Temperature Sensors

Temperature Sensors
 This device collects information about temperature from a source and converts into a
form that is understandable by other device or person.
 The best illustration of a temperature sensor is mercury in glass thermometer. The
mercury in the glass expands and contracts depending on the alterations in temperature. The
outside temperature is the source element for the temperature measurement. The position
of the mercury is observed by the viewer to measure the temperature.
 Temperature is the most-measured process variable in industrial automation. Most
commonly, a temperature sensor is used to convert temperature value to an electrical
value. Temperature Sensors are the key to read temperatures correctly and to control
temperature in industrials applications.
 Temperature Sensors
There are two basic types of temperature sensors:
 Contact Sensors – This type of sensor requires direct physical contact with the object
or media that is being sensed. They supervise the temperature of solids, liquids and
gases over a wide range of temperatures.
 Non contact Sensors – This type of sensor does not require any physical contact with
the object or media that is being sensed. They supervise non-reflective solids and
liquids but are not useful for gases due to natural transparency. These sensors use
Plank’s Law to measure temperature. This law deals with the heat radiated from the
source of heat to measure the temperatures.

Where M is the specific radiation in W/(m2*sr*µm), T the

thermodynamic temperature in Kelvin, λ the wave length and
the constants defined in ITS-90 as c1=3.741832*10-
16 W*m2 and c =1.438786 *10-2 m*K.
2
 Temperature Sensors
Thermostat

 The Thermostat is a contact type electro-mechanical temperature sensor or switch, that

basically consists of two different metals such as nickel, copper, tungsten or
aluminium etc, that are bonded together to form a Bi-metallic strip. The different linear
expansion rates of the two dissimilar metals produces a mechanical bending movement when
the strip is subjected to heat.
 The bi-metallic strip can be used itself as an electrical switch or as a mechanical way of
operating an electrical switch in thermostatic controls and are used extensively to control hot
water heating elements in boilers, furnaces, hot water storage tanks as well as in
vehicle radiator cooling systems.

 The thermostat consists of two thermally different

metals stuck together back to back. When it is cold
the contacts are closed and current passes through
the thermostat. When it gets hot, one metal expands
more than the other and the bonded bi-metallic strip
bends up (or down) opening the contacts preventing
the current from flowing.
 Temperature Sensors
(i) Thermocouple – They are made of two wires (each of different homogeneous alloy or
metal) which form a measuring junction by joining at one end. This measuring junction is
opened to the elements being measured. The other end of the wire is terminated to a
measuring device where a reference junction is formed. The current flows through the circuit
since the temperature of the two junctions are different. The resulted milli-voltage is
measured to determine the temperature at the junction.
(ii)Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD) – These are types of thermal resistors that are
fabricated to alter the electrical resistance with the alteration in temperature.
(iii)Thermistors – They are another kind of thermal resistor where a large change in resistance
is proportional to small change in temperature.
 Thermistor
The Thermistor is another type of temperature sensor, whose name is a combination of
the words THERM-ally sensitive res-ISTOR. A thermistor is a special type of resistor
which changes its physical resistance when exposed to changes in temperature.

Thermistor
Thermistors are generally made from ceramic materials such as oxides of nickel, manganese
or cobalt coated in glass which makes them easily damaged. Their main advantage over
snap-action types is their speed of response to any changes in temperature, accuracy and
repeatability.
Most types of thermistor’s have a Negative Temperature Coefficient of resistance or (NTC), that
is their resistance value goes DOWN with an increase in the temperature, and of course
there are some which have a Positive Temperature Coefficient, (PTC), in that their resistance value
goes UP with an increase in temperature.
Thermistors are constructed from a ceramic type semiconductor material using metal oxide
technology such as manganese, cobalt and nickel, etc. The semiconductor material is
generally formed into small pressed discs or balls which are hermetically sealed to give a
relatively fast response to any changes in temperature.
Similar to the RTD, the
thermistor is a temperature
sensing device whose resistance
changes with temperature.
Thermistors, however, are made
from semiconductor materials
Thus, in the thermistor’s
operating range we can see a large
resistance change for a very small
temperature change. This makes
for a highly sensitive device, ideal
for set-point applications.
 RTD
 Another type of electrical resistance temperature sensor is the Resistance Temperature
Detector or RTD. RTD’s are precision temperature sensors made from high-purity conducting metals
such as platinum, copper or nickel wound into a coil and whose electrical resistance changes as a
function of temperature, similar to that of the thermistor. Also available are thin-film RTD’s. These devices
have a thin film of platinum paste is deposited onto a white ceramic substrate.

A Resistive RTD
 Resistive temperature detectors have positive temperature coefficients (PTC) but unlike the thermistor
their output is extremely linear producing very accurate measurements of temperature.
 However, they have very poor thermal sensitivity, that is a change in temperature only produces a very small
output change for example, 1Ω/oC.
 The more common types of RTD’s are made from platinum and are called Platinum Resistance
Thermometer or PRT‘s with the most commonly available of them all the Pt100 sensor, which has a
standard resistance value of 100Ω at 0oC. The downside is that Platinum is expensive and one of the main
disadvantages of this type of device is its cost.
 Like the thermistor, RTD’s are passive resistive devices and by passing a constant current through the
temperature sensor it is possible to obtain an output voltage that increases linearly with temperature. A
typical RTD has a base resistance of about 100Ω at 0oC, increasing to about 140Ω at 100oC with an
operating temperature range of between -200 to +600oC.
The RTD is a temperature sensing
device whose resistance changes with
temperature.
To measure the resistance across an
RTD, apply a constant current, measure
the resulting voltage, and determine the
RTD resistance.
We use a resistance vs. temperature plot
to determine the temperature of the
surrounding medium. RTDs exhibit fairly
linear resistance to temperature curves
over their operating regions, and any
nonlinearities are highly predictable and
repeatable.
Basis For Comparison RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) Thermistor

Definition The device use for measuring the change in It is a thermal resistor whose resistance
temperature is known as the RTD or Resistance changes with the temperature.
Temperature Detector.

Symbol

Material Metals (platinum, nickel, copper, etc.) Semiconductor,

It has a positive temperature coefficient. most of them thermistor have a negative
temperature coefficient
Their accuracy is high. It can detect even small
Accuracy Less accurate. changes in temperature because of negative
temperature coefficient.
Response Time Slow Fast
Temperature Range -230°C to 660°C -60°C to 130°C
Characteristic Graph Linear Non-linear
Sensitivity Low High
Size Large Small
Cost Cheap Expensive
Resistivity High Low
Hysteresis Effect Low High
Applications In industries for measuring large temperature. For measuring the temperature of home
RTD is used for measuring the large variation in appliances. Thermistor can detect the small
temperature changes in temperature.
 Thermocouple
The Thermocouple is by far the most commonly used type of all the temperature sensor types.
Thermocouples are popular due to its simplicity, ease of use and their speed of response to changes in
temperature, due mainly to their small size. Thermocouples also have the widest temperature range of all
the temperature sensors from below -200oC to well over 2000oC.
Thermocouples are thermoelectric sensors that basically consists of two junctions of dissimilar
metals, such as copper and constantan that are welded or crimped together. One junction is kept at a
constant temperature called the reference (Cold) junction, while the other the measuring (Hot) junction.
When the two junctions are at different temperatures, a voltage is developed across the junction which is
used to measure the temperature sensor.
The operating principal of a thermocouple is very simple and basic. When fused together the junction of
the two dissimilar metals such as copper and constantan produces a “thermo-electric” effect which gives a
constant potential difference of only a few millivolts (mV) between them. The voltage difference
between the two junctions is called the “Seebeck effect” as a temperature gradient is generated
along the conducting wires producing an emf. Then the output voltage from a thermocouple is a
function of the temperature changes.
If both the junctions are at the same temperature the potential difference across the two junctions is zero
in other words, no voltage output as V1 = V2. However, when the junctions are connected within a circuit
and are both at different temperatures a voltage output will be detected relative to the difference in
temperature between the two junctions, V1 – V2. This difference in voltage will increase with temperature
until the junctions peak voltage level is reached and this is determined by the characteristics of the two
dissimilar metals used.
In addition to a variety of materials and sizes, there is a wide selection of colors. Each
color corresponds to a particular thermocouple type. In duplex wire the red colored
insulation is always on the NEGATIVE lead. The positive lead will be color coded as
will the outer sheath material.
 Various thin film based approaches

Generally, TFS comprises thin metallic films (e.g., platinum, nickel, silver, gold,
copper, etc.) topped over the surface of insulating, ceramic substrates (e.g., pyrex,
macor, quartz, etc.). However, these sensors can be made from any conductive
material.
In order to qualify as a TFS, a sensor/gauge must obey the “semi-infinite gauge”
theory. The theory states that the ratio of film thickness to substrate thickness
should be such that, during the experimental run time, the heat does not have
sufficient time to penetrate throughout the substrate.
These sensors are very apt for such measurements because of their sufficiently
short response time that is made possible by the small thickness of the films and
because they bear a linear relationship between film resistance and temperature.
Hence, a change in temperature is sensed through a change in the film resistance,
which can later be used to calculate back the amount of heat experienced by the
gauge.
A better thermal/electrical conductivity of the film ensures a conductivity of the
film ensures a better prediction of heat flux, especially in intricate cases where the
amount of heat.
 Various thin film based approaches

An efficient thin film temperature sensor

utilizing chemical vapor deposited carbon
nanotube (CNT) film as the sensing
element on Si substrates, with diamond-like
carbon (DLC):Ni as a catalyst in assisting
CNT growth.
 The fabricated sensor showed good
electrical response with change in temperature.
Relative linear change in resistance of 18.4% for
an increase in temperature from 22oC to
200oC was achieved.
 Temperature coefficient of resistance of
the sensor was calculated as 1.03x10-3/oC.
 The as-grown CNT film to be used as an Sarma et al. Sensors (doi.org/10.3390/s18103182)
active sensing material in thin film temperature
sensors. However, Ni is used this time
instead of Ag because it offers the
dual purpose of catalyzing CNT.
 Various thin film based approaches

 A multilayer (Ti/Pt/Cr/Au) resistive

temperature sensor was fabricated by direct
current (DC) sputtering, vacuum evaporation
process.
 The temperature sensor maintains good
thermal response and its resistivity exhibits
a positive and highly linear temperature
dependence.
 The temperature coefficient of resistance
(TCR) is 1466x10-6 oC-1.

Jie-Jun Wang et al. RARE METALS(DOI: 10.1007/s12598-019-01301-7)

 Selection Criteria of Temperature Sensors
Thermocouple RTD Thermistor Thin Film
Temperature Range -270 – 2000°C -250 – 6900°C -100 – 160°C -55 – 150°C
Accuracy ±0.5°C ±0.01°C ±0.1°C ±1°C
Sensitivity ? 10µV/°C 0.00385 ?/?/°C (Pt) Several ?/ ?/°C -2mV/°C
Ruggedness Larger the gauge of Quite susceptible to Hermetic thermistors housed As rugged as an IC in plastic
wire, more is the breakage due to in glass, not affected by shock package like a DIP.
ruggedness vibration or vibration
Responsiveness Tres<1s 1s<Tres<10s 1s<Tres<5s 4s<Tres<60s
(test conditions)
Output Voltage Resistance Resistance Digital/Current/Voltage
Cost $1 to $50 $25 to $1000 $2 to $10 $1 to $10

Almost everything in this world and universe hangs in place with a delicate balance. Life on
earth was founded because the temperature was just right. Our body’s temperature needs to be
regulated, or else the enzymes might malfunction. The temperature of the oceans gets a little
higher, the Carbon Dioxide dissolved in it would get back into the atmosphere, causing more
warming. Air Conditioning works because we can actually measure temperature and take
corrective action. Electronic circuits perform optimally in a specific range of temperature.
Though temperature sensors might not be able to ensure taste, but can definitely ensure that
your meal is cooked just fine. No wonder temperature is so important that it has been defined
as one of the fundamental physical quantities of science. Hence, the importance of temperature
sensors cannot be undermined.
 Challenges
• Cost: Thin film sensors can be more expensive to produce compared to other types due to
the specialized manufacturing processes.
• Fragility: The thin film layers can be delicate, making them susceptible to mechanical damage
or stress.
Overall, thin film temperature sensors are highly specialized components offering great
precision and responsiveness in various demanding applications. Their ability to be integrated
into small or complex systems makes them a valuable choice in modern technology.
 Future aspect of temperature sensors

The future of temperature sensors is likely to be shaped by several emerging trends and technological
advancements. Here are some key aspects and potential developments:

1. Advanced Materials
•Nanomaterials: The use of nanomaterials, such as graphene or carbon nanotubes, could lead to
sensors with enhanced sensitivity, faster response times, and greater durability.
•Smart Materials: Development of smart materials that can change their properties in response to
temperature changes could lead to more versatile sensors with integrated functionalities.

2. Integration with IoT and Smart Systems

•Connectivity: Temperature sensors will increasingly be integrated with the Internet of Things (IoT),
allowing for real-time monitoring and data collection from various environments. This will enable
better remote management and predictive maintenance.
•Data Analytics: Advanced data analytics and machine learning algorithms will be used to interpret
temperature data more effectively, providing actionable insights and improving system efficiency.

3. Miniaturization and Flexibility

•Flexible Electronics: Advances in flexible and wearable electronics will allow for temperature
sensors that can confirm to irregular surfaces or be integrated into textiles. This will be useful in fields
like health monitoring and smart clothing.
•Microfabrication: Continued miniaturization will lead to sensors that can be embedded into even
smaller devices, including microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) and nanoscale applications.
 Future aspect of temperature sensors

4. Enhanced Accuracy and Precision

•High-Resolution Sensors: Future sensors will offer even higher resolution and accuracy, benefiting
applications that require precise temperature measurements, such as medical diagnostics and high-
performance electronics.
•Self-Calibrating Sensors: Development of self-calibrating sensors could reduce the need for manual
calibration and improve long-term accuracy and reliability.

5. Environmental and Extreme Conditions

•Durability: Improved materials and designs will enhance the ability of sensors to withstand harsh
environments, such as extreme temperatures, high pressures, and corrosive substances.
•Biocompatibility: In medical and biological applications, sensors will increasingly need to be
biocompatible, ensuring safety and effectiveness in contact with biological tissues.

6. Cost Reduction and Accessibility

•Mass Production: Advances in manufacturing technologies and materials could lower production
costs, making advanced temperature sensors more accessible and affordable for a wider range of
applications.

Overall, the future of temperature sensors will be marked by enhanced capabilities, greater integration
with advanced technologies, and wider application across various fields. These advancements will drive
innovation and create new opportunities for improved monitoring, efficiency, and functionality.