BUSINESS RESEARCH

METHODS

CHAPTER NO.2
RESEARCH DESIGN
 CHAPTER NO.2
RESEARCH DESIGN
Research Design:
The research design refers to the overall plan and structure of a research study. It outlines
the approach and methods that will be used to collect and analyze data in order to answer
research questions and achieve research objectives. A robust research design ensures that
the study is well-structured, reliable, and valid.
Features of a Robust Research Design:
Clarity and Precision: A robust research design clearly defines the research objectives,
research questions, and variables under investigation. It outlines the specific steps,
procedures, and methods to be used in the study.
Validity and Reliability: A robust research design ensures that the study measures what
it intends to measure (validity) and that the findings are consistent and replicable
(reliability).
Control of Confounding Variables: A robust research design includes measures to
control or minimize the influence of confounding variables that could affect the
relationship between the variables being studied. This enhances the internal validity of
the study.
Appropriateness of Research Design: A robust research design is selected based on the
research objectives, nature of the research questions, availability of resources, and
practical considerations. It ensures that the design is suitable for addressing the research
objectives and collecting relevant data.
Now let's explore different types of research designs:
Exploratory Research Design:
Exploratory research design aims to explore and gain initial insights into a research
problem or phenomenon. It is typically used when the topic is relatively new or not well-
studied. Exploratory research is flexible and allows researchers to generate hypotheses or
identify research questions for further investigation.
Example: Suppose a company wants to explore the reasons behind the recent decline in
customer satisfaction. The research team may conduct interviews or focus group
discussions with customers to gather qualitative data and gain initial insights into the
problem. This exploratory research design will help identify potential factors contributing
to the decline and inform the development of specific research questions for further
investigation.

Page | 1
Types of Exploratory Research Design
Exploratory research design is a type of research design used when a researcher wants to
gain insights, explore new ideas, and understand a phenomenon in a preliminary and
flexible manner. It is often employed at the early stages of a research project to identify
research questions, generate hypotheses, and provide a foundation for more in-depth
investigations. Exploratory research does not aim to provide conclusive results but rather
to generate initial knowledge and create a better understanding of the research problem.
There are several types of exploratory research designs:
1. Literature Review: Conducting a comprehensive literature review is one of the
common ways to explore a research topic. Researchers review existing studies,
academic papers, books, and other relevant literature to understand what has been
previously investigated, identify gaps, and determine the current state of
knowledge on the subject.
2. Interviews: In-depth interviews with key informants or experts in the field can be
conducted to gather qualitative data and gain insights into the research problem.
These interviews are usually open-ended, allowing respondents to express their
perspectives and provide valuable information.
3. Focus Groups: Focus groups involve small groups of participants who engage in
guided discussions facilitated by a moderator. This method helps explore
attitudes, perceptions, and experiences on a particular topic within a social
context.
4. Observational Research: Researchers can observe and record the behavior,
interactions, or events in their natural settings without intervening. Observational
research helps in understanding real-life situations and behaviors.
5. Case Studies: Case studies involve in-depth investigations of a particular
individual, group, organization, or event. This design allows researchers to
explore complex phenomena and gain a holistic understanding of specific cases.
6. Surveys: Although surveys are often associated with descriptive or conclusive
research, they can also be used as exploratory research tools. Open-ended
questions in surveys allow participants to provide detailed responses, revealing
new insights or issues to explore.
7. Pilot Studies: Conducting a small-scale pilot study helps researchers test their
research instruments, methodologies, and procedures. It allows them to identify
potential challenges and refine their research approach before launching a larger
study.
8. Expert Panels: Expert panels bring together a group of experts from various fields
to discuss and brainstorm ideas related to the research topic. This method can
generate diverse perspectives and innovative ideas.
9. Online Search and Social Media Analysis: Exploring online sources, including
social media platforms, can provide valuable data and trends related to the
research problem.
10. Each type of exploratory research design offers unique advantages and insights.
Researchers often use a combination of these methods to explore a research
problem thoroughly and develop a strong foundation for subsequent studies.

Page | 2
Descriptive Research Design:
Descriptive research design aims to describe and depict the characteristics, behaviors, or
phenomena of interest. It involves observing and documenting existing conditions or
relationships without intervening or manipulating variables. Descriptive research
provides a snapshot or profile of a specific population, group, or situation.
Example: A researcher conducting a survey to gather information about consumers'
preferences, buying behaviors, and demographic characteristics is using a descriptive
research design. The survey responses would be analysed to describe the specific
characteristics and patterns of the target population.
Types of Descriptive Research Design:
Descriptive research design aims to describe and document the characteristics, behaviors,
attitudes, and other attributes of a population or phenomenon without manipulating
variables. It helps researchers gain a better understanding of the subject of study. There
are several types of descriptive research designs:
Cross-Sectional Design: This design involves collecting data from a sample or the entire
population at a single point in time. It provides a snapshot of the current state of the
variables being studied. Cross-sectional studies are often used in survey research.
Longitudinal Design: Longitudinal studies involve collecting data from the same sample
or population at multiple time points over an extended period. It helps researchers study
changes and trends over time and understand the relationships between variables across
different time periods.
Case Study: A case study involves in-depth investigation and analysis of a single
individual, group, organization, or event. It provides a comprehensive understanding of
the subject being studied.
Correlational Design: Correlational research examines the relationships between two or
more variables without manipulating them. It helps identify the strength and direction of
associations between variables.
Observational Design: In observational research, researchers observe and record
behaviors, interactions, or events in their natural settings without intervening. It allows
for the study of behaviors as they naturally occur.
Survey Design: Surveys involve collecting data from a sample or the entire population
using questionnaires or interviews. Surveys are a common method in descriptive research
to gather information on attitudes, opinions, and behaviors.
Comparative Design: Comparative research compares two or more groups, populations,
or variables to identify differences or similarities between them.
Ethnographic Design: Ethnographic research involves immersing the researcher in the
culture or social setting being studied. It provides an in-depth understanding of the
cultural context and behaviors of the participants.
Content Analysis: Content analysis involves systematically analysing and coding text,
audio, video, or visual data to identify patterns and themes. It is often used to analyze
media content, documents, or historical records.

Page | 3
Ex Post Facto Design: This design involves examining the relationship between an
independent variable that has already occurred (e.g., gender, age, or ethnicity) and a
dependent variable without any manipulation. It is used when the manipulation of the
independent variable is not feasible or ethical.
Each type of descriptive research design has its own strengths and limitations, and
researchers choose the most appropriate design based on their research objectives,
resources, and the nature of the phenomenon they want to study.
Quasi-Experimental Research Design:
Quasi-experimental research design is used when it is not feasible or ethical to randomly
assign participants to different groups. It involves comparing groups that are naturally or
pre-existing, without random assignment. Quasi-experimental designs allow for
comparisons and inferences, although they may have limitations in terms of causal
inference.
Example: Suppose a researcher wants to investigate the effectiveness of a new teaching
method in improving student performance. Instead of randomly assigning students to
different teaching methods, the researcher selects two intact groups of students—one
group taught using the new method and another group taught using the traditional method.
The researcher then compares the performance of the two groups using pre and post-tests
to assess the impact of the teaching method. This would be an example of a quasi-
experimental research design.
Experimental Research Design:
The experimental research design involves manipulating independent variables to
observe their effects on dependent variables while controlling for confounding variables.
Experimental designs provide the strongest evidence for causality because of the ability
to manipulate variables and use random assignment.
Example: A researcher wants to examine the impact of a new training program on
employee productivity. The researcher randomly assigns participants to two groups—one
group receives the training program (experimental group) and the other does not (control
group). The researcher then measures the productivity levels of both groups before and
after the training program to assess its effectiveness. This example represents an
experimental research design.
These various research designs provide researchers with different approaches to
investigating research questions and collecting relevant data based on the nature of the
research problem and objectives.
Cause and Effect:
The concept of cause and effect refers to the relationship between two events or variables,
where one event (the cause) influences or brings about a change in another event or
variable (the effect). It implies that there is a causal link or relationship between the cause
and the effect.
Example: Let's consider the relationship between studying and academic performance. If
we assume that studying (the cause) leads to better grades (the effect), we can say that
there is a cause-and-effect relationship between studying and academic performance.
When students study more, it is likely to have a positive effect on their grades.

Page | 4
Difference between Correlation and Causation:
Correlation and causation are related concepts but have distinct meanings:
Correlation: Correlation refers to a statistical relationship between two variables, where
a change in one variable is associated with a change in another variable. It indicates that
the variables are related, but it does not imply a cause-and-effect relationship.
Example: There may be a positive correlation between ice cream sales and sunscreen
sales. During the summer months, as ice cream sales increase, sunscreen sales also tend
to increase. However, this correlation does not imply that buying more ice cream causes
people to buy more sunscreen or vice versa. The correlation simply shows that these
variables tend to vary together.
Causation: Causation refers to a cause-and-effect relationship, where a change in one
variable directly influences or causes a change in another variable. Establishing causation
requires more rigorous evidence and methods beyond mere correlation.
Example: Let's consider a study that investigates the impact of exercise on weight loss.
The researchers randomly assign participants to two groups: one group follows an
exercise program, while the other group does not. At the end of the study, the exercise
group shows a significant decrease in weight compared to the non-exercise group. In this
case, we can establish a cause-and-effect relationship, stating that exercise causes weight
loss.
It is important to note that correlation does not prove causation. While two variables may
show a strong correlation, it does not necessarily mean that one variable causes the other.
There may be other factors at play that influence both variables, creating a correlation
without a direct cause-and-effect relationship.
To establish causation, researchers often use experimental designs, where they
manipulate the independent variable and observe the effects on the dependent variable
while controlling for other variables. This allows them to draw more robust conclusions
about cause-and-effect relationships.
Understanding the distinction between correlation and causation is crucial in research and
critical thinking to avoid making erroneous or misleading interpretations about the
relationships between variables.
Certainly! Let's explain the types of variables commonly encountered in research,
including independent, dependent, concomitant, mediating, moderating, and extraneous
variables, with examples:
Independent Variable:
The independent variable is the variable that is manipulated or controlled by the
researcher. It is the variable that is hypothesized to have an effect on the dependent
variable. The independent variable is often denoted as "X" in research studies.
Example: In a study investigating the effects of different study techniques on academic
performance, the independent variable could be the type of study technique used. The
researcher may assign participants to different groups, each using a different study
technique (e.g., group A uses flashcard, group B uses summarization, group C uses
practice tests). The independent variable in this case is the type of study technique.

Page | 5
Dependent Variable:
The dependent variable is the variable that is observed or measured to assess the effects
of the independent variable. It is the variable that is expected to change as a result of
manipulating the independent variable. The dependent variable is often denoted as "Y" in
research studies.
Example: In the same study on study techniques and academic performance, the
dependent variable would be the participants' academic performance. This could be
measured by their scores on an exam or their grades in a particular course. The dependent
variable, in this case, is the academic performance.
Concomitant Variable:
A concomitant variable, also known as a covariate, is a variable that is related to both the
independent and dependent variables. It is not directly manipulated by the researcher but
is controlled statistically to ensure an accurate interpretation of the relationship between
the independent and dependent variables.
Example: Continuing with the study on study techniques and academic performance, the
participants' prior knowledge of the subject could be a concomitant variable. The
researcher might collect data on participants' prior knowledge and consider it in the
analysis to account for its potential influence on academic performance.
Mediating Variable:
A mediating variable helps explain the relationship between the independent and
dependent variables. It is a variable that comes between the independent and dependent
variables in the causal chain, transmitting or mediating the effect of the independent
variable on the dependent variable.
Example: Consider a study investigating the relationship between job satisfaction and
employee performance. The researchers propose that the level of motivation mediates this
relationship. In this case, motivation serves as the mediating variable that explains how
job satisfaction affects employee performance.
Moderating Variable:
A moderating variable influences the strength or direction of the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables. It affects the relationship but is not an essential part
of the causal chain.
Example: In a study examining the impact of stress on job performance, the researchers
might propose that the level of social support from colleagues moderates this relationship.
Social support, in this case, acts as a moderating variable by influencing how stress affects
job performance. For some individuals with high social support, the negative impact of
stress on job performance may be mitigated, while for those with low social support, the
impact may be more pronounced.

Page | 6
Extraneous Variable:
An extraneous variable is a variable that may affect the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables but is not of primary interest in the research study.
It is important to control for extraneous variables to ensure that the effects observed are
indeed due to the independent variable.
Example: In a study examining the effects of a new teaching method on student learning
outcomes, the classroom environment could be an extraneous variable. Factors such as
noise levels, seating arrangements, or distractions in the classroom might influence
student performance. To minimize the impact of the classroom environment, the
researcher may standardize the environment across groups or use a controlled laboratory
setting.
Understanding and identifying these different types of variables is crucial in research
design and analysis, as they help researchers define and explore relationships between
variables and control for potential confounding factors.
Certainly! Let's explain the basic knowledge of treatment and control groups, case study
design, cross-sectional and longitudinal designs, qualitative and quantitative research
approaches, the pros and cons of various designs, and the choice of a research design,
along with examples:
Treatment and Control Group:
In experimental research, the treatment group receives the experimental treatment or
intervention, while the control group does not receive the treatment. The control group
serves as a baseline for comparison, allowing researchers to assess the impact of the
treatment by comparing the outcomes between the two groups.
Example: Suppose a pharmaceutical company wants to test the effectiveness of a new
medication for reducing symptoms of a specific medical condition. Participants with the
condition are randomly assigned to either the treatment group, receiving the new
medication, or the control group, receiving a placebo or standard treatment. By comparing
the outcomes between the two groups, researchers can determine the specific effects of
the new medication.
Case Study Design:
A case study design involves an in-depth and detailed investigation of a particular
individual, group, or situation. It aims to understand complex phenomena within their
real-life context and can utilize multiple sources of data.
Example: A researcher conducting a case study on a successful company may collect
data through interviews with key stakeholders, analyze financial reports, and observe the
company's operations. The case study would provide a comprehensive understanding of
the company's strategies, challenges, and outcomes within its specific industry and market
conditions.

Page | 7
Cross-sectional and Longitudinal Designs:
Cross-sectional design involves collecting data from a sample at a specific point in time.
It provides a snapshot of the characteristics or behaviors of the sample at that moment. In
contrast, longitudinal design involves collecting data from the same sample over an
extended period, allowing for the examination of changes and trends over time.
Example: In a cross-sectional design, a researcher surveys a group of students from
different grade levels to explore their attitudes toward online learning. The data collected
represents the students' attitudes at a specific point in time. In a longitudinal design, the
same group of students could be surveyed multiple times over several years to observe
changes in their attitudes toward online learning as they progress through their academic
journey.
Qualitative and Quantitative Research Approaches:
Qualitative research focuses on exploring and understanding complex phenomena
through non-numerical data such as interviews, observations, and textual analysis. It aims
to capture in-depth insights, meanings, and interpretations.
Example: A researcher conducting a qualitative study on the experiences of immigrants
may conduct interviews with immigrants, analyze their narratives, and identify common
themes and patterns related to their challenges, adaptation processes, and cultural
experiences.
Quantitative research, on the other hand, involves collecting and analyzing numerical data
to establish patterns, relationships, and statistical significance. It aims to generalize
findings to a larger population.
Example: A researcher conducting a quantitative study on the relationship between
income levels and educational attainment may collect data on income and educational
qualifications from a large representative sample of the population. Statistical analysis
would be conducted to determine if there is a significant relationship between income and
educational attainment.
Pros and Cons of Various Designs:
Experimental Design:
Pros: Allows for cause-and-effect relationships to be established, provides control over
variables, and can be conducted in a controlled environment.
Cons: This may not reflect real-life conditions, ethical limitations for certain research
questions, or the potential for demand characteristics.
Case Study Design:
Pros: Provides rich and detailed insights, allows for the examination of complex
phenomena, and contextual understanding.
Cons: Limited generalizability, the potential for researcher bias, and challenging to
establish causal relationships.

Page | 8
Cross-sectional Design:
Pros: Quick and cost-effective, provides a snapshot of the population at a specific time,
useful for studying prevalence and associations.
Cons: Limited insights into temporal relationships, cannot establish causality, and the
potential for recall bias.
Longitudinal Design:
Pros: Allows for the examination of changes over time, provides insights into temporal
relationships, and captures individual trajectories.
Cons: Time-consuming and costly, attrition and participant fatigue, the potential for
confounding factors.
Choice of Research Design:
The choice of research design depends on several factors, including research objectives,
the nature of the research questions, available resources, and ethical considerations.
Researchers need to select a design that aligns with their research goals, provides the most
appropriate data to answer the research questions, and ensures the validity and reliability
of the findings.
For example, if the research aims to establish cause-and-effect relationships, an
experimental design may be suitable. If the focus is on exploring complex phenomena in
a real-life context, a case study design could be appropriate. The choice of qualitative or
quantitative approaches depends on the type of data needed and the research objectives.
Researchers should carefully consider the strengths, limitations, and trade-offs associated
with different research designs to make an informed choice that best suits their research
objectives and constraints.
Understanding these concepts and their applications helps researchers design and conduct
studies that effectively address their research questions and generate meaningful findings.
Certainly! Let's explain the concepts of hypothesis, research hypothesis, statistical
hypothesis, null hypothesis, alternative hypothesis, directional hypothesis, non-
directional hypothesis, qualities of a good hypothesis, framing null hypothesis and
alternative hypothesis, and the concept of hypothesis testing with examples:
Hypothesis:
A hypothesis is a proposed explanation or prediction about a phenomenon or relationship
between variables. It is an educated guess or statement that guides research and provides
a basis for investigation. Hypotheses are formulated based on existing knowledge,
theories, observations, or prior research.
Research Hypothesis:
A research hypothesis is a specific statement that predicts the relationship or difference
between variables in a research study. It states the expected outcome or results based on
the researcher's expectations or theoretical considerations.

Page | 9
Example: A researcher formulates the research hypothesis that "increasing the frequency
of exercise will lead to a decrease in body weight." Here, the research hypothesis predicts
a negative relationship between exercise frequency and body weight.
Statistical Hypothesis:
Statistical hypotheses are statements that can be tested using statistical analysis. They
involve specifying the population parameters or the nature of the relationship between
variables in a statistical context.
Null Hypothesis:
The null hypothesis (H0) is a statement of no effect or no relationship between variables.
It assumes that any observed difference or relationship is due to chance or random
variation. Researchers attempt to reject or disprove the null hypothesis in favor of the
alternative hypothesis.
Example: In a study comparing the effectiveness of two teaching methods, the null
hypothesis could state that "there is no difference in student performance between the two
teaching methods." The null hypothesis assumes that any observed differences in
performance are due to chance.
Alternative Hypothesis:
The alternative hypothesis (Ha or H1) is a statement that contradicts the null hypothesis.
It represents the researcher's belief or expectation that there is a significant effect or
relationship between variables.
Example: In the same study on teaching methods, the alternative hypothesis could state
that "there is a significant difference in student performance between the two teaching
methods." The alternative hypothesis challenges the null hypothesis by suggesting that
the difference in performance is not due to chance.
Directional Hypothesis:
A directional hypothesis predicts the specific direction of the effect or relationship
between variables. It specifies whether the effect will be positive or negative.
Example: A researcher formulates a directional hypothesis that "increasing the amount
of study time will lead to a higher exam score." Here, the directional hypothesis predicts
a positive relationship between study time and exam scores.
Non-directional Hypothesis:
A non-directional hypothesis, also known as a two-tailed hypothesis, does not specify the
direction of the effect or relationship between variables. It simply states that there is a
significant difference or relationship between variables, without indicating the specific
direction.
Example: A non-directional hypothesis could state that "there is a significant difference
in satisfaction levels between two different product brands." The non-directional
hypothesis acknowledges that a difference exists but does not specify whether one brand
has higher or lower satisfaction levels.

Page | 10
Qualities of a Good Hypothesis:
1. Testability: A good hypothesis is specific and precise, allowing for empirical
testing.
2. Falsifiability: A hypothesis should be capable of being proven false or rejected
based on empirical evidence.
3. Clarity: A hypothesis should be clear and unambiguous, stating the relationship
or difference between variables.
4. Consistency with Existing Knowledge: A good hypothesis should align with
existing theories or empirical evidence.
5. Relevance: A hypothesis should be relevant to the research question and the
broader research context.
Framing Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis:
The null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis are framed to create a mutually exclusive
set of statements that encompass all possible outcomes. The null hypothesis assumes no
effect or relationship, while the alternative hypothesis assumes the presence of an effect
or relationship.
Example: In a study on the effect of a new drug on patient recovery, the null hypothesis
could state that "there is no difference in recovery rates between patients who receive the
new drug and those who receive a placebo." The alternative hypothesis would then state
that "there is a significant difference in recovery rates between patients who receive the
new drug and those who receive a placebo."
Concept of Hypothesis Testing - Logic and Importance:
Hypothesis testing is a statistical procedure used to determine the validity of a hypothesis
based on observed data. It involves comparing the observed results with what would be
expected under the assumption of the null hypothesis. The logic behind hypothesis testing
is to assess the evidence against the null hypothesis and make statistical inferences.
Hypothesis testing is crucial because it allows researchers to make conclusions about the
population based on a sample and provides a framework for making objective decisions.
It helps identify relationships, effects, or differences between variables and contributes to
the advancement of scientific knowledge.
Example: In a study investigating the impact of a training program on employee
productivity, hypothesis testing could be used to determine if the training program has a
significant effect on productivity. The observed data would be analysed, and if the results
provide strong evidence against the null hypothesis, the researcher may conclude that the
training program has a significant effect on productivity.
Understanding and formulating hypotheses, framing null and alternative hypotheses, and
conducting hypothesis testing are essential components of research design and statistical
analysis. These concepts enable researchers to make empirical claims, draw conclusions,
and contribute to the development of knowledge in their respective fields.

Page | 11
Question Bank:
Here's a question bank based on the above concepts:
Hypothesis:
a. Define the hypothesis in the context of research.
b. What is the purpose of a hypothesis in a research study?
c. How is a hypothesis formulated in research?
Research Hypothesis:
a. Differentiate between a research hypothesis and a null hypothesis.
b. Provide an example of a research hypothesis in the field of psychology.
c. How does a research hypothesis guide the data collection and analysis process?
Statistical Hypothesis:
a. What is a statistical hypothesis, and why is it important in research?
b. Explain the difference between a null hypothesis and an alternative hypothesis.
c. How are statistical hypotheses related to the concepts of significance and probability?
Null Hypothesis:
a. Define the null hypothesis and its role in hypothesis testing.
b. Provide an example of a null hypothesis in the field of medicine.
c. What does it mean to "reject" or "fail to reject" the null hypothesis?
Alternative Hypothesis:
a. What is an alternative hypothesis, and how does it differ from the null hypothesis?
b. Give an example of an alternative hypothesis in the field of sociology.
c. How does the alternative hypothesis relate to the research question being investigated?
Directional Hypothesis:
a. Explain the concept of a directional hypothesis in research.
b. Provide an example of a directional hypothesis in the field of economics.
c. How does a directional hypothesis help in predicting the expected relationship between
variables?

Page | 12
Non-directional Hypothesis:
a. Define a non-directional hypothesis and its purpose in research.
b. Give an example of a non-directional hypothesis in the field of education.
c. How does a non-directional hypothesis differ from a directional hypothesis in terms of
predicting the relationship between variables?
Qualities of a Good Hypothesis:
a. List and explain the qualities of a good hypothesis.
b. How does testability contribute to the quality of a hypothesis?
c. Why is it important for a hypothesis to be consistent with existing knowledge?
Framing Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis:
a. Describe the process of framing a null hypothesis and an alternative hypothesis.
b. Provide an example of how a null hypothesis and an alternative hypothesis can be
formulated for a study on the effects of a new drug.
c. How do framing null and alternative hypotheses help in hypothesis testing?
Concept of Hypothesis Testing:
a. Explain the concept of hypothesis testing in research.
b. What is the logic behind hypothesis testing?
c. Why is hypothesis testing important in drawing conclusions from research data?

Page | 13
Multiple Choice Questions:
Here are 25 multiple-choice questions (MCQs) with answers related to the concepts of
hypothesis, null hypothesis, and alternative hypothesis:
1: What is the purpose of a hypothesis in a research study?
a. To prove a theory
b. To establish causality
c. To guide the research investigation
d. To support the null hypothesis
Answer: c. To guide the research investigation
2: Which type of hypothesis predicts a specific direction of the effect or relationship
between variables?
a. Null hypothesis
b. Alternative hypothesis
c. Directional hypothesis
d. Non-directional hypothesis
Answer: c. Directional hypothesis
3: The null hypothesis assumes:
a. The absence of an effect or relationship
b. The presence of an effect or relationship
c. A specific direction of the effect or relationship
d. No hypothesis is needed
Answer: a. The absence of an effect or relationship
4: Which of the following is an example of a research hypothesis?
a. "There is no difference in test scores between two groups."
b. "There is a significant relationship between income and happiness."
c. "There is no effect of a new treatment on patient recovery."
d. "There is no correlation between height and weight."
Answer: b. "There is a significant relationship between income and happiness."
5: A two-tailed hypothesis is also known as:
a. Null hypothesis

Page | 14
b. Alternative hypothesis
c. Non-directional hypothesis
d. Directional hypothesis
Answer: c. Non-directional hypothesis
6: What is the purpose of the alternative hypothesis?
a. To establish a null hypothesis
b. To support the null hypothesis
c. To provide an alternative explanation
d. To contradict the null hypothesis
Answer: d. To contradict the null hypothesis
7: Which quality of a good hypothesis refers to its ability to be proven false?
a. Testability
b. Falsifiability
c. Clarity
d. Consistency with existing knowledge
Answer: b. Falsifiability
8: In hypothesis testing, which hypothesis assumes no effect or relationship?
a. Null hypothesis
b. Alternative hypothesis
c. Directional hypothesis
d. Non-directional hypothesis
Answer: a. Null hypothesis
9: What is the logic behind hypothesis testing?
a. To prove the null hypothesis
b. To reject the alternative hypothesis
c. To accept the null hypothesis
d. To assess the evidence against the null hypothesis
Answer: d. To assess the evidence against the null hypothesis
10: Which type of hypothesis predicts a significant difference or relationship between
variables?
a. Null hypothesis
b. Alternative hypothesis

Page | 15
c. Directional hypothesis
d. Non-directional hypothesis
Answer: b. Alternative hypothesis
11: Which quality of a good hypothesis ensures that it aligns with existing knowledge?
a. Testability
b. Falsifiability
c. Clarity
d. Consistency with existing knowledge
Answer: d. Consistency with existing knowledge
12: Which hypothesis assumes there is no difference or relationship between variables?
a. Null hypothesis
b. Alternative hypothesis
c. Directional hypothesis
d. Non-directional hypothesis
Answer: a. Null hypothesis
13: What is the primary purpose of the null hypothesis in hypothesis testing?
a. To support the alternative hypothesis
b. To establish a research hypothesis
c. To serve as a baseline for comparison
d. To prove a theory
Answer: c. To serve as a baseline for comparison
14: A research hypothesis is based on:
a. Existing theories and evidence
b. Personal beliefs and opinions
c. Random guesses
d. The alternative hypothesis
Answer: a. Existing theories and evidence
15: Which type of hypothesis predicts a specific direction of the effect but not the
magnitude?
a. Null hypothesis
b. Alternative hypothesis
c. Directional hypothesis

Page | 16
d. Non-directional hypothesis
Answer: c. Directional hypothesis
16.A good hypothesis should be:
a. Vague and ambiguous
b. Impossible to test
c. Clear and specific
d. Unrelated to the research question
Answer: c. Clear and specific
17: Which hypothesis assumes that any observed differences are due to chance?
a. Null hypothesis
b. Alternative hypothesis
c. Directional hypothesis
d. Non-directional hypothesis
Answer: a. Null hypothesis
18: The alternative hypothesis contradicts the:
a. Research hypothesis
b. Null hypothesis
c. Directional hypothesis
d. Non-directional hypothesis
Answer: b. Null hypothesis
19: A good hypothesis should be:
a. Irrelevant to the research question
b. Inconsistent with existing knowledge
c. Consistent with existing knowledge
d. Unrelated to the research field
Answer: c. Consistent with existing knowledge
20: Which type of hypothesis predicts a significant relationship without specifying the
direction?
a. Null hypothesis
b. Alternative hypothesis
c. Directional hypothesis
d. Non-directional hypothesis

Page | 17
Answer: d. Non-directional hypothesis

21: What does it mean to "reject" the null hypothesis?

a. The null hypothesis is proven true
b. The alternative hypothesis is proven true
c. The null hypothesis is disproven or deemed unlikely
d. The alternative hypothesis is disproven or deemed unlikely
Answer: c. The null hypothesis is disproven or deemed unlikely
22: Which hypothesis assumes that any observed differences are not due to chance?
a. Null hypothesis
b. Alternative hypothesis
c. Directional hypothesis
d. Non-directional hypothesis
Answer: b. Alternative hypothesis
23: The null hypothesis assumes:
a. The presence of an effect or relationship
b. The absence of an effect or relationship
c. A specific direction of the effect or relationship
d. No hypothesis is needed
Answer: b. The absence of an effect or relationship
24: The alternative hypothesis suggests:
a. The presence of an effect or relationship
b. The absence of an effect or relationship
c. A specific direction of the effect or relationship
d. No hypothesis is needed
Answer: a. The presence of an effect or relationship
25: The purpose of hypothesis testing is to:
a. Establish a null hypothesis
b. Support the alternative hypothesis
c. Determine the direction of the effect
d. Assess the evidence against the null hypothesis
Answer: d. Assess the evidence against the null hypothesis

Page | 18
EXERCISES

Identify independent and dependent research variables from the following

statements
Example 1 - Research Topic: Decision-making and its impact on an organization
"Decision making" influences the organization, therefore, this is the Independent Variable
"impact in an organization" the organization is being impacted on, therefore, this is the
dependent variable in preparing such examples.
Example 2 - Research Topic: The effect of caffeine consumption on sleep quality
"Caffeine consumption" causes an effect, therefore, this is the Independent Variable
"sleep quality" is being impacted, therefore, this is the Dependent Variable
Example 3 - Research Topic: The relationship between exercise frequency and
weight loss
"Exercise frequency" causes an effect, therefore, this is the Independent Variable
"weight loss" is being impacted, therefore, this is the Dependent Variable
Example 4 - Research Topic: The impact of social media usage on mental health
"Social media usage" influences mental health, therefore, this is the Independent Variable
"mental health" is being impacted, therefore, this is the Dependent Variable
Example 5 - Research Topic: The effect of temperature on plant growth
"Temperature" causes an effect, therefore, this is the Independent Variable
"plant growth" is being impacted, therefore, this is the Dependent Variable
Example 6 - Research Topic: The relationship between study habits and academic
performance
"Study habits" cause an effect, therefore, this is the Independent Variable
"academic performance" is being impacted, therefore, this is the Dependent Variable
Example 7 - Research Topic: The influence of parenting style on children's
behaviour
"Parenting style" influences children's behaviour, therefore, this is the Independent
Variable
"children's behaviour" is being impacted, therefore, this is the Dependent Variable
Example 8 - Research Topic: The effect of training on employee productivity
"Training" causes an effect, therefore, this is the Independent Variable

Page | 19
"employee productivity" is being impacted, therefore, this is the Dependent Variable

Example 9 - Research Topic: The relationship between stress levels and job
satisfaction
"Stress levels" cause an effect, therefore, this is the Independent Variable
"job satisfaction" is being impacted, therefore, this is the Dependent Variable
Example 10 - Research Topic: The impact of advertising on customer purchase
decisions
"Advertising" influences customer purchase decisions, therefore, this is the Independent
Variable
"customer purchase decisions" are being impacted, therefore, this is the Dependent
Variable.

Page | 20