Human Factors in Aviation

Egyptian Civilian Pilots Syndicate EGYCPS -- Scientific Committee Saturday, December 22, 2012
IFR – Human Factors
Human Factors In Aviation

Objective
To raise awareness of human
error and human limitations.
To reduce the effect of these

errors and limitations.
What You Will Leave With
 An awareness of the human aspect of aircraft accidents and

incidents.
 An awareness of how your performance can affect the

entire system.
Human Factors Components

Segment 1
1. The Atmosphere
2. Hypoxia and Hyperventilation
3. Gas Expansion Effects
4. Decompression Sickness
5. Vision and Visual Scanning
6. Hearing, Noise, and Vibration
7. Orientation and Disorientation
8. Positive and Negative G’s
9. Fatigue and Sleep

Segment 2
1. Personal Health, Exercise and Fitness
2. Diet and Nutrition
3. Medications and the Pilot
4. The Pilot and Substance Abuse
5. Pregnancy and the Pilot
6. Heat and Cold
7. Toxic Hazards
8. Managing Stress
9. Self Checklist

Segment 3
1. Human Error
2. Communication
3. Performance
4. Situational Awareness
5. Pilot Decision Making
6. Attitudes and Behaviours
Sources
Human Factors for Aviation: Basic Handbook
From The Ground Up (Airmanship)
Aeronautical Information Publication

Airmanship (AIR) Section
Pilot’s Guide to Medical Human Factors

Pilot Error
Pilot Error is an action or decision of the pilot that, of not
caught and corrected, could contribute to the occurrence of
an accident or incident. Inaction and indecision are included
in the definition.
 The pilot is found to be a broad cause or factor in what
percentage of all accidents?
 84% - and 91% of all fatal accidents!
Accident Rates
 The good news:
 We’re getting better.
 Almost every year since WWII, accident and fatal accident rates
have fallen.
 The bad news:

 About 13 accidents and 2 fatal accidents per 100 000 hours
flown in Canada.
 The pilot is often a contributing cause.
Aviation Accidents
100
90
80
70 Human Error
60
% 50
40
30
20
10 Machine Error
0
1903 Present Day
When do accidents occur?

Percentage of time spent per phase of flight:
16% take-off and climb
60% cruise
24% descent, approach, and landing
Percentage of accidents per phase of flight:
22% take-off and climb
17% cruise
61% descent/landing
The Usual Suspects

 The pilot most likely to have an accident:
Age?
 35 to 39 years
Total Time?
 Between 100 and 500 hours
What kind of flight?
 On a personal flight in VMC
Why is this the case?
 Confidence vs. experience
Part #1

The Atmosphere
Composition:
• From Sea Level to approx. 300,000 ft. the composition of the
atmosphere remains relatively constant.
• It is composed of approximately:
• 78% nitrogen
• 21% oxygen
• 1% other gases

The Atmosphere
Atmospheric Pressure:
• Pressure is 29.92” Hg at Sea Level
• It is 1/2 of this at 18,000’ (14.96” Hg)
• It is 1/4 of this at 34,000’ (7.48” Hg)
• It is 1/10 of this at 54,000’ (2.992” Hg)


The Atmosphere
Decreased pressure on the body has two significant effects:
1. It causes a fall in the pressure gradient at which oxygen is

delivered to the lungs
Result = Hypoxia
2. It causes an expansion of the body gases

Result = Decompression sickness

The Atmosphere
Decrease of Atmospheric Pressure
Decrease of Partial Pressure Derease of Total Pressure
Trapped Gas Evolved Gas

Hypoxia
Dysbarisms & Decompression

Abdominal Pain Sickness

Hypoxia and Hyperventilation
Respiration:
• Air we breathe is cleaned and humidified in the nose and
throat and transferred by the airways to the lungs
• Oxygen transfer takes place in the lungs through the thin
walled membranes called alveoli
• Since oxygen pressure is higher in the alveoli than in the
blood, oxygen easily passes through the membrane walls and
into the blood

Oxygen Transfer:
• At Sea Level, the pressure difference between the
atmospheric pressure of the oxygen component of air is much
higher than the pressure of oxygen in the blood
• Thus oxygen transfers easily into the bloodstream
• At 10,000 ft, the partial pressure of oxygen in the air is only ½
that of sea level, thus, oxygen transfer is not as effective

Hypoxia
Hypoxia:
• Hypoxia is when inadequate oxidation of the body’s tissues occurs
Types of Hypoxia:
• Hypoxic Hypoxia
• Anaemic Hypoxia
• Stagnant Hypoxia
• Histotoxic Hypoxia

Hypoxia
Hypoxic Hypoxia:
• caused by inadequate oxygen in the air
• this is the normal effect of altitude
• it is avoided by the use of on-board oxygen systems
• it is insidious, therefore, pilots often recognize the symptoms too late
• a common cause is failure of the oxygen system
• extended flight limited to 10,000’ without oxygen
• flight permitted between 10,000’ and 13,000’ for a maximum of 30
minutes without oxygen

Hypoxia
Anaemic Hypoxia:
• caused by too few blood cells or too little haemoglobin to carry
the oxygen
• usual cause is poor diets or loss of blood due to bowel ulcers or
heavy menstrual flows
• haemoglobin could be adequate, however saturated with other
substances such as carbon monoxide
• haemoglobin absorbs carbon monoxide 210 times more readily
than oxygen
• exhaust fumes from faulty exhaust a common cause
• smokers have 5-8% of haemoglobin blocked by CO2
• Heavy smokers, when at sea level are already at a physiological
altitude of 5,000’ and can become hypoxic below 10,000’

Hypoxia
Stagnant Hypoxia:
• caused by reduced blood supply to the tissues
• most common cause is high G-loads
• blood drains to the feet, leaving the brain without an adequate
supply

Hypoxia
Histotoxic Hypoxia:
• caused by interference from enzymes that require the oxygen to
produce energy
• it is a type of chemical poisoning
• certain drugs or medicine can cause it
• can be caused by high blood alcohol levels

Hypoxia
Times of useful consciousness at altitude:
• 10,000 Ft. Hours

• 20,000 Ft. 5-12 min
• 30,000 Ft. 45-75 seconds
• 40,000 Ft. 15-30 seconds
• 45,000 Ft. and above 12-15 seconds
Hypoxia
Symptoms of Hypoxia:
What an observer would see What you would experience
MENTAL MENTAL
Euphoria
Poor Performance Euphoria
Confusion Good Performance
Impaired Judgement
PHYSICAL PHYSICAL
Dizziness
Increased Respiration
Nausea
Poor Co-ordination
Headaches
Unconsciousness
Tingling
BEHAVIOURAL VISION
Blurring
Aggression
Tunnel Vision

Hypoxia
Night Vision:
• the retina of the eye is very sensitive to hypoxia

• at 5,000’, night vision is marginally reduced
• by 8,000’, it is reduced by 25%
• if oxygen is available, it is recommended that it be used for any
night flying
Prevention of Hypoxia
1. Avoid flying above 10000’ without O2.
2. Avoid flying above 5000’ at night.
3. Higher altitude flying will require a pressurized cabin.
 A B747 flying at 45000’ will maintain a cabin pressure
altitude of approx. 8000’.
 Accomplished by taking high pressure air from the
compressor of a turbine engine.

Hyperventilation
Hyperventilation:
• it is breathing more rapidly than necessary
• it may be obvious or barely noticeable
• it is common to over-breathe while under stress, such as flying
in marginal weather
• it can be exaggerated by anxiety and panic
• any pilot may hyperventilate in strange or difficult situations.
Causes of Hyperventilation
 Over breathing
 Air intake is increased, CO2 exhaust is increased
 Ratio of O2 and CO2 changing causes the body’s acid-base balance
changes
 The body reduces oxygen pressure at the brain
 Ultimately results in a type of BRAIN HYPOXIA
Effects of Hyperventilation
 Warning signs include:
 Dizziness
 Feeling of “pins and needles” on hands and feet
 Continued hyperventilation leads to:

 Muscular spasms
 unconsciousness

Treatment of Hypoxia and Hyperventilation:
•Hypoxia can be confused with hyperventilation
•Below 8,000 ft
• Hypoxia unlikely
• slow breathing rate to 12 times/min
• Above 8,000 ft
• take 3-4 deep breaths of oxygen if it is available
• if symptoms persist, problem is hyperventilation and should
be treated as such
• otherwise, immediately descend below 10,000 ft if oxygen is
not available

Gas Expansion Effects
The Middle Ear:
• The Eustachian tube vents the inner ear drum so that pressure inside
the drum and outside the drum remain constant
• If this tube is plugged or blocked, the ear drum will not vent, and could
cause ear drum to rupture
• The valve flaps out of the inner ear, so most problems normally occur
during a descent when the outside pressure increases
• If you experience ear pain on descent, climb back up to your initial
altitude, and descend slowly, clearing ears every few hundred feet
(valsalva technique).
• NEVER FLY WITH A COLD!!


The Sinuses:
• These are air pockets above the eyes, behind the nose, and in each
cheek
• They have drainage tubes that are smaller than the Eustachian tubes,
and can become clogged due to colds or hay fever
• Severe pain may be felt on descent if these tubes are blocked,
disallowing the sinuses to equalize to atmospheric pressure
• If pain is felt, climb to original altitude and descent more slowly


The Teeth:
• If a dental cavity has trapped air beneath a loose filling, this may
cause severe pain due to the air expanding as you climb
• Trapped air in a dental abbesses may also cause pain
• If pain is felt on the ascent, return to a lower altitude and let your
dentist know A.S.A.P.

The Bowels:
• Certain amounts of gas are always present in the bowels
• During a climb, the trapped gas will expand due to the decrease in
atmospheric pressure
• This expanding gas is usually passed as flatulence, causing little
problems except embarrassment
• If air gets trapped in the bowels, it can cause severe discomfort
• Pilots should try to avoid foods that they know cause personal
problems with gas production

Decompression Sickness
What is decompression sickness?
• It is caused by the release of nitrogen in the form of gas bubbles from
the tissues as pressure decreases
• It normally accumulates around the joints, and can cause a form of
arthritis
• Under normal circumstances, symptoms do not appear below 20,000’
• The different types of symptoms are:
• Creeps
• Cramps
• Chokes
• Collapse
• These are known as the four C’s

The Creeps:
• This is an itchy sensation (like insects crawling) caused by tiny gas

bubbles under the skin
• It is not a serious issue by itself, however it could be an early warning

of more serious effects

The Cramps:
• These are pains in joints due to air bubbles interfering with blood flow
• These are known as the “Classic Bends”
• Pain is dull and may become severe
• Exercise will only make it worse
• Symptoms may be relieved by descending to a lower altitude


The Chokes:
• It is a feeling of having difficulty breathing and pain behind the breast-
bone
• This occurs when bubbles get into the lung circulation
• The sufferer will look ill, and may appear to be having a heart attack
• An immediate descent to a lower altitude must be made


Collapse:
• This is the final symptom and occurs when larger bubbles interfere
with the blood supply to the brain
• This is fairly uncommon, as with the Chokes
• Pilots are more common to get bubbles in the brain, while divers are
more common to get them in the spinal cord
• Anyone experiencing this symptom should see a doctor immediately


Scuba Diving and Flying:
• Every 10m depth, pressure increases one atmosphere and
pressurized air saturates tissues with nitrogen
• Nitrogen bubbles may form above 8000’ ASL
• After non-decompression dives, don’t fly for 12 hours if flying below
8000’ ASL
• For compression dives, don’t fly below 8000’ ASL for 24 hours
• For all flights above 8000’ ASL, must wait 24 hours.
Vision, Perception, Reaction

 The most perfect eye will not detect other aircraft
unless the pilot is alert.
 Identifying a target requires:
 Picking it up
 Locking on
 Recognition
 A reaction time of several seconds is then
needed to turn the info into action.
 Large a/c are barely visible at 11km away
head-on.
 Little time is available for avoiding a head-on
collision.
Scanning Techniques
 Pilot must scan a large area in a regular way without
missing small objects.
 Moving objects are easier to see
 Aircraft on a collision course seem to be stationary and are not
detected until the last few seconds
 Be aware of your aircraft’s blind spots
 A dirty windscreen interferes with good vision
 Sector Scan
 Divide sky into 300 segments, slowly focus on each.
 Remember: scan 100 above AND below horizon
 Use peripheral vision to detect movement
 Use central vision to lock-on and recognize.
Empty Field Myopia

 Occurs when field of vision is empty
 At high altitude or at night
 The focus of the eye drifts in to a distance of about 2 meters
 The pilot must constantly focus the eye to infinity to

maintain a good lookout
 Look at a distant object such as:
 A cloud
 A ground feature
 The wingtip
Night Vision
 At night:
 Central (cone) vision is very light dependent.
 We use the rods in the periphery of the retina to see.
 It is necessary to look 100-150 to one side of an object to see it
most clearly.
 Dark Adaptation:
 Takes approximately 30 minutes
 Can be impaired by very brief exposure to bright light
 Retina is extremely sensitive to hypoxia (smokers?)
 Where possible, oxygen should be used from the ground up
when night flying
DERP
 Design Eye Reference Point
 “Position of the pilot's eyes for the best view of
instruments and outside the cockpit.”
 Not in the POH of most light aircraft

 You should be able to see the ground 40’ in front of the
a/c when parked
 If not, raise your seating position

Hearing, Noise, and Vibration

 The problems with noise/vibration:
 Noise increases task errors, but does not increase work rate.
 Noise and vibration can be stressful and distracting.
 Prolonged noise/vibration is a significant cause of fatigue and
disorientation.
 Aside from hearing damage, noise can cause irritation and
frustration.
 Vibration (turbulence) is fatiguing due to the muscular effort of
resisting body movement
 Use ear protection, avoid prolonged flights in turbulence
Orientation and Disorientation

 We rely on three systems for most of our orientation:
 Kinesthetic sensors (muscle – bone – joint)
 Vision (eyes)
 Vestibular organs (inner ear)
 When any of these systems give us false information, when can
become disoriented.
Kinesthetic Illusions
 “Flying by the seat of the pants”.
 Describes the subconscious orientation sense we use in flight.
 When peripheral vision is limited (IMC), this sense can be
dangerously unreliable.
 Experience teaches us that gravity pulls us down.
 In a coordinated turn in IMC, what pulls us down?
 When kinesthetic sensations and the instruments disagree, the
instruments are right!
 Much instrument experience is required to learn to ignore this
sometimes disorientating sense.
Visual Illusions
1. White-out and Black Holes
2. False Horizons
3. Vectional Illusions
4. Autokinesis
 Visual illusions are often a result of a pilot’s expectancy.

 based on previous experience or preconception
White-out and Black Holes

 Lack of contrast
 Makes depth perception practically impossible
 Examples:
 Fresh snow with white sky
 Night operations into dark,
featureless areas
 Float planes landing on glassy water
 Expecting these illusions, warn yourself against them,
and keep a good visual and instrument scan.
False Horizons
 Haze layers
 Cloud tops
 Ground lights and stars may be confused
 Be aware of illusions and cross-check your instruments.

Vectional Illusions
 Illusions of false movement
 E.g. car beside you creeping forward at a stoplight.
 E.g. going to an IMAX movie.
 Helicopter hovering over moving water
 Airplane cruising at low altitude
Autokinesis
 A small fixed light viewed steadily at night appears to move!
 Actually caused by the eyes losing fixation, drifting away and then
jumping back to the target.
 Pilots have done collision avoidance maneuvers away from
stationary lights, believing they are moving aircraft.
 Feeling can be overcome by looking away from the light and

then back again.
 Visual illusions demonstration
 The most complexVestibular Illusions

and dangerous illusions
 Otoliths respond to linear acceleration
 Semi-circular canals respond to pitch, roll, and yaw of
the body
 Work similar to swirling a glass of water
 Accurate on the ground, but can provide the brain
with incorrect info during flight
 False sensations are usually corrected by visual cues
 When a/c is stable and then accelerates, illusions are
apparent
 What if there are insufficient visual cues to correct
this?
Linear Accelerations
•Information provided by otoliths
•Aircraft acceleration (pitch up illusion)
•Pilot senses head being tilted backwards
•Tendency is to pitch the nose down on take-off (especially at night and in
IMC)
•TSB: “…the aircraft struck the ground at a steep angle on the runway
heading.”
•Aircraft deceleration (pitch down illusion)
•Tendency to pitch the nose up (stall)
•Can occur on transition to approach
Angular Accelerations
•Information provided by semi-circular canals
•Can cause opposite turning illusion after pilot rolls out of a turn
•Graveyard Spiral
•A spin or spiral recovery in IMC could lead to a second in the opposite
direction
•Coreolis Effect
•Caused by inappropriate head movements (can create a violent sensation of
tumbling)
•Turning the head sharply (particularly against the turn) is extremely
hazardous
•The Leans (pilot feels banked attitude when straight and level)

Positive and Negative G’s
•G: rate of change of velocity compared to the force of gravity
•Acceleration on the body results in displacement of blood and tissues in the opposite
direction due to inertia
•Good diet, nutrition, and physical fitness increase G tolerance
•Gx is longitudinal G and is easily overcome, but may cause disorientation
•Gy is lateral G and not much of an issue to pilots
•Gz is vertical/normal G and blood rushes to or away from the head
Positive G
 Experienced during a steep turn, an inside loop, or a pull-out
 Drains blood away from the head, towards the feet
 +2G: Grey-out (vision becomes dim)
 +4G: Black-out (temporary loss of vision)
 Over +6G: pilot loses consciousness due to brain hypoxia
Negative G
 Experienced in a push-over and an outside loop
 Poorly tolerated by the pilot
 Acceleration is from the foot to the head creating high blood
pressure in the eyes
 “red-out” (a red haze in vision) is experienced
 -5G may cause the rupture of small blood vessels in the eyes
 Prolonged negative G will cause brain damage

Fatigue and Sleep
Fatigue is a condition most frequently cited as a contributing factor in aviation
accidents.
Two types:
•Acute (short term) fatigue:
•Intense mental or physical activity over a short period of time
•Cured by food and a good night’s sleep
•Chronic (cumulative) fatigue:
•Many episodes of acute fatigue, stress, insufficient sleep over several
days
•Cured by more extensive rest.
Fatigue and Sleep

 Sleep consists of several stages: transitional, sleep-awake,
and slow wave.
 Slow wave is were REM sleep occurs

 Must have REM sleep to properly rest
Fatigue and Sleep

 8 hours per night is ideal, varies with individual
 Sleep is a physical requirement – you must sleep to function
 Without rest, fatigue will set in, causing: irritability,
forgetfulness, illusions, poor communication, and
vulnerability to micro-sleep
Personal Health, Exercise and Fitness

 Taking care of yourself will reduce the effects of fatigue,
increase G tolerance and reduce the effects of anaemic
hypoxia
 Don’t smoke
 Don’t drink excessively
 Exercise
 Do research on the best methods for exercising
Personal Health, Exercise and Fitness

 If donating blood, wait 48 hours before flying to rebuild your
red blood cell count (hypoxia)
Diet and Nutrition

 Eating well goes along with health and fitness: you
will increase G tolerance and be less fatigued
 Ideas of a good diet vary, but generally are well
balanced, low in saturated and trans-fat, and
contain a large amount of fruit and vegetables
 Eat 3-4 meals per day.
 Eat complex foods, simple sugars such as donuts
quickly leave the body
Diet and Nutrition

 Are you overweight?
 You have increased susceptibility to decompression sickness,
heart trouble, diabetes, etc.
 Caffeine will increase alertness, but the body will build up a
tolerance – so use it strategically.
 Caffeine will also cause dehydration
Medications and the Pilot

 Legally required to notify your doctor before every
exam that you are pilot
 Check that your prescription is okay to take when flying
 Never mix medications without asking a doctor or
pharmacist (ie TUMS prevents some antibiotics from
working
 Read over the counter medications and follow the
directions – if it says “may cause drowsiness” and it
works for 8 hours, you can’t fly for 8 hours
 If in doubt, call your CAME or the Regional Aviation
Medical Officer
The Pilot and Substance Abuse

 Alcohol and other drugs act as depressants – they depress
the ability of the body to function properly
 Mental capacity is impeded: decision making and

mechanical reflexes are slowed
 An individual may not be able to tell their abilities are

impaired

 The LAW: Criminal code states that no person shall
operate a motor vehicle, aircraft, or vessel with over
.08% blood alcohol
 For the average male this is approximately 3 drinks
 The LAW: You can be legally impaired below .08% if you
appear to lack co-ordination and judgement
 The LAW: A pilot may not exercise the privileges of
their license within 8 hours of consuming any alcohol
 The RULE: “8 hours from bottle to throttle”

 Must allow longer if a large amount of alcohol has been
consumed
 Alcohol stays in the fluids of the ear longer than in the blood
– causing illusions and nausea
 Effects of “soft drugs” such as marijuana are similar to that

of alcohol

 Keep it simple: fly with zero blood alcohol and you won’t
have to worry.
 Alcohol and drugs are addictive. If you need help: ask!

 Pilots have been re-habilitated and returned to flying
Pregnancy and the Pilot

 Generally fit for flying, although nausea and vomiting made
worse by g-forces, exhaust fumes, etc
 Seat belts must be worn in the proper position

 Grounded at latest by week 30 for as little as 4-6 weeks
Heat and Cold

 Excessive hot or cold will contribute to fatigue
 Frostbite is the killing of cells caused by excessive
cold (including wind-chill)
 Hypothermia occurs when the body is so cold that
it begins to shut down
 Requires medical attention
 Very important to dress properly for winter flying
Heat and Cold

 Hyperthermia or heatstroke occurs when the body
cannot dissipate heat because of high humidity or a
problem with sweat glands
 Once the body is above 41C it loses the ability to
control its temperature
 During summer, drink water, and sports drinks (w/
salt) to help your body function properly.
 Heatstroke requires hospital treatment

Toxic Hazard
 Toxic substances can affect a pilot in flight

 Carbon Monoxide is colourless, odourless,
and causes anaemic hypoxia
 Can be produced by incomplete engine
combustion
 Is also produced by cigarette smoke

Toxic Hazard
 CO can also be produced in a fire, but the

bigger danger is smoke from the combustibles:
such as plastic and other toxic fumes
 Extinguish the fire and then ventilate the cabin
for fresh air
 Extinguishers often use carbon dioxide which
will also cause breathing problems if not
ventilated

Managing Stress
 Stress can be caused by external factors

(cold, noise) or internal factors (hunger,
mental)
 Stress is normally greatest at the end of a
flight – during the landing phase
 Watch for indications of stress:

Managing Stress
 Omissions
 Errors
 Delaying tasks
 Accepting a lower standard than usual
 Fixating
 Regressing to an earlier, easier answer
 Physical changes (shaking, sweating)
 Freezing, giving up, panicking

Managing Stress
 What to do?
 Acute stress (such as an in-flight
emergency) can be relieved by ending
the situation
 Chronic stress (life stress) requires
elimination of some stressors, as well as
good diet, exercise, and social activities

Managing Stress
 Different people can cope better or

worse than others
 Be aware of how stressed you are
 Homework
Stress Analysis

Self Checklist
I – illness Do I have any symptoms?
M – medication Have I been taking prescription or over-the-

counter drugs?
S – stress Am I under psychological pressure from the job?
Do I have money, health or family problems?
A – alcohol Have I had anything to drink in the last 24

hours? Do I have a hang-over?
F – fatigue How much time since my last flight? Did I sleep
well last night and am I adequately rested?
E – eating Have I eaten enough of the proper foods to keep
me adequately nourished during the entire flight?
Human Error
 We all commit errors
 Any time an action does not produce
the desired result
 Something we do
 Something we fail to do
 THINGS THAT INTERFERE
WITH OUR PERFORMANCE
Human Error
 Part 3 looks at some factors affecting human error and pilot
decision making (PDM)

COMMUNICATION
(LACK OF)

What is
Communication ?
The dynamic process

by which we engage
and interpret messages.
Methods Of Communication
What What
you say experts say
Verbal ? 7%
Tone of Voice ? 38%
Body Language ? 55%
100% 100%
Ref.: Albert Mehrabian
COMMUNICATION MODEL
A C
B
Filters Filters
A + B + C = What's said
A + C = What's said that is subject to interpretation
B = What's understood
B = About % efficiency
30
Communication Model
 30% efficiency of 7% verbal communication is poor.
 That’s why proper radio procedures are so important!
 IFR Communication: Who do we deal with during IFR flight?
To support IFR flight?
Filters or Barriers to Communication

 Prejudice
 Noise/lighting
 Distraction
 Culture
 Language
 Mechanical
ASSERTIVENESS
 Ability to express your feelings,

opinions, beliefs and needs
 Expressing yourself in a positive,
productive manner
Assertion basically involves:
 asking for what you need

 saying no when necessary

Assertiveness Works
Both Ways
Assertive behaviour involves being

able to receive requests or refusals
with respect for others.
ASSERTIVENESS
Aggressive
Assertive
Passive
Performance
 Different tasks; different approach
 Two different types performance:
a) Conscious
b) Automatic
Automatic Performance
 Develops only with practice
 Very fast
 Can do several things at once
 Repetitive
 Little conscious attention
 Skill-Based
Conscious Performance
 Two different kinds:
a) Rule- Based
b) Knowledge-Based
Rule -Based
 Slower
 Sequential
 Can only actually think about one thing at a
time
 Requires effort
Knowledge-Based
 Not familiar with the situation
 Not sure how to deal with it
 Use all the resources available to solve the
problem
 Trial and Error/Success


Performance
 Performance is based largely on experience and skill
 Stay within your limits
 Manage stress and other human factors
Situational Awareness
 Knowing where you are, where you are going, and what is
happening around you
 Plan ahead to avoid stressful and unsafe situations – stay

ahead of the airplane!
 ie When going to a new airport, plan ahead before your

flight, make your radio calls early, and be vigilant
Situational Awareness
 Use your radio
 Scan for traffic
 Expectancy is great – don’t assume the same thing will
happen that you expect
 Don’t ignore bad news
 Don’t fixate
 Don’t overload yourself with tasks:
Aviate, Navigate, Communicate
Pilot Decision Making

 A logical process to come to the right conclusion and do
the the right thing
 D – Detect change
 E – Estimate the significance of that change
 C – Choose the outcome objective
 I – Identify action options
 D – Do the best action
 E – Evaluate and re-evaluate the situation

 For example
Visibility is decreasing on our x-c flight
We may not safely reach destination
Must land safely and remain legal
Precautionary in field, diversion to
airport x, diversion to airport y
Diversion to airport x is best option
(fuel, distance, current wx report from FSS, good
facilities)
The wx is fine enroute to airport x, we will
continue

 Managing risk involves your skill, experience, good
judgement, and the law
 Pilot (Rushed for the flight?)
 Aircraft (Is a piece of equipment u/s? How
important is that equipment?)
 Environment (Thunderstorms forecast just off of
your planned route?)
 Operation (How important is a pleasure flight?)
Where do most accidents start?

 63% of accident/incident respondents said “In the pre-
flight”
 Take time for proper flight planning and walk around

 Don’t rush yourself
 Acknowledge external pressures
 What Attitudes and Behaviours affect you?
Attitudes and Behaviours

 Authority: Follows rules blindly or resents
authority?
 Impulsiveness: Acts quickly without thought or
can’t make a decision?
 Vulnerability: Very afraid, or “it won’t happen to
me!”?
 Machoism: A show off or underperformer?
 Resignation: Gives up easily or sticks with their
decisions (even poor ones)?
Attitudes and Behaviours

 Everyone has some level of each attitude within them
 Ideally, if a person is well rounded, they will make good
decisions
 Know your personality type to help guard against poor
judgement
 Homework:
Attitudes and behaviours profile
Human Factors
 Medical human factors
 Pilot decision making
 Any questions?
“IS THE CONSISTENT USE OF GOOD JUDGEMENT AND WELL-

DEVELOPED SKILLS TO ACCOMPLISH FLIGHT OPERATIONS.”
1. SKILL
2. PROFICIENCY
3. DISCIPLINE
1. OUR AIRCRAFT
2. OUR TEAM
3. OUR ENVIRONMENT
4. OUR RISKS
5. OURSELVES
 Improved situational awareness

 fewer mistakes
 increased effectiveness
 improved training
 safer flying operations

“Is the ability and willpower to safely employ an aircraft within

operational, regulatory, organizational and common sense
guidelines---unless emergency demands dictate otherwise.”
1. If no one knows about the infraction and nobody gets hurt,

what’s the problem?
2. Everyone knows that there are safety margins built into all
the regulations
3. Rules are simply to protect inept pilots from themselves
4. this business is overregulated. Pilots did this for

decades before the government stepped in.
5. I can’t push the envelope and really improve if I am

bound by all these silly rules.
 The two most dangerous words any pilot can

utter:
 “ WATCH THIS! ”

“There comes a time in every man’s life when he is

called upon to do something very special,
something for which he and only he has the
capabilities, has the skills, and has the necessary
training. What a pity if the moment finds the man
unprepared.”
WINSTON CHURCHILL
Four levels of airmanship skills:

 level one--SAFETY
 level two--EFFECTIVENESS
 level three--EFFICIENCY
 level four--PRECISION & CONTINUOUS
IMPROVEMENT

“Aviation in and of itself is not inherently dangerous. But to an

even greater extent than the sea, it is terribly unforgiving for
any inattention, carelessness or neglect.”

“KNOW THYSELF”
Socrates
get-home-it is
anti-authority
machismo
invulnerability
impulsiveness
resignation
complacency
air show syndrome
emotional jet lag
excessive professional deference

Psychological airworthiness
 physical health is only half of the equation. How well do
you understand and appreciate your psychological
health?
Stay physically and psychologically healthy. It

increases your performance potential.


What to know & how to learn it
 thorough reading of general description of POH

 critical action/emergency procedures & aircraft operating
limits
 normal procedures, flight characteristics, communication &

navigation equipment
 use resources to practice emergency procedures (paper

trainer, actual aircraft, simulator etc)
Systematic review
 Annual systems quiz, exam or
review of previous exams
Experienced-based
inquiry
 Use actual flight occurrences to
trigger further study
Case study: Loss of B52 bomber during Operation

Desert Storm 2 Feb. 1991

Good teams are made up of good individuals

1. Adds to the pool of knowledge & expertise
2. Synthesis of ideals & skills to provide new

options to the group
3. Level of performance exceeds the sum of the

individuals
Advantages of teamwork
 increased reliability
 mutual support
Hazards of teamwork
 interpersonal relationships and egos
 incompetent team members
 Communicate effectively
 Distribute workload fairly
 Maintain alertness
 Manage time carefully
 Monitor & crosscheck systems regularly
 Provide feedback
In a pre-briefed agreement between

crewmembers, if ‘ ’ does
not respond to two verbal corrections
or “challenges”, ‘ ’
will automatically assume control.
means maximizing
mission effectiveness and safety through effective utilization
of all available resources.
Available resources include hardware, software, printed

materials, people, the environment, time, fuel, etc.
Good teamwork begins with
Good leaders establish norms of safety, compliance,

communication and cooperation.


Your environment means:

 Physical
 regulatory &
 organizational
Fuel is equal to options. The more fuel you have the more
options.
You only have too much fuel when you are on fire.

Regulatory environment:
 ATC regulations
 regulations related to pilot certification & procedures
 regulations related to aircraft & equipment

 Regulations designed to keep more than one a/c from

occupying the same space at the same time.
 You must be familiar with the rules & procedures

governing the country in which you are flying.
 Practices carefully analyzed
 What are the real values of the company
 If values not consistent with good airmanship you can:
 Accept it as it is and practice good individual airmanship

 Leave
 Work toward change
 It is the most difficult of the pillars of knowledge to master

 understand the physical environment & flight plan
thoroughly
 develop a familiarity with all of the regulations

 know your company & work to improve it

“He who risks nothing, gets nothing.”
 Where there is no risk, there is usually no opportunity

 Risk: The probability and severity of a loss linked to a
hazard.
 Risk approached logically is called risk management

 Risks to discipline
 Risks to skill and performance
 Risks to knowledge
 Aircraft related risks
 Organization based risk
 Environmental risks
 Controlling risk:
 accepted
 reduced, or
 avoided
 Summary of risk management
 do not accept unnecessary risk
 make risk decisions at the appropriate time
 accept risk when benefits outweigh costs.

“Situational awareness is the accurate perception of what

is going on with you, the a/c, and the surrounding world,
both now and in the near future.”
perceive a relevant cue
attach meaning & significance to the

observation
project the event or cue into the future


If situational awareness is lost
1. Climb if required
2. Stabilize the aircraft
3. Buy time
4. Seek information
5. Learn from experience

1. Define roles
2. Manage distractions
3. Reduce overload
4. Avoid complacency
5. Test assumptions
6. Intervene

Good judgment supports all three major goals of airmanship

 safety
 mission effectiveness
 efficiency
Judgment extends beyond the cockpit to include adequate

mental & physical preparation for flight, briefings,
debriefings & critiques
Decision making is an acquired skill & can be systematically

developed through knowledge & practice
Safety is the most important factor in good judgment

Three questions that can assist in decision making:
 .

 develop cross-check
 distribute workload
 be assertive when noting deviations
 assess the situation & devise a plan of action
1. Rule-based decisions
2. Knowledge-based decisions

The to understand and improve

stands out as the single largest obstacle to improving
situational awareness and judgment.
“The man who is prepared has his battle half fought.”

Cervantes,Don Quixote

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Egyptian Civilian Pilots Syndicate EGYCPS -- Scientific Committee Saturday, December 22, 2012

IFR – Human Factors

IFR – Human Factors

To reduce the effect of these

IFR – Human Factors

What You Will Leave With

 An awareness of the human aspect of aircraft accidents and

 An awareness of how your performance can affect the

IFR – Human Factors

Human Factors Components

IFR – Human Factors

IFR – Human Factors

Human Factors Components

IFR – Human Factors

From The Ground Up (Airmanship)

Aeronautical Information Publication

Pilot’s Guide to Medical Human Factors

IFR – Human Factors

IFR – Human Factors

 The bad news:

IFR – Human Factors

IFR – Human Factors

When do accidents occur?

IFR – Human Factors

The Usual Suspects

IFR – Human Factors

IFR – Human Factors

IFR – Human Factors

• It is 1/2 of this at 18,000’ (14.96” Hg)

• It is 1/4 of this at 34,000’ (7.48” Hg)

• It is 1/10 of this at 54,000’ (2.992” Hg)

IFR – Human Factors

Decreased pressure on the body has two significant effects:

1. It causes a fall in the pressure gradient at which oxygen is

2. It causes an expansion of the body gases

IFR – Human Factors

Decrease of Atmospheric Pressure

Decrease of Partial Pressure Derease of Total Pressure

Trapped Gas Evolved Gas

Dysbarisms & Decompression

IFR – Human Factors

IFR – Human Factors

IFR – Human Factors

IFR – Human Factors

IFR – Human Factors

IFR – Human Factors

IFR – Human Factors

IFR – Human Factors

Times of useful consciousness at altitude:

• 10,000 Ft. Hours

IFR – Human Factors

IFR – Human Factors

• the retina of the eye is very sensitive to hypoxia

IFR – Human Factors

IFR – Human Factors

IFR – Human Factors

IFR – Human Factors

 Continued hyperventilation leads to:

IFR – Human Factors