BIOLOGY

SSI BIOLOGY SCHEME OF WORK FOR SECOND TERM

1. Tissues and supporting systems
2. Vertebrate skeleton
3. Supporting tissues in plants
4. A. Nutrition in animals
4. B. Mode of nutrition
5. A. Mammalian teeth
5. B. Enzymes
6. A. Basic ecological concepts

6. B. Components of ecosystem
7. Population studies by sampling method
8. Ecological factors
9. Functioning ecosystem
10. Trophic levels
11. Revision
12. Examination

WEEK 1
Tissues and Supporting Systems
Skeleton
Skeleton is the framework of the body which provides support, shape and protection to the soft
tissues and organs in animals. It forms the central core of human body and it is covered by
muscles and blood vessels and skin.
To carry out life processes, all organisms (plants and animals) need tissues.
Forms of Skeletal Materials
There are three (3) forms of skeletal materials found in animals .These are
1. Chitin
2. Cartilage
3. Bone
Chitin
It is a tough non-living material present in arthropods (invertebrates). It acts as a hard outer
covering to the animal and is made up of series of plates covering or surrounding organisms.
Chitin is very tough, light and flexible. However, it can be strengthened by impregnation with
‘tanned’ proteins and particularly in the aquatic crustaceans like crabs, by calcium carbonate.

Bone
This is the major component of skeletal system and it consist of living cells (osteocytes), protein
fibres (collagen), and minerals such as calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate. These minerals
(the non- living constituent) makes up two-third of a mass of bone .Hence, bone is strong and
very rigid unlike cartilage. Bones are highly vascularised.
The skeleton of a young vertebrate embryo is made up of cartilage. As the embryo grows bone
cells (osteocyte) replaces cartilage cells. Hence, the cartilage tissue becomes hardened into bone
through the addition of minerals in a process called Ossification

Cartilage
This is a tissue present in skeleton of complex vertebrates. Cartilage consists of a hard matrix
penetrated by numerous connective tissue fibres. The matrix is secreted by living cells
called chondroblasts. These later become enclosed in spaces (lacunae) scattered throughout the
matrix. In this condition the cells are termed chondrocytes. It acts as a shock absorber in
between bones during movement because it is tough and flexible with a great tensile strength. It
is found predominantly in mammals and cartilaginous fishes e.g. shark.
Types of Cartilage
Cartilages are of three main types in mammals and they are
Hyaline Cartilage
This contains a dense meshwork is the most common type and can be found on surface of
moveable joint, trachea and bronchi (for ease of respiration) and also in protruding parts of the
nose.
White Fibrous Cartilage
Tougher than the hyaline cartilage and can be found in the intervertebral disc of vertebral
column.
Yellow Elastic Cartilage
Found in the external ear (pinna) and epiglottis (*cartilaginous flap covering the trachea active
during food swallowing).
Differences Between Bones and Cartilage
Bone Cartilage

Bones produce red and Cartilages do

1
white blood cells not

Made up of
Made up of both living
2 mainly living
cells and dead cells
cells.

Cartilage are
3 Bones are often rigid
often flexible

They are made up mainly Mineral

4 of mineral substance such substance are
as calcium absent

Can be
Can never be replaced by
5 replaced by
cartilage
bones

Cartilage both
Flexible only in young in young ones
6
ones and adult is
flexible.

Types of Skeleton
The three main types of skeleton in animals are
1. Hydrostatic skeleton: This is the type present in soft bodied animals e.g. earthworm, sea
anemones etc. Such animal use pressure to support itself. They also have a muscular body wall
which is filled with fluid. The fluid presses against the muscular wall causing them to contract
and exerting force against the fluid.
2. Exoskeleton: This is the outer skeleton present in arthropods. It is secreted by the cells
covering the body of the animals and the main component is chitin (non living substance).
Exoskeleton also supports animals against gravity and enables them to move about. Animals
with these skeleton types periodically shed the old skeleton; grow rapidly in size when the new
exoskeleton is still soft and extensible. The shedding process is called Moulting or Ecdysis
3. Endoskeleton: This is an internal skeleton present in all vertebrates. Endoskeleton of
vertebrates are composed mainly of bones and the bones grow steadily as the animal grows
(hence no need for moulting). Bones of many sizes and shapes make up the endoskeleton of
vertebrates. These bones are attached together as moveable joints by tough flexible fibres called
ligaments hence the skeleton is flexible. Muscles are also attached to the bones usually by
tendons to provide posture and bring about body movement.
Functions of Skeleton
1. It supports the body of organisms.
2. Skeleton acts as the framework of the body
3. Protection of delicate organs e.g. heart, brain, etc.
4. Used for locomotion through the limbs in action.
5. Important component of respiration e.g. breathing involve active movement of the ribs.
6. Production of blood via bone marrows.

WEEK 2
Vertebrate Skeleton
The skeleton of all vertebrates is built on the same basic plan. Each skeleton has:
Axial Skeleton: The axial skeleton is made up of the skull, vertebral column or backbone, the
ribs, and the sternum or breastbone
Appendicular Skeleton: The appendicular skeleton is made up of the limb girdles (pectoral and
pelvic girdles) and the limbs (fore limbs and hind limbs)
The Axial Skeleton
The Skull
The mammalian skull is made up of several flat bones which are joined together by means of
joints called sutures to form three major parts of the skull. These are:
The brain box or cranium which holds or contains the brain
The facial skeleton or snout which supports the nose, eyes and the muscles of the cheek
The jaws which are made up of the upper jaw (maxilla) and lower jaw (mandible) which
contain the teeth.
The Vertebral Column
The vertebral column also known as the backbone, or spinal column is the central supporting
structure of the skeleton. The vertebral column forms the backbone of vertebrates and protects
the spinal cord. In humans, it consists of 33 vertebrae (sing. Vertebra) stacked to form a flexible
column with a central canal for the spinal cord. The vertebrae are separated by discs of fibro-
cartilage but held together by ligaments these invertebrates discs allow the vertebrae to move
slightly, so that the vertebral column can blend backwards and forwards, as well as side ways.
Spinal nerves leave the spinal cord through openings between adjacent vertebrae
The Different Types of Vertebrae
Body Type of Number Number
region vertebra in in
rabbit human
1 Neck Cervical 7 7
vertebra
2 Chest Thoracic 12 12
vertebra
3 Loin Lumber 7 5
vertebra
4 Hip Sacral 3-4 5
vertebra
5 Tail Causal 16 4
vertebra
The Ribs and Sternum
Twelve pairs of ribs and the sternum form the rib cage. In humans, the sternum is a single bone,
while that of rabbits consists of several small bones. The ribs articulate with the thoracic
vertebrae at the back and the and curve to the front attach by means of elastic cartilage, to the
sternum. However, in humans, only the first ten pairs are attached to the sternum (the eighth,
ninth and tenth pair of ribs have a common connection with the sternum, each being attached to
the coastal cartilage of the rib above). The eleventh and twelfth pair are called floating ribs
because they have no connection whatsoever with the sternum.
Typical Vertebra
A typical vertebra has the following structural features
Neural canal: for the passage of the spinal cord.
Neural spine: which projects upward and backward for the attachment of muscle.
Transverse processes: for the attachment of muscles and ligaments.
Centrum: solid bony pieces below the neural canal
Zygapophyses: are the particular surfaces for joining together of successive vertebrae. This
could be pre-zygapophysis (facing inward and upwards) or post-zygapophysis (facing outward
and downwards.
The Appendicular Skeleton
i. Pectoral girdle: found around the shoulder in man and it consists of two halves which
are held by muscles. Each halve is made up of three bones namely;
 Scapula
 Clavicle
 Coracoids
 The scapula and coracoids are fixed together as the scapula is flat and triangular with a
hollow called glenoid cavity at its tip. This cavity articulates or joins with the head of
humerus to form the shoulder joint. The clavicle is a small rod of bone attached to a
ligament joining the sternum to the scapula

ii. Pelvic girdle: This is found around the waist in man and it consists of two halves which
are joined to each other ventrally and to the sacrum dorsally. Each half of the pelvic
girdle is made up of three bones. They are:
 Illium
 Ischium
 Pubis
These three bones form a depression (on their outer surface) called Acetabulum which
articulates with the head of the femur to form the hip joint.
Limbs
The limbs include the fore (upper) and the hind (lower) limbs. In most vertebrates, both limbs
have the same basic plan i.e. each limb has a long bone followed by a pair of two long bones
next to this is a set of small bones terminating with five digits.
a. The fore limbs- This is made up of an upper arm bone called humerus which joins with two
other long bones at its lower end (radius and ulna) to form the elbow joints. Radius and ulna (the
ulna is longer) are the bones of the fore arm, next are the wrist bones called carpals which are a
small bones. These are followed by the digit bones called metacarpals which terminate in the
phalanges (finger bones). In man, each digit has three phalanges except the thumb which has two
phalanges.
b. The Hind Limbs: This is made up of thigh bones called femur (which is the largest and
longest bone in the body). Its round upper end is the end that terminates at two rounded
projections called condyles which forms the knee joint together with tibia. A small flat bone
called patella is found in front of the knee joint. Next to the femur are tibia and fibula. Tibia is
longer and larger. These are followed by bones of the ankle called tarsals. The lower limb
terminates at the digit bone metatarsals and each digit is made up of three phalanges
Joint
A Joint is a place or point or region where two or more bones meet or articulate. Joints allow
movement. The bones meeting at a joint are always held together by strong ligaments which
prevent dislocation during movement. Ligaments join bones to bones.
Types of Joints
There are main types of joints in mammals. These are immovable or fixed joints and movable
joints.
i. Immovable or Fixed Joints: These are joints or regions where two or more bones are
firmly attached to one another or are firmly fixed by ligaments in such a way that
movement of these bones are not possible.
Examples of locations in the body where immovable joints are found are the skull and
pelvic girdle. Immovable joints of the skull are sutures.
ii. Movable Joints: Movable joints are joints where two or more bones meet in such a way
that the bones move over each other, making movement possible. Most of the bones in
the body are held by movable joints
Types of Movable Joints
 Ball and socket joint
 Hinge joint
 Gliding or sliding joint
 Pivot joint
Ball and Socket Joints: These joints allow movement in all plane or directions. This joint is
found in the shoulder and the hip joint. In the shoulder joint, the head of the humerus is a ball-
like structure which fits into the glenoid cavity of the scapula. This allows movement in all
directions. Similarly in the hip joint, the round head of the femur fits into the Acetabulum of the
pelvic girdle to form a freely articulating joint.

Hinge Joints: These joints allow movement in one plane only. Examples of hinge joints are
found in the elbow and knee joints. The elbow joint is found between the humerus and
ulna/radius. Similarly, the knee joint is found between the femur and tibia/fibula. As the name
implies, each set if bones making up the hinge joint functions like one half of a hinge
Hinge joint
Gliding or Sliding Joints: The gliding joints allow the sliding of bones over one another.
Examples of these joints are found at the wrist and ankle. They allow the hand and foot to be
moved up and down or rotated slightly.
Pivot or Rotating Joints: Pivot joints allow nodding or rotation of the body on another. It is
found between the atlas and vertebrae. The odontoid process of the axis acts as a pivot which
allows the rotation of the head on vertebral column. (i.e. the atlas and the skull together rotate
about the odontoid process).
Structure of a Joint
The main parts of a joint consist of the following structures
i. Ligaments: These are tough, partly elastic bands of tissue. They hold two bones
together at a joint. In other words, they join one bone to another. They are able to
accommodate movements at the joints because of their elastic nature
ii. Tendons: These are extension of connective tissues which surround the muscles.
Unlike the ligaments, they are non-elastic in nature. They connect muscles to bones.
iii. Articular Cartilage: These are found at the surface of bones at joints. They play the
role of cushioning the bones by preventing the articulating (touching) surfaces from
being worn out due to friction
iv. Synovial Membrane: This is responsible for the secretion of synovial fluid.
v. Synovial Fluid: This is the fluid secreted by the synovial membrane. It lubricated the
joints and thus reduces shock as well as friction between two bones.
vi. Capsule: This is the space or sac which contains the synovial fluid.

WEEK 3
Supporting Tissues in Plants
Plants do not have to move about to obtain food. So, they do not need a highly developed
skeletal system like animals. However, plants do need supporting tissues to remain upright,
spread out branches and hold their leaves in the best position for trapping sunlight. Plant
generally are known to possess supporting tissues against external forces such as wind and water
to which they are continuously subjected.
Plant tissue can be categorized into: dermal, ground, and vascular tissues. Dermal tissue covers
the outer surface of the plant and includes the epidermis and cuticle. Ground tissue includes
parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma, which are the main photosynthetic and storage
tissues of the plant. Vascular tissue is made up of xylem and phloem, which are responsible for
transporting water, nutrients, and other substances throughout the plant.
Types of Ground and Vascular Tissues in Plants
They include:
1. Paranchyma
2. Collenchyma
3. Sclerenchyma
4. Xylem
5. Phloem
Paranchyma Tissue: This is tissue made up of living unspecialised plant cells.
Location: They are found in the cortex of stem, phloem, root, leaf, mesophyll, storage tissues
and xylem.
Structure: They are composed of cells with large vacuole, relatively thin wall and are roughly
spherical in shape. They are living g cells with cellulose and many are air spaces within them.
Paranchyma tissues is the most common and abundant plant tissue
Functions
1. Their main function is to store food and water and also to synthesize food in leaves
2. When the vacuoles are filled with sap, parenchyma tissue gives firmness and turgidity to
the stems of herbaceous plants
Collenchyma Tissues: These tissues consist of living cells
Location: Collenchyma cells are usually located in the cortex of stems, roots and in the
hypodermis just beneath the epidermis
Structure: The cells of collenchyma tissues are living, elongated and unevenly thickened at the
corners. The cells are flexible and thus allow the bending and twisting strains to which the stem,
roots and leaves of plants are often subjected
Functions
1. Collenchyma cells provide strength and support in young growing plant parts such as
stems, petioles and leaf blades.
2. They give flexibility and resilience to plants ie enable plants to bend without breaking.
Sclerenchyma Tissues: These tissues are composed of two types of cells, fibres and sclereids
Location: They are found mainly in the pericycle in the vascular tissues and vertices of roots and
stems
Structure: They have cells which possess thick walls containing lignin in addition to cellulose
and other substances. Fibres are elongated cells with tapering ends. These helps to provide
strength and flexibility to plants. Sclereids unlike fibres are not two elongated but have great
strength like fibres.
Functions
1. The sclerenchyma (fibres) give flexibility to plants and prevent them from breaking
2. They provide rigidity, hardness and support to plants
Vascular Tissues
Xylem (wood) Tissues: The xylem is a hollow tube-like structure that supports the plant body
and helps in the conduction of water and minerals.
Location: Woods or xylem tissues are found mainly in the vascular tissue of stems, roots and
leaves
Structure: The xylem tissue is made up of
1. Tracheids: These are long and tapered lignified cell in xylem of vascular plants that aid the
passage of water and dissolves mineral salts.
2. Vessels: They have a tube-like appearance and long cylindrical structure formed by the
fusion of several elongated cells which are interconnected and lignified.
3. Fibres: are similar to sclerenchyma fibre. They provide mechanical support to the xylem as
well as the whole plant. They are thick, lignified and dead cells. Water is transported through
xylem fibres.
4. Xylem Parenchyma: These are similar to the parenchyma tissues. They are responsible for
storing the prepared food and assist in the conduction of water
Functions
1. The wood tissue provides support, strength and shape to the plant
2. It is also a conducting tissue as it helps to conduct water and dissolved mineral salts from the
roots to the leaves
Phloem Tissues: Phloem helps in the transportation of food from the leaves to the other parts of
the plant.
Location: The tissues are located within the vascular bundles of all plants be it in the roots,
stems and leaves.
Structure: The Phloem tissues are made up of four cells
1. Sieve Tubes: They are made up of elongated rows of cylindrical cells arranged vertically.
The cells are living and they conduct mainly food.
2. Phloem Parenchyma: These are similar to the parenchyma cells earlier discussed. They
provide strength and support to the plant. The cell also helps in food storage
3. Phloem Fibres: These are special cells which are concerned with the strengthening of the
organs in which they are formed.
4. Companion Cells: They are small and short cells which are vertically elongated like the
sieve tube. They assist in the conduction of food substances
Functions
1. The general function of the Phloem is to conduct manufactured form their area of synthesis to
areas where they are needed.
2. They assist to provide support to the entire plant
Mechanism of Support in Plant
Support in plants is achieved through hardness, rigidity (firmness), flexibility and resilience.
These qualities are due to
 cell wall components and structure;
 turgidity of cells; and
 arrangements of the plant supporting tissues
The entire plant body, be it internal or external part provide the necessary support to plants. The
knowledge of the internal structure of the leaves, stem and roots will assist on the understanding
of the mechanism of support in plant.
1. Epidermis or the Piliferous Layer
• They are outer covering of the leaves, stems (epidermis layer) and roots (piliferous layer)
• They function to protect the inner part of the cells from injury infection and loss of water
2. Cortex
• They are found between the epidermis and vascular bundles of dicotyledonous plants
• They are made up of collenchyma, parenchyma and inner endodermis.
• They function to provide strength and support to plants and also store starch
3. Sclerenchyma
• It consists of dead lignified cells
• It aids in strengthening the stem
4. Vascular Bundles
• They are located at the inner part of the stem
• It consists of the xylem, phloem and cambium
• The cambium brings about secondary thickening in plants, which is responsible for
increasing the size of many tree trunks
5. Pith
• It is the central part of the stem
• It is large and made up of parenchyma and extends between the vascular bundles
Functions of Plant Tissues
1. Supporting tissues provide mechanical strength to plant organs and the rigidity to
withstand external forces
2. It gives the plant shape.
3. They help in providing elasticity and flexibility to the organs
4. They help the tissues bend easily in various part of a plant like leaves, stems and
branches without damaging the plant
5. The xylem and phloem tissues helping the transportation of material throughout the plant.
6. They divide to produce new cells
7. They help in various cellular metabolism like photosynthesis, regeneration, respiration
etc

WEEK 4
Nutrition in Animals
Food Substances
Food substances refer to the materials or substances of food eaten by animals to enable them to
survive and for their daily activities. Animals feed on already made food. This food is made up
of several groups of substances. They are carbohydrates, proteins, fats and oil, mineral salt,
vitamins and water.
Classification of Food Substances
Carbohydrates: these are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They have a general
formula of Cx(H2O)y
Types of Carbohydrates
a. Monosaccharides: They are the simplest sugar and have only one unit of simple sugar.
Examples are glucose, fructose, and galactose.
b. Disaccharides: These contain two units of simple sugars. Examples are sucrose, Maltese
and lactose
c. Polysaccharides: These consist of more than two simple sugars or several sugars joined
together. Examples are starch, chitin, cellulose and glycogen
Proteins: These contain nitrogen in addition to carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They are the
main body building substances necessary for building new cells and replacing worn out tissues.
They are also essential for the formation of enzymes and hormones.
Sources: Animal sources are milk, egg, fish, cheese, meat, and chicken while plant source are
beans, groundnut, soy beans etc
Fats and Oils: They are also known as lipids. They contain a high proportion of carbon and
hydrogen but little oxygen. Fats are solids and oils are liquids at room temperature. They are
hydrolysed during digestion to fatty acid and glycerol which can be absorbed into the lymphatic
system.
Sources: Palm oil, groundnut, soya beans, melon oil, fish etc
Mineral Salts: Animals require various mineral salts for metabolic activities with the body.
Examples of essential mineral salts for animals include: Calcium, Phosphorus, Sodium,
Potassium, Magnesium, Chloride
Vitamins: are organic food substances required by man and other animals only in small amount
for normal growth and healthy development. Inadequacy or lack of these vitamins do lead to
nutritional deficiency in animals generally.
Groups of Vitamins
Vitamins are grouped into two classes.
Fat soluble vitamins eg vitamins A,D,E and K
Water Soluble Vitamins eg vitamin B-complex and vitamin C
Water: This is composed of two elements-hydrogen and oxygen
Source: Water from food, drinking water from rivers, taps, rain and ponds.
Balanced Diet
A balanced diet is one that contains all six classes of food (carbohydrates, proteins, fats,
vitamins, minerals, and water) in the right proportions to meet the body's requirements for
optimal growth, repair, and maintenance.
Modes of Nutrition
Heterotrophic Nutrition
This is the type of nutrition in which organisms cannot manufacture their food but depend
directly or indirectly on plants for their food. These organisms are called heterotrophs. Most
animals, fungi, protozoa and some bacteria belong to this group.
Types of Heterotrophic Nutrition
There are three types of heterotrophic mode of nutrition. They are:
i) Saprotrophic nutrition
ii) Parasitic nutrition
iii) Holozoic nutrition
Saprotrophic nutrition
Sapro means rotten. There are organisms which feed on dead and decaying organic matter for
obtaining their food. These organisms feed on rotting wood of dead and decaying trees, rotten
leaves, dead animals, rotten bread etc. Such organisms are called saprophytes.
Fungi and many bacteria are saprophytes. These saprophytes break down the complex organic
matter from the dead and decaying organic matter into simpler substances outside their body.
These simpler substances are then absorbed by saprophytes.
Parasitic Nutrition
It is that mode of nutrition in which organisms feed on other living organisms, called their host,
without killing them. The organisms which obtain food in a manner are called parasites.
Parasites harm the host, which may be a plant or an animal. Parasites cause diseases to mankind,
domestic animals, and crops. Fungi, bacteria, a few plants like cuscuta (dodder) and some
animals like plasmodium and roundworms undergo parasitic mode of nutrition.
Symbiotic Nutrition: This is the type of nutrition in which two organisms of different species
called symbionts live together and derive nutrients or food from each other. In this case, both
organisms gain from such association and none is harmed. This type of nutrition is called
symbiotic nutrition while the association between the two organisms in which both derive
Holozoic Nutrition
Holozoic is a mode of nutrition in which organisms eat solid food. The food may be a plant
product or animal product. In this process, an organism ingests the complex organic food
material into its body and then digests the food which is then absorbed into the body cells. The
unabsorbed food is thrown out of the body of the organisms by the process of egestion. Man, cat,
dog, bear, giraffe, fog, fish, etc., have holozoic mode of nutrition.
On the basis of food habits animals can be divided into three groups. They are:
i) Herbivores
ii) Carnivores
iii) Omnivores
Herbivores
Herbivores are those animals which eat only plants like grass, leaves, fruits, bark etc. The
examples of herbivorous animals are cow, goat, sheep, horse, camel, deer, etc.
Carnivores
Those animals which eat only other animals are called carnivores. They do not eat plants. Lion,
tiger, frog, vulture, wolf, lizard, etc., are examples of carnivorous animals. Carnivores are meat
eaters.
Omnivores
Those animals which eat both plants and flesh of other animals are called omnivores. Dog, crow,
sparrow, bear, ant, etc., are examples of omnivorous animals.
Feeding Mechanisms in Holozoic Organisms
There are five modifications and mechanisms of feeding associated with some organisms. These
include:
1. Absorbing Mechanisms: eg tapeworm
2. Biting and Chewing Mechanism: eg grasshopper and cockroach
3. Sucking Mechanism: eg mosquitoes, butterflies and house flies
4. Grinding Mechanism: eg mammals
5. Trapping and Absorbing Mechanism: eg insectivorous or carnivorous plants such as
bladder worth and sundew.
WEEK 5
Mammalian Teeth (Dentition)
Dentition refers to the number, arrangement and confirmation of teeth in an organism
Types of Dentition
There are two types of dentition. These are
1. Homodont Dentition: In this type of dentition, the organisms teeth have of the same
type of functions. Examples of homodont dentition are found in fishes, amphibians and
reptiles
2. Heterodont Dentition: In this type of dentition, the organisms possess teeth of different
shapes, sizes and functions. Examples of organisms having heterodont dentition are
mammals eg. Rabbits, man, dog, cattle etc.
Forms of Teeth
Mammals have two sets of teeth. These are milk teeth and permanent teeth.
Milk Teeth: is the set of teeth possessed by the young ones and it is made up of the incisors,
canine, and pre molar teeth. This may number up to twenty and later fall off to be replaced by
the permanent teeth
Permanent Teeth: is the set of teeth possessed by adult mammals and are usually four types.
These are incisors, canine, premolar and molar teeth. They remain to old age and may number
up to 32 in man.
Types of Teeth
There are four types of teeth in mammals. These are incisors, canines, premolars and molars
1. Incisors: They are located in the front of the jaw. They are flat, chisel shaped with a
sharp edge used for cutting and holding on to the prey so that they do not escape.
2. Canines: These are four d next to incisors. They are sharp and pointed at the tip.
Canine are used for tearing flesh and for catching prey.
3. Premolars: These are located at the back of the jaw following the canines. They
have large, ridged flat surfaces or cusps for grinding and chewing of food.
4. Molars:Theu are located at the extreme back of the jaws. They are closely packed
with ridged surfaces. They are used for chewing and grinding of food.
The Structure of a Tooth
A typical tooth such as the canine or incisor is made up of three parts or regions which are the
crown, the neck and the root.
A Vertical Section of a Mammalian tooth
Dental Formula
The dental formula is the formula used to describe the arrangement and the number of each type
of teeth present on one side of the mouth of an animal.
Adaptation of Mammalian Teeth for Feeding
The number and types of teeth present in the jaw of animal is a reflection of special adaptation of
mammalian teeth for feeding.
The Teeth of Man
The dental formula of man is:
i=2/2, c=1/1, m=2/2, p=3/3 = 32
Man is an omnivore i.e. He feeds on both flesh and vegetables and the teeth, 32 in number is
adapted to the kind of diet it feeds on
The Teeth of Dog
The dental formula of dog is:
i=3/3, c=1/1, p=4/4, m=2/3 =44
Dog is a carnivore I.e. feeds on flesh hence its teeth, 42 in number are adapted to the kind of
food it eats
The Teeth of Rabbit
The dental formula of rabbit is:
i=2/2, c=0/0, p=3/2, m=3/2= 28
The rabbit is a herbivore ie it feeds mainly on vegetables hence its teeth, 28 in number is adapted
to the kind of food it eats.
Enzymes
An enzyme is an organic catalyst, usually proteinous in nature, which promotes or speeds up
chemical changes in living cells but are not themselves used up in the process.
Types of Enzymes
There are two major types of enzymes. These are
 i. Intracellular Enzymes: These are enzymes which carry out their functions inside the
living cells of living organisms. Examples are enzymes that catalyse cell respiration
inside the mitochondria
ii. Extracellular Enzymes: These are enzymes which carry out their functions outside the
cell. Examples of extracellular enzymes are the digestive enzymes.
Characteristics of Enzymes
1. Enzymes remain chemically unchanged at the end of a reaction
2. They are specific in action
3. They are required in small quantities
4. Enzymes act best over a specific range of temperature between 35-40⁰C
5. They are denatured at high temperature and inactivated at very low temperature
6. Their action is reversible
7. Some enzymes are inactive and require a co-enzyme/ agent to activate them
8. Enzymes can function outside the body of the organism that produces them
9. They act best at specific pH (either acidic or alkaline)
10. Enzymes action is retarded by poison nor inhibitors
11. Enzymes are protein nature
Classification of Digestive Enzymes
S/ Enzyme Source Location Substrate Effect/
No acted upon product
1 Ptyalin Salivar Mouth Starch Partial
y gland hydrolysis
of starch to
maltose
2 Renin Gastric Stomach Proteins It
gland coagulates
or curdles
milk
3 Pepsin Gastric Stomach Proteins It converts
gland proteins to
peptides
4 Pancreati Pancrea Duodenu Fats and It converts
c lipase s m oils fats and
oils to fatty
acids and
glycerol
5 Amylase Pancrea Duodenu Starch It converts
s m starch to
maltose
6 Trypsin Pancrea Duodenu Proteins/ It converts
s m peptones proteins or
peptones to
amino acids
7 Erepsin Succus Small Polypeptide It converts
entricus intestine s polypeptide
s to amino
 acids
8 Lipase Succus Small Fats and Converts
enteicus intestine oils fats and
oils to fatty
acids and
glycerol
9 Maltase Succus Small Maltose Converts
entricus intestine sucrose to
glucose
10 Sucrase Succus Small Sucrose Converts
entricus intestine sucrose to
glucose and
fructose
Functions of Digestive Enzymes
1. Enzymes help in breaking down proteins in food into amino acids
2. They also help in breaking down fats and oils into fatty acids and glycerol
3. They help in breaking down of carbohydrates into glucose, fructose and galactose
4. They aid the absorption of digested food through the addition of water to the food.

WEEK 6
Basic Ecological Concepts
Ecology is defined as the study of the inter-relationship between living organisms and their
environment
Branches of Ecology
The are two branches of ecology. The are autecology and synecology
Common Terms used in Ecological Studies
1. Environment: The environment include all the factors external and internal, living and
non- living factors which affect an organism
2. Biosphere: The biosphere or ecosphere is the zone of the earth occupied by living
organisms. It is a layer of life which exists on the earth surface. The biosphere is a narrow
zone where complex biological and chemical activities occur. It can be found on land
soil, water and air. It provides habitat for organisms like animals, plants and micro
organisms.
3. Lithosphere: The lithosphere is the solid portion of the earth. It is the outermost layer or
zone of the earth crust. It is made up of rocks and mineral materials, and it also represents
30% of the earth surface. The outermost layer of the landmass is made up of loose rock
materials like gravel , sand and soils, Lithosphere forms the basis of all human
settlement.
4. Hydrosphere: Hydrosphere is the liquid or aquatic part of the earth or living world. It
covers about 70% or c of the earth’s crust. It holds water in various forms – solid (ice),
liquid ( water) and as gases (water vapour). Examples of hydrosphere are lake, pools,
spring, ocean or sea, ponds, oasis, rivers, and streams
5. Atmosphere: The atmosphere is the gaseous portion of the earth. It is a layer of gases
surrounding fhe earth. Over 99% of the atmosphere lies within 30 km of the earth
surface. It contains 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen , 0.03% carbon dioxide and 0.97 rare or
inert gases.
 6. Habitat: Habitat is defined as a place or home, within an environment where an
organism naturally lives or dwells. Habitat is also defined as an area occupied by a biotic
community. In other words, habitat is any environment in which an organisms. For
example , the habitat of the fish is water. The various types of habitats are aquatic habitat
( i.e live in water ) such as rivers , lakes, ponds, streams, lagoons, seas, oceans and
terrestial habitat (live on land) e.g savanna forest and desert.
7. Ecological niche: Ecological niche refers to the specific portion of a habitat which is
occupied by a particular species or organism. Every organism is adapted to a specific
place, and plays a role in that community e.g, it feeds on some organisms/ serves as food
for others, it derives/ obtains nutrients from its habitat/ returns nutrients to its habitat, it is
either a producer or a consumer. The sum total of all these roles for any given organism is
referred to as its ecological niche. For example , a caterpillar and an aphid which live on
the same plant occupy different positions or ecological niches on the plant. The
caterpillar lives mainly on the leaves and feeds on them while the Aphid lives on the
young shoot and sucks sap from it. Although both organisms live on the same habitat,
each has its own living space and source of food
8. Population: Population is defined as the total number of organisms of the same species
living together in a given area at a given time for example, the total number of tilapia fish
in a pond constitutes the population of tilapia fish in that habitat.
9. Community: This refers to a group of plants and animals that occupy a given area and
are adaptable to the conditions of their environment. They are interdependent , i.e depend
on one another and can continue to live successfully and reproduce new offspring
10. Ecosystem: This is a community of living organisms in conjunction with non-living
components interacting as a system.
Components of an Ecosystem
The components of an ecosystem can be divided into biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living)
Biomes
The biomes are the world’s major communities classified according to the predominant
vegetation because plants form the bulk of the community.
Local Biotic Communities or Biomes in Nigeria
The local biotic communities in Nigeria are grouped into two. They are: forest and Sahara zones
a. Forest Zone: The forest zone is made up of vegetation having mainly trees and consists
i. Mangrove swamp forest (salt and fresh water) These are found in the tropics along
coastal region and river mouths. Mangrove swamps are forest of small, evergreen, broad-leaved
trees growing in shallow, brackish water or wet soil. Many mangrove trees have pop roots and
breathing roots called pneumatophores. The climate here is hot and wet, with total annual rain
fall of above 250cm and temperature of about 260c. In Nigeria, mangrove swamps are found in
the delta region of Lagos, Delta, Rivers, Bayelsa and Cross rivers states.
ii. Tropical rain forest: This occurs in the region that is between the equator and latitude
50-100N and S. It has the following characteristics:
 The forest are mainly lowland.
 The climate is hot and wet.
 It consists of broad leaved trees that are mostly ever green; the leaves are gradually shed
throughout the year and replaced by new ones.
 The trees form canopy strata with their interior having low light intensity, high humidity
and damp floor.
 The trees possess thin bark.
 The forest is rich in epiphytes and wood climbers.
 The annual rainfall and temperature are 200cm and 270c respectively.
In Nigeria, tropical rainfall is found in Edo, Delta, Ondo, Imo, Lagos, Rivers state e.t.c.
b. Savannah: This zone is made up of grasses and it is further subdivided into three
Savannah belt or biotic communities which are:
i. South Guinea savanna (the largest of all the biomes in Nigeria) has tall grasses with
scattered, deciduous trees. It is found in Enugu, Kogi, Benue, Kwara, Oyo, Osun, Ekiti State etc.
ii. Northern Guinea Savannah Northern Guinea Savanna has scattered, deciduous trees,
sometimes with thorns and tick barks. Grasses are short and numerous. it is found in plateau,
Kaduna, Bauchi, Niger, Kano, Adamawa states etc.
iii. Sahel savannah Sahel savanna has high temperature and low rainfall with short and
scanty grasses as well as short and tough shrubs or trees. The plants are drought-resistant. It is
found in Borno, Kastina, Sokoto, Yobe, Kano, Jigawa states etc.
Local Biotic communities
Major Biomes of the World
The major biomes of the world eg Africa:
1. Tropical rainforest: These are characterized by
 Needle-leaved evergreen conifers such as pines, firs.
 Possessing few trees.
 Possessing tall tree forming upper storey.
 The forest floor being covered with a thick layer or conifer needles.
 Possessing cool temperature climate with light rainfall and snow.
2. Savannah: This is a tropical grassland with:
 scattered trees and often infertile soil
 moderately dry climate with a warm dry season and a hot rainy season
3. Desert: This has:
 very sparse vegetation, with succulent perennials that have deep root systems.
 tropical temperate and afro-alpine regions with less than 25 cm annual
4. Shrub: This is characterized by:
 treeless marshy vegetation composed mainly of dwarf shrubs, grasses, lichen and moss
with very few plant trees.
  cold climate with long icy winter and very short summer with an average temperature of
100c
5. Afro-alphine: This has:
 evergreen rainforest on slopes of mountain, these forest are less luxuriant than the
tropical rainforest.
 Afro alpine vegetation occurs at heights above 3000m on mountain, vegetation consists
mainly of heath, grasses and sedges.

WEEK 7
Population
Population is the total number of organisms of the same species living in a particular habitat at a
given time. In population studies of a habitat, the following are investigated;
1. Types (species) of organisms that are present
2. Dominant species (Dominance): these are the most commonly or frequently occurring
organisms in that community or habitat, for example in Savanna biome, grasses are the most
dominant plant while tall trees are dominant in rain forest biome.
3. The characteristic feature of each population.
Characteristics of a population
Characteristics of a population include: population size, frequency, density, percentage cover and
distribution (growth rate and dispersal)
Population size
The size of a population affects the survival of a given species in that habitat. A small population
may be wiped out easily by events such as fire outbreak or diseases while a large population
stands a better chance of surviving dangers and unfavourable conditions.
Frequency
This simply means how often the species occurs at different sites in its habitat.
Density
Population density is the average number of individuals of a species per unit area of the habitat.
Density = population size/area of habitat.
Percentage cover
 Percentage cover is the area of ground covered or occupied by a given species in that habitat
Distribution
This refers to the way in which individuals of a particular population are spread or arranged in a
given habitat. The species may be clumped, evenly distributed or randomly spaced.
Conducting population studies
Population of a place is always changing be it that of plants and animals. It is therefore very
difficult to count the number or estimate the population of organisms in a given habitat by
counting them one by one. In order to eliminate this difficulty, a method known
as SAMPLING is used. In random sampling, several small areas of the habitat are selected and
necessary investigations are conducted on such areas. Here quadrat is used.
Quadrat is a rectangular or square frame made from thick wire. The quadrat is thrown at random
several times into a measured plot of land and at each landing, the area covered by it is noted.
The plants and animals enclosed at each throw is noted and their numbers recorded, the average
number of times each species appeared is calculated and the most frequent or dominant species is
then determined.
To determine the density of a particular species in a habitat, the following steps are taken:
a. Frequency of an organism: this is the total number of times an organism occurs in all the
quadrat’s throws (say for instance 100 times)
b. Number of tosses/throws, say 20 times
Therefore, average number of organisms per quadrat toss
= frequency/number of tosses
i.e 100/20= 5
If the area of habitat is 1.00m2
Population density = average frequency/area of habitat
= 5/1= 5perm2
Major steps taken in studying plants and animals in a given community
i. Select a particular area in a community and demarcate it
ii. Select equipment/tools/apparatus to be used
iii. Measure ecological factors in that habitat
iv. Count/collect the specimens of each species present
v. Note the distribution of specimen
vi. Identify the specimens
vii. Preserve the specimens if necessary
Apart from quadrat sampling, other methods that can be used to estimate a population
include: transect method and Capture-recapture method.
Transect method
In this method, a measuring tape which has been marked at convenient intervals is stretched
across the area. The plants encountered at the interval marks are recorded. This is repeated a few
times. A fairly accurate estimate of the number and types of plants in the area can be made using
this method.
Capture-recapture method
This method is used to estimate animal populations. Animals of the same species in an area are
caught, counted (A1), marked and released. The next day the same number of animals are caught
(A2) and recorded. At the same time the number of marked animals (A3) from the previous day,
that were found in this sample are also counted and recorded. The population of animals present
in the area is found by the formula:
Population=A1 X A2/A3
Assuming 200 Tilapia fish (A1) are captured in a pond
The next day 200 Tilapia fish (A2) were also caught. This 200 fishes included 40 that were
marked on the first day, i.e A3=40
The total number of Tilapia fish population is 200x200/40= 1000

Some instruments used in investigating animal life

1. Butterfly/sweep net: This is made of mosquito net and used to skim the surface of the water
for collecting surface specimens. Flying insects such as butterfly can also be captured with this

net.
2. Traps: Commercial traps are used in capturing many animals including small mammals and
nocturnal animals. Attractive baits are included when setting such traps.
3. Tullgren funnel: This is fitted with wire gauze for collecting soil organisms from soil
samples. The soil sample is placed on the gauze and heated by lighted bulb. As the animals move
away from the heat, they drop into the container of alcohol below the funnel and are collected.
4. Plankton net: This is made of fine cloth/net with fine mesh for collecting tiny
organisms/planktons from aquatic habitats e.g pool, pond, lakes, streams, seas etc. The net is
slowly trailed in water. Plankton accumulates at its tip as the water is filtered.
5. Fish trap: Has two large opening which tappers towards the center. Fishes that get in, swim
towards the center and are trapped.
6. Pooter: Is used to collect small insects, spider and other invertebrates from leaf litter, tree
trunks and crevices of rocks and wall surfaces. This can be used by pointing the collecting tube
towards tree trunks/rock. Then suck through the mouth piece.

Simple Measurement of Ecological Factors

Ecological factors affect living things in the habitat. These factors influence plant and animal
distribution and their mode of life in the various habitats. These factors are specifically measured
using some equipment otherwise called Measuring Instruments
Some instruments used for measuring various factors in a habitat and the procedure for
using them
Instrument Ecological Procedur
factor e for
using it
Thermometer Temperature Hang it in
the
atmospher
e/soil for
some time
and read
the
temperatu
re
Waxed-bulb thermometer Temperature of A waxed-
water bulb
thermome
ter is tied
to a string
knotted at
regular
intervals.
Take the
reading of
the
temperatu
re of
water at
different
depths
Rain guage Quantity of Leave the
rainfall rain guage
in a
suitable
place in
the
ground,
free from
shade/tree
s. After
rainfall,
read the
level of
water in
the
cylinder
daily,
weekly or
monthly
and then
calculate
with the
formula
given
below
D/d2 x
h=rainfall
in cm for
time/perio
d
Where D=
diameter
of
collecting
cylinder,
d=
diameter
of funnel
mouth, h=
height of
rain water
in
cylinder
Anemometer Wind speed Set up in a
convenien
t
place/free
of
obstacle.
Observe
the
speed/rate
of rotation
shown in
metres per
second(m/
s)
Wind vane Wind direction The pole
bearing
the wind
vane is
erected in
an
exposed
place free
from trees
and tall
buildings.
As the
wind
blows, the
arrow
rotates
freely and
indicates
the
direction
of the
wind
Light meter/photometer in Light intensity Expose to
terrestrial habitat, in aquatic sunlight.
habitat(hydro-photometer) Take
reading
pH indicator/colorimeter Acidity or Place
alkalinity some soil
sample/wa
 ter in a
crucible
containing
some
indicators
and leave
for 1-2
minutes.
Compare
its colour
with the
chart
supplied
with the
indicator
Barometer Atmospheric Expose to
pressure habitats.
Take
readings

Hygrometer Relative Swirl

humidity several
times.
Take
readings

Secchi disc Turbidity/ Lower a

transparency of weighed
water white disc
into water
 with
graduated
cord.
Record
the depth
at which
the disc
disappear
from sight
and the
depth at
which it
reappears
again.
Record
the
average of
the two
depths in
centimetre
s (cm)
Hydrometer Water density Put inside
water.
Allow to
stand and
take
reading

Metre rule/height metre Depth of water, Place it to

height/distance cover the
required
distance.
Take
reading
WEEK 8
Ecological Factors
Ecological factors are those factors in the environment which can influence living organisms or
cause changes in any habitat whether aquatic or terrestrial habitat.
Ecological factors are grouped into two categories namely: biotic and abiotic factors
Biotic Factors: The biotic factors are made up of the effects of plants and animals on a given
organism. Examples of biotic factors are:
Competition, parasitism, commensalism, predation, pathogens, mortality, migration, dispersal,
natality, food, disease, pests
Abiotic Factors: The abiotic factors comprise the following
1. Climate Factors: These are temperature, rainfall, wind, sunlight or sunshine, humidity etc.
2. Chemical Factors: These are made up of oxygen, carbon iv oxide, mineral salts, water and
nitrogen
3. Edaphic Factors: These consist of soil, its water, chemical and physical compositions, its
nutrient profile, structure and texture.
4. Topographic Factors: These are caused as a result of the shape of the earth’s surface eg
effects of rivers, hills, mountains and valleys.
Importance of Competition, Pathogens and Water in Population Growth
A. Competition
• Limited space, food/other nutrients lead to competition
• Organisms in a population that are unable to compete successfully for food and other nutrients
die (i.e survival of the fittest)
• Leading to reduction in the size of population/structural changes in the
population/migration/dispersal
B. Pathogens
• These are harmful disease causing organisms
• Which kill other organisms in a population
• An attack by pathogens lead to a reduction in the size of population, development of resistant
ones/individuals/strains
• Disease-free population multiplies/grows rapidly
C. Water
• Water is needed by all organisms in a population for metabolism, for growth in the population.
• Lack of water leads to death of organisms in a population or emigration, thereby leading to a
reduction in the size of the population
• Excess water can also be dangerous to the organisms/cause floating/drowning/water logging;
leading to reduction in the population size.
Relationship between Soil Types and Water Effects of Soil on Vegetation
Soil could be defined as the upper surface which is important for the growth of plants. It could
also be defined as the most outer layer of the earth’s crust in which plants are normally fixed by
their roots. Soil is formed during weathering of rocks by extremes of temperature, wind, rainfall,
snow and frost.
Composition of soil
The soil is made up of the following:
1. Rock particles
2. Humus (organic matter)
3. Air
4. Water
5. Mineral salt
6. Living organisms
Types of soil
Soils are of various types, and the common ones in Nigeria include:
1. Loamy soi
2. Sandy soil
3. Clay/ clayey soil
Loamy Soil: Characteristic features of loamy soil include:
1. Loamy soil retains the adequate amount of water needed by plants. It has enough air spaces for
the respiration of roots. It provides the richest quantity of plans nutrients
2. It is the best for agricultural purposes/crop production because of its combination of good
physical properties of sand with chemical properties of clay
3. It has large particles of intermediate sizes, mixed with some sand and clay
4. It consists of humus, coarse and fine soil particles.
Sandy Soil: the characteristic features include:
i. It has plenty of air spaces needed for the respiration of roots
ii. Large air spaces prevent retention of rain water; it also encourages the washing away of soil
nutrients
iii. It does not support luxuriant vegetation
iv. It has large rock particle. The spoil is loose, light and easy to work on
v. It dries up quickly in hot weather
vi. Sand particles are sharp to feel when rubbed between palms or fingers
vii. Water is not easily absorbed and does not rise to a high level at capillarity
viii. It is not fertile but can be improved by adding manure.
Clayey Soil: characteristic features are:
i. It has very little air spaces, this makes it very difficult for plants to respire properly
ii. It is very compacted because of fine particles
iii. It is water-logged, wet and difficult to work on
iv. There is poor growth of plant in this soil
v. It does not drain water well
vi. Water can rise to high level by capillarity
vii. It is hard when dry and can crack; when wet it is sticky and can be moulded into various
shapes
Experiment to show variations of water retention activities of the soil types
Aim: to compare porosity and water-holding capacity of various soil types
Method: Get three calibrated measuring cylinder. Plug the neck of the filter funnel with cotton
wool and place over each of the measuring cylinder. Put equal weight of the soil samples into
each of the funnel. Pour equal volume of water (say 80cm 3) on the soil samples. Leave the set up
until water stops dripping from the funnels. Determine the amount of water by taking the reading
at the cylinder. Record your observations.

Results: The observations are tabulated below;

Type of Volume of Volume of Volume of
soil water added water drained water
retained
Sandy 50cm3 X cm3 50cm3-Xcm3
Loamy 50cm3 Y cm3 50cm3-Ycm3
Clay 50cm3 Z cm3 50cm3-Zcm3
From the results, it would be observed that clay retains most of its water while more volume of
water is collected in the measuring cylinder carrying sandy soil. It shows that clay retains more
water than the other two, while loamy soil retains more water than sandy soil.
Conclusion: Sandy soil is more porous than loamy soil, and loam is more porous than clay

WEEK 9
Functioning Ecosystem
Autotrophy
This simply refers to the process whereby certain organisms (green plants) use sunlight or
chemicals to manufacture their food from inorganic substances through a process called
photosynthesis
Autotrophs
These are organisms (green plants and some bacteria) which can use sunlight or chemicals to
manufacture their food from inorganic substances during the process of photosynthesis. In order
words, autotrophs are organisms capable of synthesizing their own food hence are called
producers
Producers
A producer is a green plant or autotroph which traps the energy of sunlight, radiant energy or
solar energy and converts it to chemical energy in order to form organic compounds and
photosynthesis using CO2 and water or simple inorganic substances as raw materials. It forms the
starting point or origin of every food chain.
Autotrophs provide food for the other organisms (heterotrophs) in the habitat.
Aquatic Examples of Autotrophs
The aquatic autotrophs includes the following
Phytoplankton, water hyacinths, sea weeds, algae, cyanobacteria
Terrestrial Examples of Autotrophs
Terrestrial examples of autotrophs includes the following
Grasses, trees, shrubs
Heterotrophy
This refers to the process or situation where certain organisms such as animals cannot
manufacture their food but depend directly or indirectly on plants for their food
Heterotrophs
These are organisms, mainly animals, which manufacture their food but depend directly or
indirectly on plants for food, hence they are called consumers. Animals that feed directly on
plants are called herbivores or primary consumers. While animals that feed on the primary
consumers are called carnivores or secondary consumers. Animals that feed on the secondary
consumers are called tertiary consumers. Heterotrophs include all animals, carnivorous plants,
fungi, most protists and some bacteria
Consumer
This is an organism which derives its nutrients, energy and food eating plants directly or
indirectly. In other words, it is an organism which depends on other organisms for food, energy
and nutrients. All consumers are heterotrophs and they lack chlorophyll. They are either animals
that derive their nutrients, food and energy from eating plants directly (eg cow, goat, sheep) and
are called herbivores or primary consumers or they are other animals (eg cats, hyenas, lions,
leopards) that eat herbivores and thus derive energy indirectly from the producers. These are
called carnivores or secondary consumers
Consumers are heterotrophs that feed on other organisms. They include all holozoic organisms
such as herbivores, carnivores, decomposers and parasites
Examples of Consumers in Terrestrial Ecosystem
Some examples of consumers or heterotrophs in a terrestrial ecosystem are Caterpillar, cow, dog,
lizard, toad, lion, man etc
Examples of Consumers in Aquatic Ecosystem
Some examples of consumers in an aquatic ecosystem are tadpole, larvae of insects, water fleas
and fishes
Decomposers
These are fungi or bacteria which live saprophytically or feed on dead remains of plants, animals
and organisms, leading to or breaking down organic matter to produce soluble nutrients which
are absorbed by plants. Decomposers are organisms that feed on dead organisms and other
decaying organic materials. Decomposers help to break down dead organic matter and release
simple chemical compounds which plants can absorb and use again. Other examples of
decomposers are insects such as termites and larvae of house fly.