CAT Forklift DP70E Service, Operation

& Maintenance Manual

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CAT Forklift DP70E Service, Operation & Maintenance ManualSize: 35.8

MBFormat: PDFLanguage: EnglishBrand: CAT CaterpillarType of Machine:
ForkliftType of Manual: Service Manual, Operation & Maintenance ManualModel:
CAT DP70E ForkliftDate: 2010Content:99709-64100-00 S6S-T Diesel Engine:
Foreword99709-64100-01 S6S-T Diesel Engine: General99709-64100-02 S6S-T
Diesel Engine: Service Data99709-64100-03 S6S-T Diesel Engine: Service
Tools99709-64100-04 S6S-T Diesel Engine: Determination of
Overhaul99709-64100-05 S6S-T Diesel Engine: Disassembly of Basic
Engine99709-64100-06 S6S-T Diesel Engine: Inspection and Repair of Basic
Engine99709-64100-07 S6S-T Diesel Engine: Reassembly of Basic
Engine99709-64100-08 S6S-T Diesel Engine: Fuel System99709-64100-09 S6S-T
Diesel Engine: Lubrication System99709-64100-10 S6S-T Diesel Engine: Cooling
System99709-64100-11 S6S-T Diesel Engine: Inlet and Exhaust
Systems99709-64100-11 S6S-T Diesel Engine: Inlet and Exhaust
Systems99709-64100-12 S6S-T Diesel Engine: Electrical System99709-64100-13
S6S-T Diesel Engine: Adjustment and Operation99709-81100-00 Chassis, Mast
and Options: Foreword99709-81100-01 Chassis, Mast and Options: General
Information99709-81100-02 Chassis, Mast and Options: Cooling
System99709-81100-03 Chassis, Mast and Options: Electrical
System99709-81100-03a Chassis, Mast and Options: Wiring
Schematic99709-81100-03b Chassis, Mast and Options: Operating Cab Wiring
Schematic99709-81100-04 Chassis, Mast and Options: Power
Train99709-81100-05 Chassis, Mast and Options: PowerShift
Transmissions99709-81100-06 Chassis, Mast and Options: Front Axle and
Reduction Differential99709-81100-07 Chassis, Mast and Options: Rear
Axle99709-81100-08 Chassis, Mast and Options: Brake System99709-81100-09
Chassis, Mast and Options: Steering System99709-81100-10 Chassis, Mast and
Options: Hydraulic System99709-81100-11 Chassis, Mast and Options: Mast and
Forks99709-81100-12 Chassis, Mast and Options: Fork Positioner99709-81100-13
Chassis, Mast and Options: Side Shifter99709-81100-14 Chassis, Mast and
Options: Service Data99700-81120-00 Operation & Maintenance Manual:
Foreword99700-81120-01 Operation & Maintenance Manual: Safety Rules For Lift
Truck Operators99700-81120-02 Operation & Maintenance Manual: Know Your
Lift Truck99700-81120-03 Operation & Maintenance Manual: How to Avoid a
Tipover; How to Survive One99700-81120-04 Operation & Maintenance Manual:
Refueling99700-81120-05 Operation & Maintenance Manual:
Operation99700-81120-06 Operation & Maintenance Manual: Operating
Techniques99700-81120-07 Operation & Maintenance Manual: Storing the Lift
Truck99700-81120-08 Operation & Maintenance Manual: Transportation
Hints99700-81120-09 Operation & Maintenance Manual: Special
Situations99700-81120-10 Operation & Maintenance Manual:
Troubleshooting99700-81120-11 Operation & Maintenance Manual:
Maintenance99700-81120-12 Operation & Maintenance Manual: Service
Data99700-81120-13 Operation & Maintenance Manual: To the Cat Lift Truck
OwnerCat Pub List Publication List (Service, Operator, & Parts Manuals)Mast
Tilting Angles Mast Tilting AnglesREF-18-0001C How To Determine Correct Mast
Rails Lift Cylinders And Mast HosingREF-18-0001C How To Determine Correct
Mast Rails Lift Cylinders And Mast Hosing (Spanish)REF-18-0002C How To
Locate Fluid CapacitiesREF-18-0002C How To Locate Fluid Capacities
(Spanish)REF-18-0003C How To Use A Pick ListREF-18-0003C How To Use A
Pick List (Spanish)REF-18-0007C Abbreviations And Acronyms ListREF-18-0008C
Diagnostic Trouble (Error) CodesThis part manual inlcude all spare parts you need
inside this model, for you easier in fixing your forklift replace new spare part hight
performance.This service manual is a guide for servicing Cat Lift Trucks. For your
convenience the instructions are grouped by systems as an easy reference.This
Original Instructions (Operator's) Manual describes operating procedures, daily
checks and simple maintenance for safe usage of your Cat lift truck.SERVICE
MANUALCHAPTER 1 GENERAL INFORMATION1.1 Model View1.2 Models
Covered1.2.1 Lift Truck Nomenclatures and Definitions1.3 Serial Number
Locations1.4 Dimensions1.5 Technical Data1.6 PerformanceCHAPTER 2
COOLING SYSTEM2.1 Specifications2.2 Structure2.3 Removal and
Installation2.3.1 Fan Belt Removal2.3.2 Suggestions for Removal2.3.3
Installation2.4 Inspection and Adjustment2.4.1 Fan Belt Inspection2.4.2 Fan Belt
Tension2.4.3 Connecting Hoses2.4.4 Coolant2.4.5 Radiator CapCHAPTER 3
ELECTRIC SYSTEM3.1 Chassis Electrical Devices Wiring Outline3.1.1 Harnesses
Layout3.1.2 Components Layout3.2 Structure3.2.1 Console Box3.2.2 Major
Electrical Components3.2.3 Table of Lamps3.3 Console Box3.3.1 Disassembly3.4
Battery Maintenance3.4.1 State of Charge and Electrolyte Specific Gravity (S.G.)
Adjustment3.4.2 Specific Gravity Reading and State of Charge3.4.3 Charging
Precautions3.5 Instrument Panel3.5.1 Instrument Panel Screen Element3.5.2
Basic Screen Display3.5.3 Basic Operation3.5.4 When An Error Occurs3.5.5
Warning Lamps3.5.6 Optional Functions3.5.7 Hour Meters3.5.8
Troubleshooting3.6 Wire Color3.6.2 List of Wire Colors3.7 Troubleshooting3.7.1
Starter System3.7.2 Gauges3.7.3 Lighting System3.8 Electrical
SchematicCHAPTER 4 CONTROLLERS4.1 Outline4.2 Main Functions4.2.2
Instrument Panel4.2.3 VCM (Vehicle Control Module)1-M4.2.4 ECM (Gasoline
Engine Control Module)4.2.5 Remote Input/Output Units4.2.6 GSE Connector4.3
Service Tool Functions4.3.1 Service Tool Menus4.3.2 Service Tool Box4.4 Mast
Interlock System4.4.1 Function4.4.2 VCM1-M Controller, Mast Interlock System
Checking Procedure4.4.3 Active Test Inspection Procedure4.5 Driving Interlock
System4.5.1 Function4.5.2 Driving Interlock System Checking Procedure for
Powershift T/M Lift Trucks4.5.3 Active Test Inspection Procedure4.6 Seat Belt
Warning Lamp4.6.1 Function4.6.2 Seat Belt Warning Lamp Checking
Procedure4.7 Parking Brake Warning Buzzer and Lamp4.7.1 Function4.7.2
Parking Brake Warning Buzzer/Lamp Checking Procedure4.7.3 Parking Brake
Warning Buzzer/Lamp Checking Procedure with Key in OFF Position4.8 Harness
Codes4.9 Controller Details4.9.1 VCM1-M Controller4.9.2 Seat Switch/Seat Belt
Switch4.9.3 Parking Brake Switch4.9.4 Direction Lever4.9.5 Speed Sensor4.9.6
T/M Solenoid4.9.7 Unload Solenoid4.9.8 Lift Lock Solenoid4.9.9 Warning
Buzzer4.9.10 Warning Buzzer Relay4.9.11 Warning Buzzer Circuit4.9.12
Instrument Panel4.10 Error Codes and Troubleshootings4.10.1 Error Code
Display4.10.2 Diagnosis Table (F Code)4.10.3 Error Codes and
Troubleshooting4.11 Locations of Sensors and SwitchesCHAPTER 5 POWER
TRAIN5.1 Removal and Installation (MC Models)5.1.1 Removal of Engine and
Transmission Assembly5.1.2 Removal of Engine and Transmission Assembly (for
Gasoline-Engine Lift Trucks)5.2 Removal and Installation (FC Models)5.2.1
Removal of Engine and Transmission AssemblyCHAPTER 6 POWERSHIFT
TRANSMISSION6.1 Structure and Functions6.1.1 Transmission6.1.2 Torque
Converter6.1.3 Control Valve6.1.4 Hydraulic System Schematic of Powershift
Transmission6.2 Removal and Installation6.2.1 Removal6.2.2 Installation6.3
Control Valve6.3.1 Disassembly6.3.2 Reassembly6.4 Input Shaft Assembly6.4.1
Disassembly6.5 Oil Pump Assembly6.5.1 Disassembly6.5.2 Reassembly6.6
Inspection and Adjustment6.6.1 Oil Pressure Measurement6.6.2 Clutch (Inching)
Pedal Adjustment6.6.3 Inching Cable, Adjustment6.7 Troubleshooting6.8
Tightening Torque6.9 Service DataCHAPTER 7 FRONT AXLE AND REDUCTION
DIFFERENTIAL7.1 Structure7.1.1 Front Axle7.1.2 Reduction Differential7.2
Removal and Installation7.2.1 Front Wheels7.3 Front Axle7.3.2 Reduction
Differential7.4 Disassembly and Reassembly7.4.1 Front Axle7.4.2 Reduction
Differential7.5 Troubleshooting7.6 Service DataCHAPTER 8 REAR AXLE8.1
Structure and Functions8.1.1 Rear Axle in General8.1.2 Structure of Each
Component8.1.3 Steering Cylinder8.2 Removal and Installation8.2.1 Rear Wheel
and Rear Axle Assembly8.3 Disassembly and Reassembly8.3.1 Wheel Hub,
Disassembly and Reassembly8.3.2 Knuckle (King Pin), Disassembly and
Reassembly8.3.3 Steering Cylinder, Disassembly and Reassembly8.3.4 Tie Rod,
Disassembly and ReassemblyCHAPTER 9 BRAKE SYSTEM9.1 Structure9.1.1
Brake System9.2 Disassembly and Reassembly9.2.1 Master Cylinder9.2.2 Wheel
Brakes9.2.3 Wheel Cylinder9.3 Inspection and Adjustment9.3.1 Automatic
Adjuster Test9.3.2 Manual Adjustment9.3.3 Parking Brake Cable Adjustment9.3.4
Brake Pedal Adjustment9.3.5 Brake Lines Bleeding9.3.6 Braking Performance
Test9.3.7 Parking Brake Lever9.4 Troubleshooting9.5 Service DataCHAPTER 10
STEERING SYSTEM10.1 Structure and Functions10.1.1 Steering System10.1.2
Steering Valve10.1.3 Steering Column10.2 Disassembly and Reassembly10.2.2
Steering Wheel and Steering Valve, Removal and Installation10.2.3 Steering
Wheel10.2.4 Steering Valve10.2.5 Tilt Lock Lever10.3 Steering Valve10.3.1
Disassembly10.3.2 Reassembly10.4 Troubleshooting10.5 Service DataCHAPTER
11 HYDRAULIC SYSTEM11.1 Structure and Functions11.1.1 Outline11.2
Hydraulic Circuit Diagram (For Models With MC Control Valve)11.3 Hydraulic
Circuit Diagram (For Models With FC Control Valve)11.4 Hydraulic Tank11.5
Hydraulic Pump (Gear Pump)11.6 Control Valve11.7 Flow Regulator Valve (for
Models with FC Control Valve Only)11.8 Down Safety Valve11.9 Lift Cylinder11.10
Tilt Cylinder11.11 Disassembly and Reassembly11.11.1 Hydraulic Pump11.11.2
Lift Cylinder11.11.3 Tilt Cylinder11.11.4 Flow Regulator Valve11.11.5
Piping11.11.6 Suction Strainer and Return Filter11.12 Inspection and
Adjustment11.12.1 Hydraulic Tank11.12.2 Control Valve11.12.3 Descent
Test11.12.4 Forward Tilt Test11.13 Troubleshooting11.13.2 Hydraulic System
Cleaning After a Component Failure11.14 Service Data11.15 MC Control
Valve11.15.1 Structure and Operation11.15.2 Control Valve, Removal and
Installation11.15.3 Disassembly and Assembly11.16 FC Control Valve11.16.1
Structure and Operation11.16.2 Disassembly and AssemblyCHAPTER 12 MAST
AND FORKS12.1 Simplex Mast12.1.1 Mast System12.2 Structure and
Functions12.2.1 Simplex Mast (5A15C to 5A33C)12.2.2 Mast Operation12.3
Removal and Installation12.3.1 Mast and Lift Bracket Assembly12.4 Disassembly
and Reassembly12.4.1 Simplex Mast Disassembly12.4.2 Simplex Mast
Reassembly12.5 Removal and Installation of Mast Rollers and Strips without
Removing12.5.1 Simplex Mast12.6 Inspection and Adjustment (Simplex
Mast)12.6.2 Forks12.6.3 Chain Tension Inspection and Adjustment12.6.4
Checking Chain Elongation12.6.5 Adjusting Clearance Between Lift Bracket Roller
and Inner Mast12.6.6 Mast Roller Clearance Adjustment12.6.7 Mast Strip
Clearance Inspection and Adjustment12.6.8 Tilt Angle Adjustment12.6.9 Right and
Left Lift Cylinder Stroke Inspection and Adjustment12.7 Troubleshooting (Simplex
Mast)12.8 Service Data (Simplex Mast)12.9 Duplex Mast12.9.1 Mast System12.10
Structure and Functions12.10.1 Duplex (Dual Full-Free Panoramic) Mast (5B15C
to 5B33C)12.10.2 Mast Operation12.11 Removal and Installation12.11.1 Mast and
Lift Bracket Assembly12.12 Disassembly and Reassembly12.12.1 Duplex Mast
Disassembly12.12.2 Duplex Mast Reassembly12.13 Removal and Installation of
Mast Rollers and Strips without Removing12.13.1 Duplex Mast12.14 Inspection
and Adjustment (Duplex Mast)12.14.1 Inspection and Adjustment (Duplex
Mast)12.14.2 Forks12.14.3 Chain Tension Inspection and Adjustment12.14.4
Checking Chain Elongation12.14.5 Adjusting Clearance Between Lift Bracket
Roller and Inner Mast12.14.6 Mast Roller Clearance Adjustment12.14.7 Mast Strip
Clearance Inspection and Adjustment12.14.8 Tilt Angle Adjustment12.14.9 Right
and Left Lift Cylinder Stroke Inspection and Adjustment12.15 Troubleshooting
(Duplex Mast)12.16 Service Data (Duplex Mast)12.17 Triplex Mast12.17.1 Mast
System12.18 Structure and Functions12.18.1 Triplex (Triple Full-Free Panoramic)
Mast (5C15C to 5C33C)12.18.2 Mast Operation12.19 Removal and
Installation12.19.1 Mast and Lift Bracket Assembly12.20 Disassembly and
Reassembly12.20.1 Triplex Mast Disassembly12.20.2 Triplex Mast
Reassembly12.21 Removal and Installation of Mast Rollers and Strips without
Removing12.21.1 Triplex Mast12.22 Inspection and Adjustment (Triplex
Mast)12.22.2 Forks12.22.3 Chain Tension Inspection and Adjustment12.22.4
Checking Chain Elongation12.22.5 Adjusting Clearance between Lift Bracket
Roller and Inner Mast12.22.6 Mast Roller Clearance Adjustment12.22.7 Mast Strip
Clearance Inspection and Adjustment12.22.8 Tilt Angle Adjustment12.22.9 Right
and Left Lift Cylinder Stroke Inspection and Adjustment12.23 Troubleshooting
(Triplex Mast)12.23.1 Troubleshooting (Triplex Mast)12.24 Service Data (Triplex
Mast)12.24.1 Triplex MastCHAPTER 13 SERVICE DATA13.1 Maintenance
Schedule13.2 Maintenance Note13.2.1 Brake System13.2.2 Cooling System13.2.3
Electric System13.2.4 Engine System13.2.5 Frame and Chassis13.2.6 Fuel
System13.2.7 Hydraulic System13.2.8 Ignition System13.2.9 Intake
System13.2.10 Front End Section13.2.11 Steering and Axle System13.2.12 T/M
and Drive System13.2.13 Wheels and Tires13.2.14 General13.3 Tightening
Torque for Standard Bolts and Nuts13.4 Periodic Replacement Parts13.4.2
Location of Periodic Replacement Parts13.5 Lubrication Instructions13.5.1
Lubrication Chart13.5.2 Fuel and Lubricant Specifications13.5.3 Adjustment Value
and Oil Quantities13.6 Special Service Tools13.6.1 Special Service Tools
(Standard Tools for Both MC and FC LiftTrucks)13.6.2 Special Service Tools (for
FC Lift Truck Only)13.6.3 Special Service Tools (for Powershift
Transmission)OPERRATION MANUALCHAPTER 1 SAFETY RULES AND
PRACTICES1.1 SAFETY SIGNS AND SAFETY MESSAGES1.2 WARNING
SYMBOLS AND LEVELS1.3 OPERATOR QUALIFICATIONS1.4 SAFETY
GUARDS1.5 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT FOR OPERATING LIFT
TRUCK1.6 DAILY INSPECTION1.7 OPERATOR RESPONSIBILITY1.8
GENERAL1.9 NO RIDERS1.10 TRAVELING1.11 LOADING1.12 DOCKBOARDS
(BRIDGE PLATES), TRUCKS AND RAILROAD CARS1.13 SURFACE AND
CAPACITY1.14 FUEL HANDLING1.15 INSTALLATION OF ATTACHMENTS1.16
IN CASE OF TIP-OVER1.17 TRANSPORTING LIFT TRUCK1.17.2 APPROACH
ANGLE, DEPARTURE ANGLE AND GANGWAY1.17.3 HOISTING (LIFTING) UP
THE TRUCK1.18 FUNCTION TESTS1.19 TRACTION BAR1.20 POSITION OF
DATA AND CAPACITY PLATES AND DECALS1.21 DATA AND CAPACITY
PLATES AND DECALS1.21.2 DATA PLATE1.21.3 IDENTIFICATION
NUMBERS1.21.4 CAUTION DRIVE DECAL (IN CASE OF TIP-OVER
DECAL)1.21.5 WARNING DRIVE DECAL (TRAINED AND AUTHORIZED)1.21.6
PINCH POINT DECAL1.21.7 CAUTION FORK DECAL1.21.8 MAST WARNING
DECAL1.21.9 CAUTION DRIVE DECAL (OPERATION)1.21.10 RADIATOR
WARNING DECAL1.21.11 COOLING FAN WARNING DECAL1.21.12 ADJ LPG
WARNING DECAL1.21.13 LPG LATCH WARNING DECAL1.21.14 LPG FUEL
WARNING DECALCHAPTER 2 OPERATING CONTROLS AND FUNCTIONS2.1
APPLICATIONS2.2 APPLICATION FOR CAT LIFT TRUCKS2.3 PROHIBITED
APPLICATIONS FOR CAT LIFT TRUCKS2.4 MAIN COMPONENTS2.5 METERS,
INDICATORS AND WARNING LIGHTS2.5.2 LCD2.5.3 OPERATION
BUTTONS2.5.4 ! MULTIPURPOSE WARNING LIGHT2.5.5 MALFUNCTION
INDICATOR LIGHT-ENGINE CHECK WARNING2.5.6 OIL PRESSURE
WARNING LIGHT2.5.7 CHARGE WARNING LIGHT2.5.8 PARKING BRAKE
WARNING LIGHT2.5.9 SEAT BELT WARNING LIGHT2.5.10 METER
DISPLAY2.5.11 WATER TEMPERATURE GAUGE2.5.12 FUEL GAUGE2.5.13
TRANSMISSION POSITION2.6 MALFUNCTION AND WARNING
INDICATIONS2.6.2 MAST INTERLOCK WARNING2.6.3 LPG LEVEL
WARNING/LPG RACK LOCK WARNING2.6.4 TORQUE CONVERTER FLUID
TEMP WARNING2.6.5 RADIATOR LEVEL WARNING2.6.6 AIR CLEANER
WARNING2.6.7 SERVICE REMINDER DISPLAY2.6.8 DISPLAYS WHEN
MALFUNCTION OCCURS2.7 DRIVER RECOGNITION MODE2.8 LPG
REMAINING TIME MANAGEMENT2.9 SWITCHES2.9.2 HORN BUTTON2.9.3
REAR RIGHT GRIP WITH HORN BUTTON2.9.4 IGNITION SWITCH2.9.5
LIGHTING AND TURN SIGNAL SWITCHES2.9.6 MAXIMUM SPEED CHANGE
SWITCH (OPTION)2.9.7 THROTTLE SENSITIVITY ADJUST SWITCH
(OPTION)2.9.8 BACK-UP OPERATION LIGHT SWITCH (OPTION)2.10
OPERATING CONTROLS2.10.2 SELECTOR LEVER2.10.3 PARKING BRAKE
LEVER2.10.4 INCHING BRAKE PEDAL2.10.5 BRAKE PEDAL2.10.6
ACCELERATOR PEDAL2.10.7 CARGO-HANDLING CONTROL LEVERS2.10.8
ANSI/ITSDF STANDARDS FOR LIFT TRUCK CLAMP ATTACHMENTS2.10.9
STEERING CHARACTERISTICSCHAPTER 3 OPERATING THE LIFT TRUCK3.1
OPERATION3.2 INSPECTION BEFORE OPERATING3.3 LIFT TRUCK
OPERATING PRECAUTIONS3.4 PRECAUTIONS FOR COLD AND HOT
WEATHER3.5 OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES3.6 LPG LIFT TRUCK
STARTING3.7 PROCEDURE FOR JUMP STARTING EFI ENGINES3.8
AUTOMATIC TRANSMISSION3.9 LOADING3.10 TRANSPORTING LOADS3.11
UNLOADING3.12 CLIMBING3.13 STOPPING AND PARKING THE LIFT
TRUCK3.14 FORKS3.15 SEAT ADJUSTMENT3.15.1 SUSPENSION SEAT
OPERATOR'S WEIGHT ADJUSTMENT3.15.2 FORWARD AND BACKWARD
CONTROL LEVER3.15.3 BACKREST INCLINATION ADJUSTMENT3.15.4
LUMBAR ADJUSTMENT3.15.5 SWIVEL SEAT3.16 SEAT BELT3.17 TOP
PANEL3.18 TILT STEERING WHEEL3.19 SERVICE RELEASE LATCH3.20
RADIATOR COVER3.21 REARVIEW MIRROR (OPTION)3.22 LPG CYLINDER
(TANK) HOLDERCHAPTER 4 GENERAL CARE AND MAINTENANCE4.1 WET
CELL BATTERY CARE AND MAINTENANCE4.2 BATTERY SPECIFIC
GRAVITY4.3 DAILY INSPECTION4.4 OPERATOR'S DAILY CHECKLIST
(SAMPLE)4.5 MAINTENANCE AND INSPECTION4.5.1 ENGINE OIL LEVEL4.5.2
REFILLING ENGINE OIL4.5.3 ENGINE COOLANT LEVEL4.5.4 REFILLING
ENGINE COOLANT4.5.5 COOLING SYSTEM BLEEDING INSTRUCTIONS4.5.6
BRAKE FLUID LEVEL4.5.7 REFILLING BRAKE FLUID4.5.8 AUTOMATIC
TRANSMISSION FLUID LEVEL4.5.9 REFILLING AUTOMATIC TRANSMISSION
FLUID4.5.10 HYDRAULIC OIL LEVEL4.5.11 REFILLING HYDRAULIC OIL4.5.12
STEERING WHEEL PLAY4.5.13 WHEEL AND TIRE4.5.14 TIRE
REPLACEMENT4.5.15 CHECKING MAST4.5.16 CHECKING LIFT CHAIN4.5.17
FORK INSPECTION4.5.18 FORK REPAIR4.5.19 CHECKING HORN4.5.20
CHECKING LIGHTS4.5.21 CHECKING CARGO-HANDLING CONTROL
LEVER(S)4.5.22 CHECKING BRAKE PEDAL4.5.23 PEDAL FREE PLAY4.5.24
CHECKING PARKING BRAKE LEVER4.5.25 CHECKING TOP PANEL
LOCK4.5.26 FUSES4.5.27 CHECKING AIR CLEANER4.5.28 CHECKING FAN
BELT4.5.29 DRAINING OF TAR FROM THE VAPORIZER4.5.30 PRECAUTIONS
FOR USING LPG4.5.31 RECOMMENDED LPG FUEL TYPE4.5.32 CYLINDER
(TANK) SIZE4.5.33 LPG CYLINDER (TANK) REPLACEMENT4.5.34 REFILLING
LPG CYLINDERS (TANKS)4.5.35 PERIODIC MAINTENANCE AND
LUBRICATION SCHEDULE4.5.36 PERIODIC MAINTENANCE AND
LUBRICATION SCHEDULE FOR EMISSION CONTROL SYSTEM4.5.37
LUBRICATION CHART4.5.38 RECOMMENDED LUBRICANTS4.5.39
RECOMMENDED SAE VISCOSITY CHART4.5.40 PUTTING LIFT TRUCK IN
STORAGE4.6 SIDE SHIFT4.6.1 OVERVIEW OF SIDE SHIFT4.6.2 MAIN TERMS
USED IN THIS SECTION4.6.3 SAFETY RULES AND PRACTICES4.6.4 SIDE
SHIFT CONTROL LEVER OPERATION4.6.5 SIDE SHIFT OPERATION4.6.6
DAILY CHECKS AND SIMPLE MAINTENANCECHAPTER 5
SPECIFICATIONS5.1 MODEL IDENTIFICATION5.1.1 MODEL VARIATION
(LONG MODEL CODE) BREAKDOWN5.2 MAIN TRUCK5.2.1 MAIN TRUCK -
2C7000 AND 2C8000/2C8000-SWB5.3 MAST5.3.1 2C7000 AND
2C8000/2C8000-SWB5.4 FUEL AND OIL CAPACITY5.5 ENGINE5.6 ENGINE OIL
CAPACITY5.7 NOISE LEVEL
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Per cent. of copper 18.5% 18.5% 18.5%
Average value per ton 97 ozs. 97 ozs. 97 ozs.
original copper 4 dwts. 4 dwts. 4 dwts.
Average value per ton of 90 ozs. 28 ozs. 28 ozs.
2 dwts. 5 dwts. (A) 5 dwts. (A)
(slags)
Average value per ton of 3 ozs. 1 dwt. 3 ozs. 1 dwt. 42 ozs.
(lead) (lead) 10 dwts. (B)
Weight of liquated lead 550.6 lbs.
Average value of the 28 ozs. 42 ozs. 63 ozs.
liquated lead per ton 5 dwts. (A) 10 dwts. (B) 16 dwts. (C)
Weight of exhausted 225.9 lbs.
liquation cakes
Average value of the 12 ozs.
exhausted liquation cakes 3 dwts.
per ton
Weight of liquation thorns 169.4 lbs.
Average value of the 18 ozs.
liquation thorns per ton 4 dwts.
Extraction of silver into the 71%
liquated lead

[Pg 520][18] For the liquation it was necessary to maintain a reducing

atmosphere, otherwise the lead would oxidize; this was secured by
keeping the cakes well covered with charcoal and by preventing the
entrance of air as much as possible. Moreover, it was necessary to
preserve a fairly even temperature. The proportions of copper and lead
in the three liquation products vary considerably, depending upon the
method of conducting the process and the original proportions. From the
authors consulted (see note p. 492) an average would be about as
follows:—The residual copper—exhausted liquation cakes—ran from 25 to
33% lead; the liquated lead from 2 to 3% copper; and the liquation
thorns, which were largely oxidized, contained about 15% copper oxides,
80% lead oxides, together with impurities, such as antimony, arsenic,
etc. The proportions of the various products would obviously depend
upon the care in conducting the operation; too high temperature and the
admission of air would increase the copper melted and oxidize more
lead, and thus increase the liquation thorns. There are insufficient data in
Agricola to adduce conclusions as to the actual ratios produced. The
results given for the 6th charge (note 17, p. 512) would indicate about
30% lead in the residual copper, and would indicate that the original
charge was divided into about 24% of residual copper, 18% of liquation
thorns, and 57% of liquated lead. This, however, was an unusually large
proportion of liquation thorns, some of the authors giving instances of as
low as 5%.
[Pg 522][19] The first instance given, of 44 centumpondia (3,109 lbs.)
lead and one centumpondium (70.6 lbs.) copper, would indicate that the
liquated lead contained 2.2% copper. The second, of 46 centumpondia
(3,250 lbs.) lead and 11/2 centumpondia copper (106 lbs.), would
indicate 3% copper; and in the third, 120 centumpondia (8,478 lbs.) lead
and six copper (424 lbs.) would show 4.76% copper. This charge of 120
centumpondia in the cupellation furnace would normally make more than
110 centumpondia of litharge and 30 of hearth-lead, i.e., saturated
furnace bottoms. The copper would be largely found in the silver-lead
"which does not melt," at the margin of the crucible. These skimmings
are afterward referred to as "thorns." It is difficult to understand what is
meant by the expression that the silver which is in the copper is mixed
with the remaining (reliquo) silver. The coppery skimmings from the
cupellation furnace are referred to again in Note 28, p. 539.
[Pg 523][20] A further amount of lead could be obtained in the first
liquation, but a higher temperature is necessary, which was more
economical to secure in the "drying" furnace. Therefore, the "drying" was
really an extension of liquation; but as air was admitted the lead and
copper melted out were oxidized. The products were the final residual
copper, called by Agricola the "dried" copper, together with lead and
copper oxides, called by him the "slags," and the scale of copper and
lead oxides termed by him the "ash-coloured copper." The German
metallurgists distinguished two kinds of slag: the first and principal one,
the darrost, and the second the darrsöhle, this latter differing only in that
it contained more impurities from the floor of the furnace, and remained
behind until the furnace cooled. Agricola possibly refers to these as
"more liquation thorns," because in describing the treatment of the bye-
products he refers to thorns from the process, whereas in the description
of "drying" he usually refers to "slags." A number of analyses of these
products, given by Karsten, show the "dried" copper to contain from 82.7
to 90.6% copper, and from 9.4 to 17.3% lead; the "slag" to contain 76.5
to 85.1% lead oxide, and from 4.1 to 7.8% cuprous oxide, with 9 to 13%
silica from the furnace bottoms, together with some other [Pg
524]impurities; the "ash-coloured copper" to contain about 60% cuprous
oxide and 30% lead oxide, with some metallic copper and minor
impurities. An average of proportions given by various authors shows,
roughly, that out of 100 centners of "exhausted" liquation cakes,
containing about 70% copper and 30% lead, there were about 63
centners of "dried" copper, 38 centners of "slag," and 61/2 centners of
"ash-coloured copper." According to Karsten, the process fell into stages;
first, at low temperature some metallic lead appeared; second, during an
increasing temperature for over 14 to 15 hours the slags ran out; third,
there was a period of four hours of lower temperature to allow time for
the lead to diffuse from the interior of the cakes; and fourth, during a
period of eight hours the temperature was again increased. In fact, the
latter portion of the process ended with the economic limit between
leaving some lead in the copper and driving too much copper into the
"slags." Agricola gives the silver contents of the "dried" copper as 3
drachmae to 1 centumpondium, or equal to about 9 ozs. per ton; and
assuming that the copper finally recovered from the bye-products ran no
higher, then the first four charges (see note on p. 506) would show a
reduction in the silver values of from 95 to 97%; the 7th and 8th charges
(note on p. 512) of about 90%.
[21] If Roman weights, this would equal from 6,360 lbs. to 7,066 lbs.
[Pg 529][22] One half uncia, or three drachmae of silver would equal
either 12 ozs. or 9 ozs. per ton. If we assume the values given for
residual copper in the first four charges (note p. 506) of 34 ozs., this
would mean an extraction of, roughly, 65% of the silver from the
exhausted liquation cakes.
[Pg 530][23] See note 29, p. 540.
[Pg 533][24] Assuming Roman weights:
2 centumpondia = 141.3 lbs.
2 1/ 2 " = 176.6 "
3 " = 211.9 "
3 1/ 2 " = 248.2 "
6 " = 423.9 "

[Pg 535][25] This description of refining copper in an open hearth by

oxidation with a blast and "poling"—the gaarmachen of the Germans—is
so accurate, and the process is so little changed in some parts of Saxony,
that it might have been written in the 20th century instead of the 16th.
The best account of the old practice in Saxony after Agricola is to be
found in Schlüter's Hütte Werken (Braunschweig, 1738, Chap. cxviii.).
The process has largely been displaced by electrolytic methods, but is
still in use in most refineries as a step in electrolytic work. It may be
unnecessary to repeat that the process is one of subjecting the molten
mass of impure metal to a strong and continuous blast, and as a result,
not only are the impurities to a considerable extent directly oxidized and
taken off as a slag, but also a considerable amount of copper is turned
into cuprous oxide. This cuprous oxide mostly melts and diffuses through
the metallic copper, and readily parting with its oxygen to the impurities
further facilitates their complete oxidation. The blast is continued until
the impurities are practically eliminated, and at this stage the molten
metal contains a great deal of dissolved cuprous oxide, which must be
reduced. This is done by introducing a billet of green wood ("poling"),
the dry distillation of which generates large quantities of gases, which
reduce the oxide. The state of the metal is even to-day in some localities
tested by dipping into it the point of an iron rod; if it be at the proper
state the adhering copper has a net-like appearance, should be easily
loosened from the rod by dipping in water, is of a reddish-copper colour
and should be quite pliable; if the metal is not yet refined, the sample is
thick, smooth, and detachable with difficulty; if over-refined, it is thick
and brittle. By allowing water to run on to the surface of the molten
metal, thin cakes are successively formed and taken off. These cakes
were the article known to commerce over several centuries as "rosetta
copper." The first few cakes are discarded as containing impurities or
slag, and if the metal be of good quality the cakes are thin and of a red
colour. Their colour and thinness, therefore, become a criterion of purity.
The cover of charcoal or charcoal dust maintained upon the surface of
the metal tended to retard oxidation, but prevented volatilization and
helped to secure the impurities as a slag instead. Karsten (Archiv., 1st
series, p. 46) gives several analyses of the [Pg 536]slag from refining
"dried" copper, showing it to contain from 51.7 to 67.4% lead oxide, 6.2
to 19.2% cuprous oxide, and 21.4 to 23.9 silica (from the furnace
bottoms), with minor quantities of iron, antimony, etc. The "bubbles"
referred to by Agricola were apparently the shower of copper globules
which takes place upon the evolution of sulphur dioxide, due to the
reaction of the cuprous oxide upon any remaining sulphide of copper
when the mass begins to cool.
Historical Note.—It is impossible to say how the Ancients refined copper,
beyond the fact that they often re-smelted it. Such notes as we can find
are set out in the note on copper smelting (note 42, p. 402). The first
authentic reference to poling is in Theophilus (1150 to 1200 a.d.,
Hendrie's translation, p. 313), which shows a very good understanding of
this method of refining copper:—"Of the Purification of Copper. Take an
iron dish of the size you wish, and line it inside and out with clay strongly
beaten and mixed, and it is carefully dried. Then place it before a forge
upon the coals, so that when the bellows act upon it the wind may issue
partly within and partly above it, and not below it. And very small coals
being placed round it, place the copper in it equally, and add over it a
heap of coals. When by blowing a long time this has become melted,
uncover it and cast immediately fine ashes of coals over it, and stir it
with a thin and dry piece of wood as if mixing it, and you will directly see
the burnt lead adhere to these ashes like a glue, which being cast out
again superpose coals, and blowing for a long time, as at first, again
uncover it, and then do as you did before. You do this until at length by
cooking it you can withdraw the lead entirely. Then pour it over the
mould which you have prepared for this, and you will thus prove if it be
pure. Hold it with the pincers, glowing as it is, before it has become cold,
and strike it with a large hammer strongly over the anvil, and if it be
broken or split you must liquefy it anew as before. If, however, it should
remain sound, you will cool it in water, and you cook other (copper) in
the same manner." Biringuccio (iii, 8) in 1540 describes the process
briefly, but omits the poling, an essential in the production of malleable
copper.
[Pg 538][26] Pompholyx and spodos were impure zinc oxides (see note
26, p. 394).
The copper flowers were no doubt cupric oxide. They were used by the
Ancients for medicinal purposes. Dioscorides (v, 48) says: "Of flowers of
copper, which some call the scrapings of old nails, the best is friable; it is
gold-coloured when rubbed, is like millet in shape and size, is moderately
bright, and somewhat astringent. It should not be mixed with copper
filings, with which it is often adulterated. But this deception is easily
detected, for when bitten in the teeth the filings are malleable. It (the
flowers) is made when the copper fused in a furnace has run into the
receptacle through the spout pertaining to it, for then the workmen
engaged in this trade cleanse it from dirt and pour clear water over it in
order to cool it; from this sudden condensation the copper spits and
throws out the aforesaid flowers." Pliny (xxxiv, 24) says: "The flower, too,
of copper (æris flos) is used in medicine. This is made by fusing copper,
and then removing it to another furnace, where the repeated blast
makes the metal separate into small scales like millet, known as flowers.
These scales also fall off when the cakes of metal are cooled in water;
they become red, too, like the scales of copper known as 'lepis,' by use
of which the flowers of copper are adulterated, it being also sold for it.
These are made when hammering the nails that are [Pg 539]made from
the cakes of copper. All these methods are carried on in the works of
Cyprus; the difference between these substances is that the squamae
(copper scales) are detached from hammering the cakes, while the
flower falls off spontaneously." Agricola (De Nat. Fos., p. 352) notes that
"flowers of copper (flos æris) have the same properties as 'roasted
copper.'"
[27] It seems scarcely necessary to discuss in detail the complicated
"flow scheme" of the various minor bye-products. They are all re-
introduced into the liquation circuit, and thereby are created other bye-
products of the same kind ad infinitum. Further notes are given on:—

Liquation thorns Note 28.

Slags " 30.
Ash-coloured copper " 29.
Concentrates " 33.
Cadmia " 32.

There are no data given, either by Agricola or the later authors, which
allow satisfactory calculation of the relative quantities of these products.
A rough estimate from the data given in previous notes would indicate
that in one liquation only about 70% of the original copper came out as
refined copper, and that about 70% of the original lead would go to the
cupellation furnace, i.e., about 30% of the original metal sent to the
blast furnace would go into the "thorns," "slags," and "ash-coloured
copper." The ultimate losses were very great, as given before (p. 491),
they probably amounted to 25% of the silver, 9% copper, and 16% of
the lead.
[28] There were the following classes of thorns:—

1st. From liquation.

2nd. From drying.
3rd. From cupellation.

In a general way, according to the later authors, they were largely lead
oxide, and contained from 5% to 20% cuprous oxide. If a calculation be
made backward from the products given as the result of the charge
described, it would appear that in this case they must have contained at
least one-fifth copper. The silver in these liquation cakes would run about
24 ozs. per ton, in the liquated lead about 36 ozs. per ton, and in the
liquation thorns 24 ozs. per ton. The extraction into the liquated lead
would be about 80% of the silver.
[Pg 540][29] The "ash-coloured copper" is a cuprous oxide, containing
some 3% lead oxide; and if Agricola means they contained two unciae of
silver to the centumpondium, then they ran about 48 ozs. per ton, and
would contain much more silver than the mass.
[Pg 541][30] There are three principal "slags" mentioned—

1st. Slag from "leading."

2nd. Slag from "drying."
3rd. Slag from refining the copper.

From the analyses quoted by various authors these ran from 52% to
85% lead oxide, 5% to 30% cuprous oxide, and considerable silica from
the furnace bottoms. They were reduced in the main into liquation cakes,
although Agricola mentions instances of the metal reduced from "slags"
being taken directly to the "drying" furnace. Such liquation cakes would
run very low in silver, and at the values given only averaged 12 ozs. per
ton; therefore the liquated lead running the same value as the cakes, or
less than half that of the "poor" lead mentioned in Note 17, p. 512, could
not have been cupelled directly.
[Pg 542][31] See Note 16, p. 511, for discussion of yellow and caldarium
copper.
[32] This cadmia is given in the Glossary and the German translation as
kobelt. A discussion of this substance is given in the note on p. 112; and
it is sufficient to state here that in Agricola's time the metal cobalt was
unknown, and the substances designated cadmia and cobaltum were
arsenical-cobalt-zinc minerals. A metal made from "slag" from refining,
together with "base" thorns, would be very impure; for the latter,
according to the paragraph on concentrates a little later on, would
contain the furnace accretions, and would thus be undoubtedly zincky. It
is just possible that the term kobelt was used by the German smelters at
this time in the sense of an epithet—"black devil" (see Note 21, p. 214).
[33] It is somewhat difficult to see exactly the meaning of base (vile)
and precious (preciosum) in this connection. While "base" could mean
impure, "precious" could hardly mean pure, and while "precious" could
mean high value in silver, the reverse does not seem entirely apropos. It
is possible that "bad" and "good" would be more appropriate terms.
[Pg 543][34] The skimmings from the molten lead in the early stages of
cupellation have been discussed in Note 28, p. 539. They are probably
called thorns here because of the large amount of copper in them. The
lead from liquation would contain 2% to 3% of copper, and this would be
largely recovered in these skimmings, although there would be some
copper in the furnace bottoms—hearth-lead—and the litharge. These
"thorns" are apparently fairly rich, four unciae to the centumpondium
being equivalent to about 97 ozs. per ton, and they are only added to
low-grade liquation material.
[Pg 544][35] Particulis aeris tusi. Unless this be the fine concentrates
from crushing the material mentioned, we are unable to explain the
expression.
[36] This operation would bring down a button of antimony under an
iron matte, by de-sulphurizing the antimony. It would seem scarcely
necessary to add lead before cupellation. This process is given in an
assay method, in the Probierbüchlein (folio 31) 50 years before De Re
Metallica: "How to separate silver from iron: Take that silver which is in
iron plechen (plachmal), pulverize it finely, take the same iron or plec
one part, spiesglasz (antimony sulphide) one part, leave them to melt in
a crucible placed in a closed windtofen. When it is melted, let it cool,
break the crucible, chip off the button that is in the bottom, and melt it
in a crucible with as much lead. Then break the crucible, and seek from
the button in the cupel, and you will find what silver it contains."
BOOK XII.
 reviously I have dealt with the methods of
separating silver from copper. There now remains
the portion which treats of solidified juices; and
whereas they might be considered as alien to
things metallic, nevertheless, the reasons why
they should not be separated from it I have
explained in the second book.
Solidified juices are either prepared from waters in which nature or
art has infused them, or they are produced from the liquid juices
themselves, or from stony minerals. Sagacious people, at first
observing the waters of some lakes to be naturally full of juices
which thickened on being dried up by the heat of the sun and thus
became solidified juices, drew such waters into other places, or
diverted them into low-lying places adjoining hills, so that the heat
of the sun should likewise cause them to condense. Subsequently,
because they observed that in this wise the solidified juices could be
made only in summer, and then not in all countries, but only in hot
and temperate regions in which it seldom rains in summer, they
boiled them in vessels over a fire until they began to thicken. In this
manner, at all times of the year, in all regions, even the coldest,
solidified juices could be obtained from solutions of such juices,
whether made by nature or by art. Afterward, when they saw juices
drip from some roasted stones, they cooked these in pots in order to
obtain solidified juices in this wise also. It is worth the trouble to
learn the proportions and the methods by which these are made.
I will therefore begin with salt, which is made from water either salty
by nature, or by the labour of man, or else from a solution of salt, or
from lye, likewise salty. Water which is salty by nature, is condensed
and converted into salt in salt-pits by the heat of the sun, or else by
the heat of a fire in pans or pots or trenches. That which is made
salty by art, is also condensed by fire and changed into salt. There
should be as many salt-pits dug as the circumstance of the place
permits, but there should not be more made than can be used,
although we ought to make as much salt as we can sell. The depth
of salt-pits should be moderate, and the bottom should be level, so
that all the water is evaporated from the salt by the heat of the sun.
The salt-pits should first be encrusted with salt, so that they may not
suck up the water. The method of pouring or leading sea-water into
salt-pits is very old, and is still in use in many places. The method is
not less old, but less common, to pour well-water into salt-pits, as
was done in Babylon, for which Pliny is the authority, and in
Cappadocia, where they used not only well-water, but also spring-
water. In all hot countries salt-water and lake-water are conducted,
poured or carried into salt-pits, and, being dried by the heat of the
sun, are converted into salt.[1] While the salt-water contained in the
salt-pits is being heated by the sun, if they be flooded with great
and frequent showers of rain the evaporation is hindered. If this
happens rarely, the salt acquires a disagreeable[2] flavour, and in this
case the salt-pits have to be filled with other sweet water.
Salt from sea-water is made in the following manner. Near that part
of the seashore where there is a quiet pool, and there are wide,
level plains which the inundations of the sea do not overflow, three,
four, five, or six trenches are dug six feet wide, twelve feet deep,
and six hundred feet long, or longer if the level place extends for a
longer distance; they are two hundred feet distant from one
another; between these are three transverse trenches. Then are dug
the principal pits, so that when the water has been raised from the
pool it can flow into the trenches, and from thence into the salt-pits,
of which there are numbers on the level ground between the
trenches. The salt-pits are basins dug to a moderate depth; these
are banked round with the earth which was dug in sinking them or
in cleansing them, so that between the basins, earth walls are made
a foot high, which retain the water let into them. The trenches have
openings, through which the first basins receive the water; these
basins also have openings, through which the water flows again
from one into the other. There should be a slight fall, so that the
water may flow from one basin into the other, and can thus be
replenished. All these things having been done rightly and in order,
the gate is raised that opens the mouth of the pool which contains
 sea-water mixed with rain-water
or river-water; and thus all of
the trenches are filled. Then the
gates of the first basins are
opened, and thus the remaining
basins are filled with the water
from the first; when this salt-
water condenses, all these
basins are incrusted, and thus
made clean from earthy matter.
Then again the first basins are
filled up from the nearest trench
with the same kind of water, and
left until much of the thin liquid
is converted into vapour by the
heat of the sun and dissipated,
and the remainder is
considerably thickened. Then
their gates being opened, the
water passes into the second
basins; and when it has
A—Sea. B—Pool. C—Gate. D— remained there for a certain
Trenches. E—Salt basins. F—Rake. space of time the gates are
G—Shovel. [Pg 547] opened, so that it flows into the
third basins, where it is all
condensed into salt. After the salt has been taken out, the basins are
filled again and again with sea-water. The salt is raked up with
wooden rakes and thrown out with shovels.

Salt-water is also boiled in pans, placed in sheds near the wells from
which it is drawn. Each shed is usually named from some animal or
other thing which is pictured on a tablet nailed to it. The walls of
these sheds are made either from baked earth or from wicker work
covered with thick mud, although some may be made of stones or
bricks. When of brick they are often sixteen feet high, and if the roof
 rises twenty-four feet high, then
the walls which are at the ends
must be made forty feet high, as
likewise the interior partition
walls. The roof consists of large
shingles four feet long, one foot
wide, and two digits thick; these
are fixed on long narrow planks
placed on the rafters, which are
joined at the upper end and
slope in opposite directions. The
whole of the under side is
plastered one digit thick with
straw mixed with lute; likewise
the roof on the outside is
plastered one and a half feet
thick with straw mixed with lute,
in order that the shed should
not run any risk of fire, and that
it should be proof against rain,
and be able to retain the heat
A—Shed. B—Painted signs. C—First necessary for drying the lumps
room. D—Middle room. E—Third of salt. Each shed is divided into
room. F—Two little windows in the three parts, in the first of which
end wall. G—Third little window in the firewood and straw are
the roof. H—Well. I—Well of placed; in the middle room,
another kind. K—Cask. L—Pole. M— separated from the first room by
Forked sticks in which the porters a partition, is the fireplace on
rest the pole when they are tired. [Pg which is placed the caldron. To
549] the right of the caldron is a tub,
into which is emptied the brine
brought into the shed by the porters; to the left is a bench, on which
there is room to lay thirty pieces of salt. In the third room, which is
in the back part of the house, there is made a pile of clay or ashes
eight feet higher than the floor, being the same height as the bench.
The master and his assistants, when they carry away the lumps of
salt from the caldrons, go from the former to the latter. They ascend
from the right side of the caldron, not by steps, but by a slope of
earth. At the top of the end wall are two small windows, and a third
is in the roof, through which the smoke escapes. This smoke,
emitted from both the back and the front of the furnace, finds outlet
through a hood through which it makes its way up to the windows;
this hood consists of boards projecting one beyond the other, which
are supported by two small beams of the roof. Opposite the fireplace
the middle partition has an open door eight feet high and four feet
wide, through which there is a gentle draught which drives the
smoke into the last room; the front wall also has a door of the same
height and width. Both of these doors are large enough to permit
the firewood or straw or the brine to be carried in, and the lumps of
salt to be carried out; these doors must be closed when the wind
blows, so that the boiling will not be hindered. Indeed, glass panes
which exclude the wind but transmit the light, should be inserted in
the windows in the walls.
They construct the greater part of the fireplace of rock-salt and of
clay mixed with salt and moistened with brine, for such walls are
greatly hardened by the fire. These fireplaces are made eight and a
half feet long, seven and three quarters feet wide, and, if wood is
burned in them, nearly four feet high; but if straw is burned in them,
they are six feet high. An iron rod, about four feet long, is engaged
in a hole in an iron foot, which stands on the base of the middle of
the furnace mouth. This mouth is three feet in width, and has a door
which opens inward; through it they throw in the straw.
The caldrons are rectangular, eight feet long, seven feet wide, and
half a foot high, and are made of sheets of iron or lead, three feet
long and of the same width, all but two digits. These plates are not
very thick, so that the water is heated more quickly by the fire, and
is boiled away rapidly. The more salty the water is, the sooner it is
condensed into salt. To prevent the brine from leaking out at the
points where the metal plates are fastened with rivets, the caldrons
are smeared over with a cement made of ox-liver and ox-blood
 mixed with ashes. On each side
of the middle of the furnace two
rectangular posts, three feet
long, and half a foot thick and
wide are set into the ground, so
that they are distant from each
other only one and a half feet.
Each of them rises one and a
half feet above the caldron.
After the caldron has been
placed on the walls of the
furnace, two beams of the same
width and thickness as the
posts, but four feet long, are
laid on these posts, and are
mortised in so that they shall
not fall. There rest transversely
upon these beams three bars,
three feet long, three digits
wide, and two digits thick,
distant from one another one
A—Fireplace. B—Mouth of fireplace. foot. On each of these hang
C—Caldron. D—Posts sunk into the three iron hooks, two beyond
ground. E—Cross-beams. F—Shorter the beams and one in the
bars. G—Iron hooks. H—Staples. I middle; these are a foot long,
—Longer bars. K—Iron rod bent to and are hooked at both ends,
support the caldron. [Pg 551] one hook turning to the right,
the other to the left. The bottom
hook catches in the eye of a staple, whose ends are fixed in the
bottom of the caldron, and the eye projects from it. There are
besides, two longer bars six feet long, one palm wide, and three
digits thick, which pass under the front beam and rest upon the rear
beam. At the rear end of each of the bars there is an iron hook two
feet and three digits long, the lower end of which is bent so as to
support the caldron. The rear end of the caldron does not rest on
the two rear corners of the fireplace, but is distant from the fireplace
two thirds of a foot, so that the flame and smoke can escape; this
rear end of the fireplace is half a foot thick and half a foot higher
than the caldron. This is also the thickness and height of the wall
between the caldron and the third room of the shed, to which it is
adjacent. This back wall is made of clay and ashes, unlike the others
which are made of rock-salt. The caldron rests on the two front
corners and sides of the fireplace, and is cemented with ashes, so
that the flames shall not escape. If a dipperful of brine poured into
the caldron should flow into all the corners, the caldron is rightly set
upon the fireplace.
The wooden dipper holds ten Roman sextarii, and the cask holds
eight dippers full[3]. The brine drawn up from the well is poured into
such casks and carried by porters, as I have said before, into the
shed and poured into a tub, and in those places where the brine is
very strong it is at once transferred with the dippers into the
caldron. That brine which is less strong is thrown into a small tub
with a deep ladle, the spoon and handle of which are hewn out of
one piece of wood. In this tub rock-salt is placed in order that the
water should be made more salty, and it is then run off through a
launder which leads into the caldron. From thirty-seven dippersful of
brine the master or his deputy, at Halle in Saxony,[4] makes two
cone-shaped pieces of salt. Each master has a helper, or in the place
of a helper his wife assists him in his work, and, in addition, a youth
who throws wood or straw under the caldron. He, on account of the
great heat of the workshop, wears a straw cap on his head and a
breech cloth, being otherwise quite naked. As soon as the master
has poured the first dipperful of brine into the caldron the youth sets
fire to the wood and straw laid under it. If the firewood is bundles of
faggots or brushwood, the salt will be white, but if straw is burned,
then it is not infrequently blackish, for the sparks, which are drawn
up with the smoke into the hood, fall down again into the water and
colour it black.
In order to accelerate the condensation of the brine, when the
master has poured in two casks and as many dippersful of brine, he
 adds about a Roman cyathus
and a half of bullock's blood, or
of calf's blood, or buck's blood,
or else he mixes it into the
nineteenth dipperful of brine, in
order that it may be dissolved
and distributed into all the
corners of the caldron; in other
places the blood is dissolved in
beer. When the boiling water
seems to be mixed with scum,
he skims it with a ladle; this
scum, if he be working with
rock-salt, he throws into the
opening in the furnace through
which the smoke escapes, and it
is dried into rock-salt; if it be not
from rock-salt, he pours it on to
the floor of the workshop. From
the beginning to the boiling and
skimming is the work of half-an-
A—Wooden dipper. B—Cask. C— hour; after this it boils down for
Tub. D—Master. E—Youth. F— another quarter-of-an-hour, after
Wife. G—Wooden spade. H—Boards. which time it begins to condense
I—Baskets. K—Hoe. L—Rake. M— into salt. When it begins to
Straw. N—Bowl. O—Bucket thicken with the heat, he and his
containing the blood. P—Tankard helper stir it assiduously with a
which contains beer. [Pg 553] wooden spatula, and then he
allows it to boil for an hour. After
this he pours in a cyathus and a half of beer. In order that the wind
should not blow into the caldron, the helper covers the front with a
board seven and a half feet long and one foot high, and covers each
of the sides with boards three and three quarters feet long. In order
that the front board may hold more firmly, it is fitted into the caldron
itself, and the side-boards are fixed on the front board and upon the
transverse beam. Afterward, when the boards have been lifted off,
the helper places two baskets, two feet high and as many wide at
the top, and a palm wide at the bottom, on the transverse beams,
and into them the master throws the salt with a shovel, taking half-
an-hour to fill them. Then, replacing the boards on the caldron, he
allows the brine to boil for three quarters of an hour. Afterward the
salt has again to be removed with a shovel, and when the baskets
are full, they pile up the salt in heaps.
In different localities the salt is moulded into different shapes. In the
baskets the salt assumes the form of a cone; it is not moulded in
baskets alone, but also in moulds into which they throw the salt,
which are made in the likeness of many objects, as for instance
tablets. These tablets and cones are kept in the higher part of the
third room of the house, or else on the flat bench of the same
height, in order that they may dry better in the warm air. In the
manner I have described, a master and his helper continue one after
the other, alternately boiling the brine and moulding the salt, day
and night, with the exception only of the annual feast days. No
caldron is able to stand the fire for more than half a year. The
master pours in water and washes it out every week; when it is
washed out he puts straw under it and pounds it; new caldrons he
washes three times in the first two weeks, and afterward twice. In
this manner the incrustations fall from the bottom; if they are not
cleared off, the salt would have to be made more slowly over a
fiercer fire, which requires more brine and burns the plates of the
caldron. If any cracks make their appearance in the caldron they are
filled up with cement. The salt made during the first two weeks is
not so good, being usually stained by the rust at the bottom where
incrustations have not yet adhered.
Although salt made in this manner is prepared only from the brine of
springs and wells, yet it is also possible to use this method in the
case of river-, lake-, and sea-water, and also of those waters which
are artificially salted. For in places where rock-salt is dug, the impure
and the broken pieces are thrown into fresh water, which, when
boiled, condenses into salt. Some, indeed, boil sea-salt in fresh
water again, and mould the salt into the little cones and other
shapes.
Some people make salt by
another method, from salt water
which flows from hot springs
that issue boiling from the earth.
They set earthenware pots in a
pool of the spring-water, and
into them they pour water
scooped up with ladles from the
hot spring until they are half full.
The perpetual heat of the
waters of the pool evaporates
the salt water just as the heat of
the fire does in the caldrons. As
A—Pool. B—Pots. C—Ladle. D— soon as it begins to thicken,
which happens when it has been
Pans. E—Tongs. [Pg 554]
reduced by boiling to a third or
more, they seize the pots with
tongs and pour the contents into small rectangular iron pans, which
have also been placed in the pool. The interior of these pans is
usually three feet long, two feet wide, and three digits deep, and
they stand on four heavy legs, so that the water flows freely all
round, but not into them. Since the water flows continuously from
the pool through the little canals, and the spring always provides a
new and copious supply, always boiling hot, it condenses the
thickened water poured into the pans into salt; this is at once taken
out with shovels, and then the work begins all over again. If the
salty water contains other juices, as is usually the case with hot
springs, no salt should be made from them.

Others boil salt water, and especially sea-water, in large iron pots;
this salt is blackish, for in most cases they burn straw under them.
Some people boil in these pots the brine in which fish is pickled. The
salt which they make tastes and smells of fish.
A—Pots. B—Tripod. C—Deep ladle.
[Pg 555]

Those who make salt by pouring

brine over firewood, lay the
wood in trenches which are
twelve feet long, seven feet
wide, and two and one half feet
deep, so that the water poured
in should not flow out. These
trenches are constructed of
rock-salt wherever it is to be
had, in order that they should
not soak up the water, and so
that the earth should not fall in
A—Trench. B—Vat into which the on the front, back and sides. As
salt water flows. C—Ladle. D— the charcoal is turned into salt
Small bucket with pole fastened into at the same time as the salt
it. [Pg 556] liquor, the Spaniards think, as
Pliny writes[5], that the wood
itself turns into salt. Oak is the best wood, as its pure ash yields salt;
elsewhere hazel-wood is lauded. But with whatever wood it be
made, this salt is not greatly appreciated, being black and not quite
pure; on that account this method of salt-making is disdained by the
Germans and Spaniards.
The solutions from which salt is
made are prepared from salty
earth or from earth rich in salt
and saltpetre. Lye is made from
the ashes of reeds and rushes.
The solution obtained from salty
earth by boiling, makes salt
only; from the other, of which I
will speak more a little later, salt
and saltpetre are made; and
from ashes is derived lye, from
which its own salt is obtained.
The ashes, as well as the earth,
should first be put into a large
vat; then fresh water should be
poured over the ashes or earth,
and it should be stirred for
about twelve hours with a stick,
so that it may dissolve the salt.
Then the plug is pulled out of
the large vat; the solution of salt
A—Large vat. B—Plug. C—Small or the lye is drained into a small
tub. D—Deep ladle. E—Small vat. F tub and emptied with ladles into
—Caldron. [Pg 557] small vats; finally, such a
solution is transferred into iron
or lead caldrons and boiled, until the water having evaporated, the
juices are condensed into salt. The above are the various methods
for making salt. (Illustration p. 557.)

Nitrum[6] is usually made from nitrous waters, or from solutions or

from lye. In the same manner as sea-water or salt-water is poured
into salt-pits and evaporated by the heat of the sun and changed
into salt, so the nitrous Nile is led into nitrum pits and evaporated by