump. During the test, participants were instructed
to maintain their arms akimbo. Vertical jump height was recorded using an optoelectric
system (Optojump next, Microgate, SRL, Bolzano, Italy). A rest period of one minute was
allowed between trials. The best out of two trials was retained for further analysis. The
between-trial ICC3,1 was 0.94.

2.6. Standing Long Jump Distance

The starting position of the SLJ required participants to stand with their feet shoulder-
width apart behind a starting line and their arms loosely hanging down. On the command
“ready, set, go”, participants executed a countermovement with their legs and arms and
jumped at maximal effort in the horizontal direction. Participants had to land with both feet
at the same time and were not allowed to fall forward or backward. The horizontal distance
between the starting line and the heel of the rear foot was recorded via a tape measure to
the nearest 1 cm. A rest period of one minute was allowed between trials, and the best out
of two trials was recorded for further analysis. The between-trial ICC3,1 was 0.92.

2.7. Asymmetry Score

To determine the asymmetry score, the SLJ-dominant leg and SLJ-non-dominant leg tests
were conducted while participants adopted a standing position on the designated testing leg,
with their hands on their hips and their toes behind the starting line. The dominant leg is
identified as the preferred leg that the practitioner uses for executing kicks. Participants were
then instructed to hop forward as far as possible and land on the same leg. Upon landing,
participants were required to “hold and stick” their position for ~2 s. The mean inter-limb
asymmetry was calculated as a percentage difference between limbs in the unilateral tests
using the following equation: (100/[maximum value] × [minimum value] × −1 + 100) [20].
Two trials were conducted for each leg, and the best was retained for further analysis.
The between-trial ICC3,1 results were 0.92 and 0.93 for the SLJ-dominant leg and SLJ-non-
dominant leg, respectively.

2.8. Reverse Nordic Training Program

The training intervention consisted of a progressive 8-week eccentric strengthening
program using the RNE (Table 2). The training intervention consisted of two sessions
per week, performed right after the standard warm-up and replacing 10 to 20 min of
low-intensity karate drills with the RNE on Tuesday and Thursday (Table 2). The training
load was progressively increased from 2 to 4 sets per session and 6 to 10 repetitions per set
throughout the intervention period. To perform the RNE, from a kneeling position with
arms crossed over the chest, participants were instructed to engage their abdominals and
glutes to stabilize their core and keep the torso upright. By maintaining the hips extended
and the torso firm, participants slowly leaned backward by bending their knees (Figure 1).
Participants were instructed to lower themselves as far as they could while maintaining
control, then return to the starting position by straightening their knees. The intensity was
progressively raised by increasing the range of motion of the backward lean over time. The
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2024, 9, 265 5 of 10

CG followed their usual karate training routine. Therefore, the total training exposure was
comparable between the two groups.

Table 2. Reverse Nordic hamstring exercise program.

Week Session per Week Sets Repetition Rest Between Sets (s)
1 2 2 6 90
2 2 4 6 90
3 2 4 6 90
4 2 4 8 90
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2024, 9, x FOR PEER
5 REVIEW 2 4 10 90 5 of 10

6 2 4 10 90
7 2 4 10 90
The CG followed their usual karate training routine. Therefore, the total training exposure
8 2 4 10 90
was comparable between the two groups.

Figure 1. The
Figure 1. The reverse
reverse Nordic
Nordic exercise
exercisewith
withthe
thestarting
starting(A),
(A),mid
mid(B)
(B)and
andend
endposition
position(C).
(C).
2.9. Statistical Analyses
Table 2. Reverse Nordic hamstring exercise program.
Data are presented as means and standard deviations (SDs). The normality assumption
wasWeek
tested andSession per Week
confirmed Sets
using the Shapiro–Wilk Repetition Rest Between
test. To establish the effectSets (s)
of the
interventions
1 on the dependent
2 variables,2 a 2 (group: RNE 6 group and CG)90× 2 (time:
pre, post)
2 ANOVA with2 repeated measures 4 was determined 6 for each parameter. 90 When
group3× time interactions 2 reached the level4 of significance (i.e.,
6 significant F value),
90 group-
specific post-hoc tests (i.e., paired t-tests) were used. The alpha level of significance was
4 2 4 8 90
set at p < 0.05. To determine the magnitude of the training effect, effect sizes (ES) were
5 2 4 10 90
determined by converting partial eta-squared to Cohen’s d. According to Hopkins and
6 [21], ES values2are classified as trivial
Marshall 4 10 (0.2–0.6), moderate
(<0.2), small 90 (0.6–1.2),
7 2 4 10 90
large (1.2–2.0), very large (2.0–4.0), and extremely large (>4.0). The smallest worthwhile
change8 (SWC) was calculated
2 4
as 0.2 × SD pooled, where SD10represents the pooled 90 standard
deviation of pre-training scores. Between-trial reliability was assessed using the ICC. All
2.9. Statistical
data Analyses
analyses were performed using SPSS 25.0 (SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL, USA).
Data are presented as means and standard deviations (SDs). The normality assump-
3. Results
tion was tested and confirmed using the Shapiro–Wilk test. To establish the effect of the
The anthropometric
interventions data for
on the dependent both groups
variables, are displayed
a 2 (group: RNE group in Table
and 1. All× participants
CG) 2 (time: pre,
received
post) ANOVA with repeated measures was determined for each parameter.reported.
the treatment as allocated. No training or test-related injuries were All
When group
physical fitness measures at baseline and follow-up are presented in Table 3. At
× time interactions reached the level of significance (i.e., significant F value), group-spe- baseline,
no significant
cific between-group
post-hoc tests (i.e., paired differences
t-tests) werewere
used.observed
The alpha with respect
level to anthropometric
of significance was set at
characteristics and maturity offset. The maturation level of all participants was
p < 0.05. To determine the magnitude of the training effect, effect sizes (ES) were deter- postpubertal
mined by converting partial eta-squared to Cohen’s d. According to Hopkins and Mar-
shall [21], ES values are classified as trivial (<0.2), small (0.2–0.6), moderate (0.6–1.2), large
(1.2–2.0), very large (2.0–4.0), and extremely large (>4.0). The smallest worthwhile change
(SWC) was calculated as 0.2 × SD pooled, where SD represents the pooled standard devi-
ation of pre-training scores. Between-trial reliability was assessed using the ICC. All data
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2024, 9, 265 6 of 10

(Table 1). Similarly, no between-group differences were recorded at baseline for any measure
of physical fitness (Table 3).

Table 3. Group-specific changes in measures of physical fitness in both groups before and after eight
weeks of eccentric or regular karate training.

RNE Group (n = 13) CG (n = 14) ANOVA

Pretest Posttest Pretest Posttest p-Value (ES)
M SD M SD M SD M SD Time Group × Time
10 m sprint (s) 2.33 0.17 2.09 0.12 2.22 0.13 2.22 0.18 <0.001 (2.94) <0.001 (2.89)
505 CoD speed (s) 2.97 0.19 2.75 0.18 3.08 0.19 3.10 0.21 <0.01 (1.59) <0.001 (1.94)
CMJ (cm) 28.72 6.35 32.44 7.23 27.55 7.12 28.16 6.88 <0.001 (1.96) <0.01 (1.43)
SLJ (m) 1.90 0.27 1.98 0.27 1.81 0.26 1.78 0.27 <0.01 (1.66) <0.01 (1.32)
Asymmetry score (%) 4.65 4.10 2.47 2.39 4.98 3.48 5.84 5.41 >0.05 (1.23) <0.05 (1.03)
M: mean; SD: standard deviation; RNE: reverse Nordic exercise group; CG: control group; ES: effect size; CMJ:
countermovement jump; SLJ: standing long jump.

3.1. Linear Sprint Speed

Our findings indicated a significant main effect of time for the 10 m sprint
(ES = 2.94 [large], p < 0.001). In addition, a significant group × time interaction was
observed (ES = 2.89 [large], p < 0.001) (Table 3). Post-hoc analyses showed a large pre–post
performance improvement in the RNE group (∆10.09%; p < 0.001; ES = 1.63). However,
the CG did not show any significant change (∆-0.10%; p > 0.05; ES = 0.0 [trivial]). In terms
of the individual responses, our statistical analysis indicated that 100% of the RNE group
(n = 13) improved their 10 m sprint performance to a level that was greater than the SWC0.2
compared with only 53.84% in the CG (n = 7).

3.2. Change of Direction Speed

For the modified 505 CoD test, the results indicated a significant main effect of time
(ES = 1.59 [large], p < 0.001). Similarly, the group-by-time interaction was significant
(ES = 1.94 [large], p < 0.001) (Table 3). Post-hoc analyses demonstrated moderate pre–post
505 CoD speed performance decrements for the RNE group (∆-7.07%; p < 0.01; ES = 1.18).
No significant pre–post performance changes were found for the CG (∆0.67%; p > 0.05;
ES = −0.1 [trivial]). The individual response analysis indicated that 100% of the RNE group
(n = 13) improved their 505 CoD speed performance to a level that exceeded the SWC0.2
compared with only 7.14% in the CG (n = 1).

3.3. Vertical Jumping

For CMJ height, a significant main effect of time was observed (ES = 1.96 [large],
p < 0.001). Likewise, a significant group-by-time interaction was noted (ES = 1.43 [large],
p < 0.01) (Table 3). Post-hoc analyses demonstrated a small pre–post CMJ height improve-
ment for the RNE group (∆13.55%; p < 0.01; ES = 0.57). No significant pre–post changes
were observed in the CG (∆2.20%; p > 0.05; ES = 0.09 [trivial]). In terms of individual
responses, our statistical calculations showed that 76.92% of the RNE group (n = 10) im-
proved their CMJ height to a level that exceeded the SWC0.2 compared with only 12.29%
(n = 2) of the CG.

3.4. Horizontal Jumping

For the SLJ test, a significant main effect of time (ES = 1.66 [large], p < 0.01) and
group-by-time interaction (ES = 1.32 [moderate], p < 0.05) were observed. Post-hoc analyses
indicated a trivial pre–post improvement for the RNE group (∆4.80%; p < 0.01; ES = 0.33),
with no significant difference detected in the CG (∆0.55%; p > 0.05; ES = 0.04 [trivial]). The
individual response analysis revealed that 61.54% of the RNE group (n = 8) improved their
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2024, 9, 265 7 of 10

SLJ test performance to a level that was greater than the SWC0.2 . However, all the athletes
in the CG failed to reach changes that went beyond the SWC0.2 .

3.5. Asymmetry Score

Regarding the asymmetry scores, the statistical analysis revealed a large effect of
time (ES = 2.94; p < 0.01) with a moderate group-by-time interaction (ES = 1.03, p < 0.05).
Post-hoc analysis showed a moderate pre–post decrement in the RNE group (∆46.93%;
ES = 0.64; p < 0.05), while the CG failed to reach any significant pre–post change (∆-17.26%;
ES = −0.20, p > 0.05). Regarding the individual responses, our findings indicated that
46.15% of the RNE group (n = 6) and 35.71% of the CG (n = 4) experienced a reduction in
their asymmetry scores that exceeded the SWC0.2 .

4. Discussion
This study aimed to assess the effects of an 8-week intervention using the RNE
compared with regular training alone on physical fitness measures in male and female
youth karate athletes. The key findings demonstrated that a short-term RNE intervention,
performed twice weekly, produced significant trivial-to-large improvements in sprint speed,
CoD speed, CMJ height, and SLJ distance. Additionally, the results indicated a significant
moderate reduction in asymmetry scores within the RNE group. In contrast, no significant
changes were observed in the CG across all fitness measures.
Persuasive evidence indicates that eccentric training improves muscle strength, muscle
power, and stretch–shortening cycle (SSC) performance more than concentric or traditional
(combined eccentric and concentric training) training [5,7,22]. Karate is a dynamic sport
where the ability to perform high-velocity movements, particularly kicks and punches,
is strongly dependent on the strength and power of the lower limb muscles, especially
the knee extensors [1,3]. With that said, eccentric training appears to be an effective
method for enhancing key aspects of fitness in karate. The main findings of this study
suggest that the RNE, a simple and easy-to-implement eccentric exercise targeting the knee
extensors, performed twice per week for 8 weeks, led to significant improvements across
all measures of physical fitness. In contrast, regular karate training alone did not appear
to provide enough stimuli to elicit significant changes in physical fitness. Specifically, our
results showed trivial-to-large increases in 10 m sprint speed, CoD speed, CMJ height, SLJ
distance, and asymmetry score (ES = 0.33 to 1.63) in the RNE group. These outcomes are
notable, given that the RNE sessions lasted only between 10 and 20 min. This suggests
that incorporating a short eccentric exercise like the RNE into regular karate training could
significantly enhance various key physical fitness measures relevant to the sport.
An additional key aspect explored in this study was the individual responses to RNE
training in both groups [23]. Our findings revealed that, in the RNE group, all karate
athletes displayed improvements in linear sprint speed and CoD speed beyond the SWC0.2
thresholds. In contrast, within the CG, 53.84% of participants improved their linear sprint
speed beyond the SWC0.2 and only 7.14% exceeded the SWC0.2 for CoD speed. RNE
training consistently outperformed regular karate training across the other fitness measures
(i.e., CMJ height, SLJ distance, and asymmetry score), with 46.15% to 76.92% of RNE
participants achieving improvements above the SWC0.2 . In the CG, 12.29% improved CMJ
height, 35.71% showed enhanced asymmetry scores, and no participants exceeded the
SWC0.2 in horizontal jump performance. These results suggest that, while regular karate
training may lead to some individual improvements above the SWC0.2 , integrating RNE
training produces significant, more consistent gains in all or the majority of participants.
Although speculative, the improvements in power, linear sprint speed, and CoD speed
performance likely result from both neural adaptations and morphological changes in the
muscle tendon unit following RNE training [4]. There is substantial evidence that eccentric
training elicits a greater increase in muscle cross-sectional area compared with concentric
or traditional training [4,24]. Additionally, there are indications that eccentric training
increases the number of sarcomeres in series [25–27] and promotes the selective hypertrophy
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2024, 9, 265 8 of 10

of fast-twitch muscle fibers [24,28,29]. While these physiological adaptations were not
directly measured in this study, they likely contributed to the observed improvements in
power, linear sprint speed, and CoD speed performance. This could be supported by the
study of Alonso-Fernández and Fernández-Rodríguez [18]. They investigated the effects
of the RNE on the architectural adaptations of the rectus femoris in young adults with an
average age of 24 years. This study found that an 8-week RNE training program, conducted
twice per week, led to substantial increases in muscle fascicle length, muscle thickness,
pennation angle, and cross-sectional area [18].
Of note, the findings from this study showed that RNE training led to a significant
reduction in the asymmetry score (ES = 0.64). This finding is particularly important, as
karatekas are exposed to lower limb injuries [30], and reducing lower limb asymmetry
may help mitigate injury risk [31,32]. In contrast, the CG experienced a worsening in the
asymmetry score, though this change was not statistically significant (ES = −0.20). To the
best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study to examine the effects of the RNE on
physical fitness and asymmetry in youth karate athletes, leaving no prior data for direct
comparison. In soccer, for instance, the asymmetry score is a potential risk factor for injuries
and can negatively affect performance [31]. Future studies are needed to investigate the
impact of asymmetry on injury occurrence in karate and to determine whether reducing
asymmetry scores could help decrease injury rates.

Limitations
This study has a number of limitations that warrant discussion. First, physical per-
formance was assessed using field tests without any physiological measures. (e.g., mus-
culotendinous morphological/architectural changes) that can provide insights about the
mechanisms underpinning the reported adaptations. Additionally, due to time constraints
and logistic reasons, it was not possible to monitor the neural changes such as by measuring
muscle activation (e.g., electromyography). Second, a quasi-randomization process, rather
than a pure randomization method, was employed in this study. Quasi-random methods
often involve allocating participants based on specific criteria or non-random factors, which
can introduce selection bias. As such, future studies adopting a pure randomization process
are needed.

5. Conclusions
The main findings of this study show that a short-term RNE intervention, performed
twice weekly for 10 to 20 min per session, led to significant trivial-to-large improvements in
sprint speed, CoD speed, CMJ height, and SLJ distance. In contrast, no significant changes
were observed following regular karate training across these fitness measures. Additionally,
the RNE group experienced a significant moderate improvement in asymmetry scores,
while regular karate training led to a non-significant worsening. These results suggest that
the RNE is an effective and feasible training method that can be regularly integrated into
youth karate training routines. Future studies should investigate the combined effects of
the RNE and Nordic hamstring exercises on physical fitness and morphological/neural
adaptations in youth karatekas.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, R.B., S.S., Y.N., Y.H. and H.C.; methodology, R.B. and
H.C.; validation, R.B., Y.N. and H.C. investigation, R.B.; writing—original draft preparation, R.B.;
writing—review and editing, S.S., Y.N., Y.H. and H.C. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The Otto von Guericke University, Magdeburg covered the APC.
Institutional Review Board Statement: The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the
Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the local Institutional Review Committee of the Higher
Institute of Sport and Physical Education, Ksar Said, Tunisia.
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2024, 9, 265 9 of 10

Data Availability Statement: The original data presented in the study are openly available in FigShare
at https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.27852213.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank all participants and trainers for their voluntary
willingness to take part in this study.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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