THERMISTOR

A thermistor is a resistance thermometer, or a resistor whose resistance is dependent on

temperature. The term is a combination of “thermal” and “resistor”. It is made of metallic
oxides, pressed into a disk or cylindrical shape and then encapsulated with an impermeable
material such as epoxy or glass.
There are two types of thermistors: Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) and Positive
Temperature Coefficient (PTC). With an NTC thermistor, when the temperature increases,
resistance decreases. Conversely, when temperature decreases, resistance increases. This type
of thermistor is used the most.
A PTC thermistor works a little differently. When temperature increases, the resistance
increases, and when temperature decreases, resistance decreases. This type of thermistor is
generally used as a fuse.
The thermistor symbols are:

Figure 1: Thermistor Symbol

The arrow by the T signifies that the resistance is variable based on temperature.
HOW DOES THE THERMISTOR “READ” TEMPERATURE?
A thermistor does not actually “read” anything, instead the resistance of a thermistor changes
with temperature. The resistance change depends on the type of material used in the
thermistor. Unlike other sensors, thermistors are nonlinear.
Principle of operation and working:
1. Thermistors follow the principle of decrease in resistance with increasing temperature.
2. The material used in thermistor is generally a semiconductor material such as a sintered
metal oxide (mixtures of metal oxides, chromium, cobalt, iron, manganese and nickel) or
doped polycrystalline ceramic containing barium titanate (BaTiO3) and other compounds.
3. As the temperature of semiconductor material increases the number of electrons able to
move about increases which results in more current in the material and reduced resistance.
4. Thermistors are rugged and small in dimensions. They exhibit nonlinear response
characteristics.

Construction: Thermistors are available in the form of a bead (pressed disc), probe or
chip. Figure below shows the construction of a bead type thermistor. It has a small bead of
dimension from 0.5 mm to 5 mm coated with ceramic or glass material. The bead is
connected to an electric circuit through two leads. To protect from the environment, the leads
are contained in a stainless steel tube.

Applications of Thermistors
• To monitor the coolant temperature and/or oil temperature inside the engine
• To monitor the temperature of an incubator
• Thermistors are used in modern digital thermostats
• To monitor the temperature of battery packs while charging
• To monitor temperature of hot ends of 3D printers
• To maintain correct temperature in the food handling and processing industry equipments
• To control the operations of consumer appliances such as toasters, coffee makers, refrigerators,
freezers, hair dryers, etc.
Thermocouple:
Thermocouple is a temperature sensing device which is based on the SEEBACK effect.
SEEBACK Effect: Seebeck Effect is a phenomenon in which a temperature difference
between two dissimilar electrical conductors or semiconductors produces a voltage difference
between the two substances.
A Thermocouple is a sensor used to measure temperature. Thermocouples consist of two wire
legs made from different metals. The output of the thermocouple is in Millivolts.
The wires legs are welded together at one end, creating a junction. This junction is where the
temperature is measured. When the junction experiences a change in temperature, a voltage is
created. The voltage can then be interpreted using thermocouple reference tables.

Type of Thermocouple:
Applications of Thermocouples
1. To monitor temperatures and chemistry throughout the steel making process
2. Testing temperatures associated with process plants e.g. chemical production and petroleum
refineries
3. Testing of heating appliance safety
4. Temperature profiling in ovens, furnaces and kilns
5. Temperature measurement of gas turbine and engine exhausts
6. Monitoring of temperatures throughout the production and smelting process in the steel, iron
and aluminum industry

Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

Principle of working: An RTD is a temperature sensor which measures temperature

using the principle that the resistance of a metal changes with temperature. In practice, an
electrical current is transmitted through a piece of metal (the RTD element or resistor) located
in proximity to the area where temperature is to be measured. The resistance value of the
RTD element is then measured by an instrument. This resistance value is then correlated to
temperature based upon the known resistance characteristics of the RTD element.

RTD Materials:
PT100 Temperature Sensor: Most common devices used in industry have a nominal
resistance of 100 ohms at 0 °C and are called Pt100 sensors ("Pt" is the symbol for platinum,
"100" for the resistance in ohms at 0 °C).

Why RTD is a better Choice: If we want to measure temperature with high accuracy, an
RTD is the ideal solution, as it has good linear characteristics over a wide range of
temperatures.

Construction of RTD:
1. Figure shows the construction of a RTD. It has a resistor element connected to a
Wheatstone bridge.
2. The element and the connection leads are insulated and protected by a sheath(protective
covering around an electric cable).
3. A small amount of current is continuously passing though the coil.
4. As the temperature changes the resistance of the coil changes which is detected at the
Wheatstone bridge.
5. RTDs are used in the form of thin films, wire wound or coil.

• Two wire RTD: 2-wire construction is the least accurate of the 3 types since
there is no way of eliminating the lead wire resistance from the sensor measurement.
 2-wire RTD’s are mostly used with short lead wires or where close accuracy is not
required.
Measured resistance Rt = R1 + R2 + Rb

Three Wire RTD:

3-wire construction is most commonly used in industrial applications where the third wire
provides a method for removing the average lead wire resistance from the sensor
measurement. When long distances exist between the sensor and measurement /control
instrument, significant savings can be made in using a three wire cable.

(R 1+2+R b ) - (R 2+3) = (R b )
The 3 wire circuit works by measuring the resistance between #1 & #2 (R 1+2) and subtracting
the resistance between #2 & #3 (R 2+3) which leaves just the resistance of the RTD bulb (R b).
This method assumes that wires 1,2 & 3 are all the same resistance.
Advantages and limitations of RTDs:
RTDs have the following advantages: they provide a good sensitivity, a good reproducibility,
and a good stability. They also provide a high accuracy, some platinum RTDs being able to
measure a few thousandths of a degree.
However, RTDs are relatively expensive, and they have a slower response time than
thermocouples. Moreover, the measurement accuracy of RTDs is dependent upon the thermal
stability of the resistors and power supply used in the Wheatstone bridge.

Night Vision Technology

Night Vision Technology: Originally developed for the military use, night vision technology
allows one to see in the dark. We humans have poor night-vision compared to many animal
species. But now with proper equipment we can see a person standing far away on a
moonless cloudy night!
Today in the 21st century we have come a long way in developing night vision technology
since it’s discovery. It is used mainly for defence purposes, as the law often prohibits its
application within scientific or civilian ranges.
Working principle: Night vision technology works in two different ways, namely Image
Intensification and Thermal Imaging.
Image intensification: This method basically involves ambient light implication. It works by
being able to detect low levels of light and then amplify it. When photons( tiny energy
packets that make up light) enter an image enhancer they first hit a layer called a photo
cathode which releases electrons. These electrons hit a second layer called a micro channel
plate which multiplies the electrons before they hit the phosphor screen which converts them
back into light because there are now so many more electrons that we get a brighter image.
But this model fails if there isn’t enough light for the thermal enhancers to see at all.
Thermal Imaging: This approach requires capturing the upper portion of the infrared light
spectrum emitted as heat energy by objects instead of being simply reflected as light.
Temperature is detected by capturing the different levels of IR radiation. Although we cannot
see the light in the dark, but it can be felt as heat provided the intensity is high enough. But
thermal imaging has many disadvantages: too costly, image formed is of poor quality and we
cannot see the target objects if there are transparent obstacles in our field of view.
All objects emit infrared energy (heat) as a function of their temperature. The infrared energy
emitted by an object is known as its heat signature. In general, the hotter an object is, the
more radiation it emits. A thermal imager (also known as a thermal camera) is essentially a
heat sensor that is capable of detecting tiny differences in temperature. The device collects
the infrared radiation from objects in the scene and creates an electronic image based on
information about the temperature differences. Because objects are rarely precisely the same
temperature as other objects around them, a thermal camera can detect them and they will
appear as distinct in a thermal image.
Thermal images are normally greyscale in nature: black objects are cold, white objects are
hot and the depth of grey indicates variations between the two. Some thermal cameras,
however, add colour to images to help users identify objects at different temperatures.

Hall Effect:
If an electric current flows through a conductor in a magnetic field, the magnetic field exerts
a transverse force on the moving charge carriers which tends to push them to one side of the
conductor .The equation of the force can be given by the Lorentz force and direction by
Fleming's left hand rule. This is most evident in a thin flat conductor. A buildup of charge at
the sides of the conductors will balance this magnetic influence, producing a measurable
voltage between the two sides of the conductor. The presence of this measurable transverse
voltage is called the Hall effect after E. H. Hall who discovered it in 1879.

Position measurement using Hall effect Sensor:

The Hall sensor is used in some automotive fuel level indicators. The main principle of
operation of such indicator is position sensing of a floating element. This can be done by
using a vertical float magnet. In a vertical float system a permanent magnet is mounted on the
surface of a floating object. The current carrying conductor is fixed on the top of the tank
lining up with the magnet. When the level of fuel rises, an increasing magnetic field is
applied on the current resulting in higher Hall voltage. As the fuel level decreases, the Hall
voltage will also decrease. The fuel level is indicated and displayed by proper signal
condition of Hall voltage.

Keyboard switch using Hall Effect Sensor:

Hall Effect switches for computer keyboards were developed in the late 1960s at Honeywell.
Due to high manufacturing costs these keyboards were often reserved for high-reliability
applications such as aerospace and military.

Advantages
• A Hall Effect sensor may operate as an electronic switch.
• Such a switch costs less than a mechanical switch and is much more reliable.
• It can be operated at higher frequencies than a mechanical switch.
• It will not be affected by environmental contaminants since the sensor is in a sealed
package. Therefore, it can be used under severe conditions.
 Proximity Sensors
A proximity sensor is a non-contact sensor that detects the presence of an object (often
referred to as the “target”) when the target enters the sensor’s field. Depending on the type of
proximity sensor, sound, light, infrared radiation (IR), or electromagnetic fields may be
utilized by the sensor to detect a target. Proximity sensors are used in phones, self-driving
cars, anti-aircraft systems, and assembly lines. There are many types of proximity sensors,
and they each sense targets in distinct ways. The two most commonly used proximity sensors
are the inductive proximity sensor and the capacitive proximity sensor.
Inductive Proximity sensors:
An inductive proximity sensor can only detect metal targets. This is because the sensor
utilizes an electromagnetic field. When a metal target enters the electromagnetic field, the
inductive characteristics of the metal change the field’s properties, thereby alerting the
proximity sensor of the presence of a metallic target. Depending on how inductive the metal
is, the target can be detected at either a greater or shorter distance.

FIG: Inductive Proximity sensors

Schematic of Inductive Proximity sensors:

Construction and Working:

An inductive proximity sensor has four components;
1. The coil at sensing face
2. Oscillator
3. Detection circuit or signal evaluator like Schmitt trigger
4. Output circuit or amplifier
An alternating current is supplied to the coil which generates a magnetic field. When, a metal
object comes closer to the end of the coil, inductance of the coil changes and small
independent electrical currents called eddy currents are induced on the metal’s surface.
This changes the natural frequency of the magnetic circuit, which in turn reduces the
oscillation amplitude. The detection circuit responds to these amplitude changes, and adjusts
sensor output. When the target (metal object) finally moves out from the sensor’s range, the
circuit begins to oscillate again, and the detection circuit returns the sensor to its previous
output.
Applications of inductive proximity switches:
Industrial automation: counting of products during production or transfer
Security: detection of metal objects, arms, land mines.
Capacitive Proximity sensors:
Capacitive proximity sensors, on the other hand, are not limited to metallic targets. These
proximity sensors are capable of detecting anything that can carry an electrical charge.
Capacitive sensors are commonly used in liquid-level detection. Possible targets for
capacitive sensors include but are but not limited to: glass, plastic, water, wood, metals, and a
myriad(larger count) of targets of other materials.

FIG: Capacitive Proximity sensors

Working:
1. In capacitive sensors, the two conduction plates (at different potentials) are placed in the
sensing head and positioned to operate like an open capacitor. Air acts as an insulator.
2. At rest there is little capacitance between the two plates.
3. Like inductive sensors, these plates are linked to an oscillator, a detection circuit, and an
output amplifier.
4. As a target enters the sensing zone the capacitance of the two plates increases, causing
oscillator amplitude change, in turn changing the detection circuit (Schmitt trigger) state, and
creating an output signal.
Because capacitive sensing involves charging plates, it is somewhat slower than inductive
sensing. Due to their ability to detect most types of materials, capacitive sensors must be kept
away from non-target materials to avoid false triggering. For this reason, if the intended
target contains a ferrous material, an inductive sensor is a more reliable option.

Flow Sensor
Flow measurement methods rely on forces produced by the flowing stream. Flow may be
measured by measuring the velocity of fluid over a known area. For very large flows, tracer
methods may be used to deduce the flow rate from the change in concentration of a dye or
radioisotope.
Ultrasonic Flow Meter:
The ultrasonic flow meter is of two types:
1.Transit time flow meter:
Transit time ultrasonic flow meters send and receive ultrasonic waves between transducers in
both the upstream and downstream directions in the pipe. At no flow conditions, it takes the
same time to travel upstream and downstream between the transducers. Under flowing
conditions, the upstream wave will travel slower and take more time than the (faster)
downstream wave. When the fluid moves faster, the difference between the upstream and
downstream times increases. The transmitter processes upstream and downstream times to
determine the flow rate.
Applications of Transit Time Flow Meter:
Transit time flow meter have wide applicability for flow measurement of clean or ultra-pure
streams.Some of the applications include:
• Clean water flow rate in water treatment plants.
• Hot or cold water in power plants.
• Pure and ultra-pure fluids in pharmaceutical, food and beverage industries.
• Water distribution systems used in agriculture and irrigation.
Advantages of Transit Time Flow Meters:
• The main advantage of the transit time flow meter is, that it works non-invasively
with clean and ultra-pure fluids. This allows the user to maintain the integrity of the
fluid while still measuring the flow.
• Easy installation-transducer set clamps onto pipe.
• Zero pressure drop.
• No leakage potential.
• Insensitive to liquid temperature, viscosity, density or pressure variations.
Disadvantages of Transit Time Flow Meters:
• The transit time flow meter performance can suffer from pipe-wall interference,
accuracy and repeatability problems can result if there is any Space Gap between the
fluid and pipe wall.
• The transit time flow meters will not operate on dirty, bubbly, particulate-ladden
fluids. Sometimes, the purity of a fluid may fluctuate so as to effect the accuracy of
the flow measurement.

Doppler flow meters

Doppler Effect:
The Doppler effect is observed whenever the source of waves is moving with respect to an
observer. The Doppler effect can be described as the effect produced by a moving source of
waves in which there is an apparent upward shift in frequency for observers towards whom
the source is approaching and an apparent downward shift in frequency for observers from
whom the source is receding. Doppler effect was first documented in 1842 by an Austrian
physicist Christian Doppler. Daily we experience the Doppler effect. It is the distinct tone
change from a passing train whistle or the exhaust from a race car. We hear this tone change,
or Doppler effect, only because we are stationary and the sound transmitter – the train or the
race car – is in motion.
Doppler flow meters: Doppler flow meters use the principal that sound waves will be
returned to a transmitter at an altered frequency if reflectors in the liquid are in motion. This
frequency shift is in direct proportion to the velocity of the liquid. It is precisely measured by
the instrument to calculate the flow rate. So the liquid must contain gas bubbles or solids for
the Doppler measurement to work. ultrasonic Doppler flow meter measures flows of liquids
containing suspended particles or aerated liquids. The suspended particles must reflect
ultrasonic energy.

Features of ultrasonic Doppler flow meter:

• It is suitable for pipe sizes ranging from 25 to 4000mm.
• For dirty liquids, a certain amount of air bubbles or suspended solids shall be
contained.
• Excellent low flow rate measurement ability, low to 0.05m/s.
• A wide range of flow measurement, high flow rate can reach 12m/s
Advantages of Doppler Flow Meter:
• Easy installation and removal.
• No moving parts to wear out.
• Works well with dirty or corrosive fluids.
• No leakage potential.
• Insensitive to liquid temperature, viscosity, density or pressure variations.
Disadvantages of Doppler Flow Meter:
• The main disadvantage of the doppler flow meter is the fact that the liquid stream
must have particulates, bubbles, or other types of solids in order to reflect the
ultrasonic signal. This means that the doppler flow meter is not a good choice for the
water and very clean fluids.
• The another disadvantage is that the accuracy can depend on particle-size distribution
and concentration and also on any relative velocity that may exist between the
particulates and the fluid. if there are not enough particulates available, the
repeatability will degrade.
 Optical Flow Meter
A relatively recent development in industrial flow measurement is Optical flow meter which
uses light to measure the velocity of a fluid through a pipe.One such technology referred to as
Laser-Two-Focus (L2F) uses two laser beams to detect the passage of any light-scattering
particles carried along by the moving fluid.

Where,
v = Velocity of particle
d = Distance separating laser beams
t = Time difference between sensor pulses
As a particle passes through each laser beam, it redirects the light away from its normal
straight line path in such a way that an optical sensor (one per beam) detects up the scattered
light and generates a pulse signal.
As that same particle passes through the second beam, the scattered light excites a second
optical sensor to generate a corresponding pulse signal.The time delay between two
successive pulses is inversely proportional to the velocity of that particle.
This technique is analogous to the that used by law-enforcement officers to measure the
speed of a vehicle on a highway when viewed from an aircraft: measure how much time
elapses as the vehicle passes between two marks on the road spaced a known distance from
each other.
Flow meters of course rely on the continual presence of light-scattering particles within the
fluid. These particles could be either liquid droplets or solids within a gas stream, or they
could be solid particles or bubbles in a liquid stream.

Level Sensor
Liquid level sensors are termed as the sensors used for detecting liquid levels or interfaces
between liquids such as water and oil or solids and liquids. These sensors can also be defined
as transducers or as integrated systems with instrumentation and control capabilities. This
type of liquid level sensor is one of the most important sensors and plays a vital role in
variety of industrial and consumer applications.
Industrial applications include liquid-level sensing in transport tanks, storage tanks and water
treatment tanks, and also in the petrochemical industries for sensing liquids such as petrol,
diesel and other fuels. Liquid level measurement is significant in household applications
including electronic devices such as, water dispensers, water evaporators, steamers,
monitoring system of boilers, heating systems, washing machines, steam irons, juice
squeezers, automated-coffee machines, etc. Level sensors are designed for specific
applications compared to general applications.
Level Detection and Measurement by Using Capacitance Sensor:
Capacitance level sensors are made available for wide range of solids, aqueous(watery),
organic liquids and slurries. This technique is frequently stated as the radio-frequency signals
applied to a capacitance circuit. The capacitive sensors are designed to sense material with
dielectric constants as low as 1.1 for coke and fly ash, and as high as 88 for water or other
liquids.

Capacitive Sensor
Principle of operation:
The principle of capacitive level measurement is based on the change of capacitance. A
simple capacitor consists of two electrode plates separated by a small thickness of an
insulator such as solid, fluid, gas, or vacuum.
There are two plates in capacitive sensor: An insulated electrode acts as one plate and the
tank wall acts as another plate. The capacitance depends on the liquid level. An empty tank
has low capacitance while a filled tank has higher capacitance.
The Value of C depends on dielectric constant used, area of the plate and also on the distance
between the plates.
C= E (KA/d)
Where: C = Capacitance in Pico farads (pF), E = a constant known as the absolute
permittivity of free space, K = Relative dielectric constant of the insulating material, A =
Effective area of the conductors, d = Distance between the conductors
Working:
1. The measurement of liquid level is done by applying a Radio Frequency signal
between the conductive probe and the tank wall.
2. The Radio Frequency signal results in a very-low current which flows through the
dielectric material in the tank from the probe to the tank wall.
3. If the liquid level in the tank drops, then the dielectric constant decreases, which leads
to the drop in capacitance reading as well as drop in current flow.
4. This change can be detected by the liquid-level switch’s internal circuitry.

Advantages:
1.Easy installation
2. Broad application range
3. Good accuracy
4. Suitable for variety of applications and highly recognized and well -proven technology.
Capacitance Sensor Application:
Capacitance level sensor probes are used for measuring the levels of:
• Fluids
• Liquid metals at very-high temperature range
• Dissolved gases at very-low level of temperature
• Very-high density industrial processes.
Ultrasonic Level Sensor:
Sonic is the sound we can hear. Ultrasonic is the sound above human hearing range. Human
can hear maximum up to a frequency of 20 KHz. Ultrasonic frequencies are above 20 KHz.
Ultrasonic waves are used to measure level of liquids and solid objects in industries.
Ultrasonic level measurement is contactless principle and most suitable for level
measurements of hot, corrosive and boiling liquids. The normal frequency range used for
ultrasonic level measurements is within a range of 40 to 200 KHz.
Principle of ultrasonic level measurement:
Ultrasonic waves detect an object in the same way as Radar does it. Ultrasonic uses the sound
waves, and Radar uses radio waves. When ultrasonic pulse signal is targeted towards an
object, it is reflected by the object and echo returns to the sender. The time travelled by the
ultrasonic pulse is calculated, and the distance of the object is found. Ultrasonic level
measurement principle is also used to find out fish positions in ocean, locate submarines
below water level, also the position of a scuba diver in sea.

Principle of ultrasonic level measurement:

An ultrasonic level transmitter is fixed at the top of a tank half filled with liquid. The
reference level for all measurements is the bottom of the tank. Level to be detected is marked
as “C”, and “B” is the distance of the ultrasonic sensor from the liquid level. Ultrasonic pulse
signals are transmitted from the transmitter, and it is reflected back to the sensor. Travel time
of the ultrasonic pulse from sensor to target and back is calculated. Level “C” can be found
by multiplying half of this time with the speed of sound in air. The measuring unit final result
can be centimeters, feet, inches etc.
Level = Speed of sound in air x Time delay / 2
Practical system design problems of Ultrasonic Level Transmitter:
• The above principle of measurement looks quite straightforward and true only in
theory. In practice, there are some technical difficulties which are to be taken care to
get correct level reading.
 • Velocity of sound changes due to the variation of air temperature. An integrated
temperature sensor is used to compensate for changes in velocity of sound due to
temperature variations.
• There are some interference echoes developed by the edges, welded joints etc. This is
taken care by the software of the transmitter and called interference echo suppression.
• Calibration of the transmitter is crucial. Accuracy of measurement depends on the
accuracy of calibration. The Empty distance “A” and measurement span “D” is to be
ascertained correctly for inclusion in calibration of the transmitter.
• The transient characteristics of the sensor will develop a Blocking distance as shown
in Fig. Span “D” should never extend to the blocking distance.
Advantages of Ultrasonic Level Transmitter:
Ultrasonic level transmitter has no moving parts, and it can measure level without making
physical contact with the object. This typical characteristic of the transmitter is useful for
measuring levels in tanks with corrosive, boiling and hazardous chemicals. The accuracy of
the reading remains unaffected even after changes in the chemical composition or the
dielectric constant of the materials in the process fluids.
Limitations of Ultrasonic Level Transmitter:
Ultrasonic level transmitters are the best level measuring devices where the received echo of
the ultrasound is of acceptable quality. It is not so convenient if the tank depth is high or the
echo is absorbed or dispersed. The object should not be sound absorbing type. It is also
unsuitable for tanks with too much smoke or high density moisture.