The document discusses the impact of noise and interference on measurement systems, differentiating between deterministic and random signals. It outlines sources of noise, including internal and external factors, and describes tools for measuring noise levels and characteristics. Additionally, it presents methods for reducing noise effects, such as shielding, filtering, and modulation techniques.
The document discusses the impact of noise and interference on measurement systems, differentiating between deterministic and random signals. It outlines sources of noise, including internal and external factors, and describes tools for measuring noise levels and characteristics. Additionally, it presents methods for reducing noise effects, such as shielding, filtering, and modulation techniques.
The document discusses the impact of noise and interference on measurement systems, differentiating between deterministic and random signals. It outlines sources of noise, including internal and external factors, and describes tools for measuring noise levels and characteristics. Additionally, it presents methods for reducing noise effects, such as shielding, filtering, and modulation techniques.
The document discusses the impact of noise and interference on measurement systems, differentiating between deterministic and random signals. It outlines sources of noise, including internal and external factors, and describes tools for measuring noise levels and characteristics. Additionally, it presents methods for reducing noise effects, such as shielding, filtering, and modulation techniques.
Assistant Professor, EEE, CUET Source: a) Principles of Measurement Systems by John P. Bentley b) Principles of Electrical Measurement by S Tumanski c) Internet 1.0: Effect of Noise and Interference on Measurement Circuits Deterministic Signal and Random Signal A deterministic signal is one whose value at any future time can be exactly predicted. Thus if we record these signals for an observation period 𝑇𝑜, the future behaviour of the signal, once the observation period is over, is known exactly. A random, or stochastic signal is characterised by its lack of predictability. Unlike a deterministic signal whose value at any instant is known, the value of a random signal at any instant is not known and cannot be predicted from a knowledge of values at other past instants. If a random signal (for example noise signal) is recorded for an observation period 𝑇𝑜 the behaviour of the signal, once the observation period is over, is not known exactly. However, five statistical quantities – mean, standard deviation, probability density function, power spectral density and autocorrelation function – are used to estimate the behaviour of random signals.
2.0 Noise Sources and Coupling Mechanisms to External Sources
2.1 Noise Sources
Noise is any unwanted or interfering signal that affects the quality and reliability of digital communication systems. It can originate from various sources, both internal and external. Internal noise Internal noise is the noise that is generated within the components, such as amplifiers, transmitters, receivers, or wires. It is mainly caused by the random motion of electrons or other particles in the circuit, which produces thermal noise or Johnson-Nyquist noise. It can also be caused by the imperfect operation of switches, resistors, capacitors, or other devices, which produces shot noise or flicker noise. Internal noise is usually white noise, meaning that it has a constant power spectrum across all frequencies. External noise and Interference Sources External noise is the noise that comes from outside the communication system, such as natural phenomena or human activities. It can be classified into two types: natural noise and man-made noise. Natural noise is the noise that is produced by natural sources, such as lightning, solar flares, cosmic rays, or atmospheric turbulence. It can affect the communication system by inducing electromagnetic interference (EMI) or radio frequency interference (RFI) in the wires or antennas. Man-made noise is the noise that is produced by artificial sources, such as power lines, motors, generators, or other electronic devices. It can also affect the communication system by inducing EMI or RFI, or by creating intentional or unintentional jamming signals. 2.2 Noise measurement tools Noise measurement tools are instruments or software used to analyze and monitor the noise level and characteristics. Common examples include spectrum analyzers, which measure the frequency and amplitude of a signal and noise, displaying them as a spectrum or graph; oscilloscopes, which measure the voltage and time of a signal and noise, displaying them as a waveform or plot; signal generators, which produce a known signal with specific frequency, amplitude, and shape to test the system’s response or performance; and noise generators, which produce a known noise with a specific power spectrum to test the system’s sensitivity or robustness.
2.3 Coupling mechanisms
I. Inductive coupling
Figure 4.69: The interferences connected to the amplifier by induction
Figure 6.8(a)
II. Capacitive coupling
Figure 4.68. The interferences by the capacitive coupling: the access to the adjacent wire (a,b) and access to the input (c,d) The above diagram shows the measurement circuit close to an a.c. power cable which is at a potential of 240 V (r.m.s.) relative to the earth plane. The power cable, earth plane and signal leads are all conductors, so that there may be some capacitance between the power cable and the signal leads and between the signal leads and the earth plane. These capacitances will be distributed over the entire length of the measurement circuit, but are represented by ‘lumped’ equivalents. C1 and C2 are the capacitances between the power cable and signal leads, and C3 and C4 the capacitances between the signal lead and the earth plane; all four capacitances will be proportional to the length of the measurement circuit, which could be tens of metres in an industrial installation.
III. Multiple earths
The connection of two various grounding points (inter-ground difference of potentials) can be dangerous. 3.0 Methods of Reducing Effects of Noise and Interference Noise reduction techniques are methods that aim to improve the SNR of the system by reducing or eliminating noise sources or effects. Shielding, for example, uses metal or other materials to enclose or wrap wires and antennas to prevent EMI or RFI from entering or leaving the system. Filtering is another technique that uses devices or algorithms to remove or attenuate unwanted frequencies or components from the signal or the noise. Modulation is a method of changing the characteristics of the signal via amplitude modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM), or phase modulation (PM) to make it more resistant to noise or interference. I. Physical separation
II. Electromagnetic shielding
effective shielding the material of shield be properly chosen depending on AC magnetic field or DC magnetic field, low magnetic field or high magnetic field.
Twisted pair cabling
III. Electrostatic shielding
IV. The connection of the measuring signal to the amplifier
